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Ni X, Zhang Z, Deng Z, Li J. Optimizing ARA and DHA in infant formula: A systematic review of global trends, regional disparities, and considerations for precision nutrition. Food Res Int 2024; 182:114049. [PMID: 38519198 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
In the context of precision nutrition, the addition of ARA and DHA in infant formula needs to consider more factors. This study conducted a comprehensive literature review, including 112 relevant Chinese and English articles, to summarize and analyze the global levels of ARA, DHA, and the ARA/DHA ratio in breast milk. The data were correlated with local aquatic products intake and children's IQ. The results indicated that the average level of DHA in breast milk across regions is lower than that of ARA. Variations in DHA content were identified as a primary factor influencing ARA/DHA ratio fluctuations. Breast milk ARA and DHA levels decrease with prolonged lactation periods but increase over the past 22 years. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between aquatic products intake and breast milk DHA levels (r = 0.64, p < 0.05). Breast milk DHA levels also showed a significant positive correlation with children's IQ (r = 0.67, p < 0.01). Stable breast milk ARA content did not exhibit significant correlations with aquatic products intake or children's IQ (r = 0, p > 0.05). Among 22 infant formula products available in China, only 5 had ARA levels within the range of breast milk. Most formula products had higher ARA levels than DHA, resulting in ARA/DHA ratios generally exceeding 1. The temporal and spatial variability in breast milk ARA and DHA levels may lead to diverse health outcomes in infants. Therefore, the addition of ARA and DHA in infant formula should consider this variability, including the molecular forms and positional isomerism of the added ARA and DHA. Additionally, considering the impact of different cognitive development tests and infant's gene expression on formula assessment results, there is a need to establish a more comprehensive infant health assessment system to guide the addition of ARA and DHA in formula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinggang Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330047, China
| | - Zhiyi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330047, China
| | - Zeyuan Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330047, China
| | - Jing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330047, China.
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Perinatal exposure to diets with different n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratios affects olfactory tissue fatty acid composition. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10785. [PMID: 32612195 PMCID: PMC7329853 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67725-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The olfactory mucosa (OM) and the olfactory bulb (OB) are responsible for the detection and processing of olfactory signals. Like the brain and retina, they contain high levels of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are essential for the structure and function of neuronal and non-neuronal cells. Since the influence of the maternal diet on olfactory lipid profiles of the offspring has been poorly explored, we examined the effects of feeding mice during the perinatal period with diets containing an adequate linoleic acid level but either deficient in α-linolenic acid (ALA) or supplemented in n-3 long-chain PUFAs on the lipid composition of dams and weaning offspring olfactory tissues. In both the OM and OB, the low n-3 ALA diet led to a marked reduction in n-3 PUFAs with a concomitant increase in n-6 PUFAs, whereas consumption of the high n-3 PUFA diet reduced n-6 PUFAs and increased n-3 PUFAs. Structural analysis showed that the molecular species profiles of the main phospholipid classes of olfactory tissues from weaning pups were markedly affected by the maternal diets. This study demonstrates that the PUFA status of olfactory tissues is sensitive to diet composition from the early stages of development.
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Tang M, Zhang M, Wang L, Li H, Cai H, Dang R, Jiang P, Liu Y, Xue Y, Wu Y. Maternal dietary of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids affects the neurogenesis and neurochemical in female rat at weaning. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2018; 128:11-20. [PMID: 29413357 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) are rapidly accumulated in brain during pre- and neonatal life, which is important for the development and function of central nervous system. Deficiency of biologically important n-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, DHA) is associated with impaired visual, attention and cognition, and would precipitate psychiatric symptoms. However, clinical studies of the potential mechanism on the effect of dietary DHA deficiency on neural development remain unclear. In addition, the effects of n-6 PUFAs and n-3 PUFAs ingestion on the dynamic process of the cell proliferation in neurogenesis of offspring were investigated using immunefluorescence. And GC-MS was used to determine the fatty acid content in the liver of offspring. To further investigate the neurochemical influence on maternal PUFAs levels, we assessed the functioning of various neurotransmitter systems including glutamatergic, dopaminergic, norepinephrinergic and serotoninergic systems in the brain of female rats at weaning by HPLC-MS/MS. Lastly, we analyzed the turnover rates and between-metabolite ratios (the ratios between metabolites of monoamine neurotransmitters) to seek potential links between the neurotransmitters and dietary fatty acids compositions. There were significant differences between the deficiency group and the control or supplementary group in liver fatty acids compositions, showing that n-3 PUFAs were largely replaced by n-6 PUFAs. The generation of n-3 PUFAs deficiency rats exhibited abnormal neurogenesis and neurochemical. Altered dopamine or norepinephrine transmission and between-metabolite ratios in brain areas may be a key neuronal mechanism that contributes to the potential detrimental effects of n-3 PUFAs deficiency for mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mimi Tang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, PR China.
| | - Min Zhang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, PR China.
| | - Lu Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China; Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China.
| | - Huande Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China.
| | - Hualin Cai
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China.
| | - Ruili Dang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Jining First People's Hospital, Jining Medical University, Jining 272000, PR China.
| | - Pei Jiang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Jining First People's Hospital, Jining Medical University, Jining 272000, PR China.
| | - Yiping Liu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China.
| | - Ying Xue
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, PR China.
| | - Yanqin Wu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, PR China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, PR China.
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Clouard C, Souza AS, Gerrits WJ, Hovenier R, Lammers A, Bolhuis JE. Maternal Fish Oil Supplementation Affects the Social Behavior, Brain Fatty Acid Profile, and Sickness Response of Piglets. J Nutr 2015; 145:2176-84. [PMID: 26180250 DOI: 10.3945/jn.115.214650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Maternal dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake is thought to affect development in the offspring. OBJECTIVE We assessed the impact of maternal dietary DHA on behavior, brain fatty acid (FA) profile, and sickness response of offspring in pigs, a pertinent model for human nutrition. METHODS Sows (n = 24) were fed a diet with DHA-rich fish oil (FO) (20 g/kg) or high-oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSF) (20 g/kg) from day 61 of gestation through lactation. At 4 wk of age, 4 piglets per litter were weaned and mixed with piglets from other litters. Behavior was observed in 4- to 8-wk-old piglets, and brain FA composition was analyzed at 4 (n = 15) and 14 (n = 12) wk. Thirteen-week-old piglets (n = 48) were subjected to a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Body temperature, plasma cytokines, and motivation to approach a familiar human, indicative of a sickness response, were measured. RESULTS FO-fed pigs displayed more social activities (+262%, P = 0.02), played more (+61%, P = 0.03), and tended to show fewer oral manipulative behaviors directed at pen mates (-25%, P = 0.06) than did HOSF-fed pigs up to 4 wk after weaning. Brain DHA concentrations were higher in FO- than in HOSF-fed pigs up to 10 wk after supplementation (+10-50%, P < 0.001), although differences declined with age. Body temperature (P < 0.001) and tumor necrosis factor α and interferon γ concentrations (P < 0.05) increased after LPS injection, but no diet effect was found (P > 0.10). LPS-treated pigs were less likely to approach the human than saline-treated pigs in the HOSF-fed (-29%, P = 0.0003), but not in the FO-fed group (-13%, P = 0.11). CONCLUSIONS Maternal DHA beneficially affected offspring social behavior after weaning and mildly attenuated sickness behavior after an inflammatory challenge in pigs. These behavioral changes may be mediated by increased brain DHA proportions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adriana S Souza
- Adaptation Physiology Group and Animal Nutrition Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Walter Jj Gerrits
- Animal Nutrition Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Robert Hovenier
- Animal Nutrition Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Wellmann KA, George F, Brnouti F, Mooney SM. Docosahexaenoic acid partially ameliorates deficits in social behavior and ultrasonic vocalizations caused by prenatal ethanol exposure. Behav Brain Res 2015; 286:201-11. [PMID: 25746516 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.02.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Prenatal ethanol exposure disrupts social behavior in humans and rodents. One system particularly important for social behavior is the somatosensory system. Prenatal ethanol exposure alters the structure and function of this area. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, is necessary for normal brain development and brains from ethanol-exposed animals are DHA deficient. Thus, we determined whether postnatal DHA supplementation ameliorated behavioral deficits induced by prenatal ethanol exposure. Timed pregnant Long-Evans rats were assigned to one of three groups: ad libitum access to an ethanol-containing liquid diet, pair fed an isocaloric isonutritive non-alcohol liquid diet, or ad libitum access to chow and water. Pups were assigned to one of two postnatal treatment groups; gavaged intragastrically once per day between postnatal day (P)11 and P20 with DHA (10 mg/kg in artificial rat milk) or artificial rat milk. A third group was left untreated. Isolation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations (iUSVs) were recorded on P14. Social behavior and play-induced USVs were tested on P28 or P42. Somatosensory performance was tested with a gap crossing test around P33 or on P42. Anxiety was tested on elevated plus maze around P35. Animals exposed to ethanol prenatally vocalized less, play fought less, and crossed a significantly shorter gap than control-treated animals. Administration of DHA ameliorated these ethanol-induced deficits such that the ethanol-exposed animals given DHA were no longer significantly different to control-treated animals. Thus, DHA administration may have therapeutic value to reverse some of ethanol's damaging effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen A Wellmann
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States.
| | - Finney George
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States
| | - Fares Brnouti
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States
| | - Sandra M Mooney
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States.
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Hsiao CC, Tsai ML, Chen CC, Lin HC. Early optimal nutrition improves neurodevelopmental outcomes for very preterm infants. Nutr Rev 2014; 72:532-40. [PMID: 24938866 DOI: 10.1111/nure.12110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Chou Hsiao
- Department of Neonatology; Changhua Christian Hospital; Changhua Taiwan
- School of Medicine; Chung Shan Medical University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Ming-Luen Tsai
- Department of Pediatrics; Children's Hospital; China Medical University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Chih-Chen Chen
- Section of Neonatology; Department of Pediatrics; Kaohsiung Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- College of Medicine; Chang-Gung University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Hung-Chih Lin
- Department of Pediatrics; Children's Hospital; China Medical University; Taichung Taiwan
- School of Chinese Medicine; China Medical University; Taichung Taiwan
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Russell KL, Berman NEJ, Gregg PRA, Levant B. Fish oil improves motor function, limits blood-brain barrier disruption, and reduces Mmp9 gene expression in a rat model of juvenile traumatic brain injury. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2014; 90:5-11. [PMID: 24342130 PMCID: PMC3906920 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2013.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The effects of an oral fish oil treatment regimen on sensorimotor, blood-brain barrier, and biochemical outcomes of traumatic brain injury (TBI) were investigated in a juvenile rat model. Seventeen-day old Long-Evans rats were given a 15mL/kg fish oil (2.01g/kg EPA, 1.34g/kg DHA) or soybean oil dose via oral gavage 30min prior to being subjected to a controlled cortical impact injury or sham surgery, followed by daily doses for seven days. Fish oil treatment resulted in less severe hindlimb deficits after TBI as assessed with the beam walk test, decreased cerebral IgG infiltration, and decreased TBI-induced expression of the Mmp9 gene one day after injury. These results indicate that fish oil improved functional outcome after TBI resulting, at least in part from decreased disruption of the blood-brain barrier through a mechanism that includes attenuation of TBI-induced expression of Mmp9.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Russell
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA.
| | - N E J Berman
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
| | - P R A Gregg
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA.
| | - B Levant
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA.
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Russell KL, Berman NEJ, Levant B. Low brain DHA content worsens sensorimotor outcomes after TBI and decreases TBI-induced Timp1 expression in juvenile rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2013; 89:97-105. [PMID: 23796971 PMCID: PMC3753049 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2013.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The effects of dietary modulation of brain DHA content on outcomes after TBI were examined in a juvenile rat model. Long-Evans rats with normal or diet-induced decreases in brain DHA were subjected to a controlled cortical impact or sham surgery on postnatal day 17. Rats with the greatest decreases in brain DHA had the poorest sensorimotor outcomes after TBI. Ccl2, Gfap, and Mmp 9 mRNA levels, and MMP-2 and -9 enzymatic activities were increased after TBI regardless of brain DHA level. Lesion volume was not affected by brain DHA level. In contrast, TBI-induced Timp1 expression was lower in rats on the Deficient diet and correlated with brain DHA level. These data suggest that decreased brain DHA content contributes to poorer sensorimotor outcomes after TBI through a mechanism involving modulation of Timp1 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin L. Russell
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Nancy E. J. Berman
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Beth Levant
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
- Corresponding author: Department of Pharmacology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Mail Stop 1018, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS 66160, Phone: 1 913 588 7527, Fax: 1 913 588 7501,
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Levant B, Ozias MK, Guilford BL, Wright DE. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes partially attenuates the effects of a high-fat diet on liver and brain fatty acid composition in mice. Lipids 2013; 48:939-48. [PMID: 23893338 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-013-3817-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The current study addresses the effects of a high-fat diet on liver and brain fatty acid compositions and the interaction of that diet with diabetes in a type 1 mouse model. Adult, male, normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic C57BL/6 mice were fed standard (14 % kcal from fat) or high-fat (54 % kcal from fat, hydrogenated vegetable shortening and corn oil) diets for 8 weeks. Liver and whole brain total phospholipid fatty acid compositions were then determined by TLC/GC. In the liver of non-diabetic mice, the high-fat diet increased the percentages of 18:1n-9, 20:4n-6, and 22:5n-6 and decreased 18:2n-6 and 22:6n-3. Diabetes increased 16:0 in liver, and decreased 18:1n-7 and 20:4n-6. The effects of the high-fat diet on liver phospholipids in diabetic mice were similar to those in non-diabetic mice, or were of smaller magnitude. In the brain, the high-fat diet increased 18:0 and 20:4n-6 of non-diabetic, but not diabetic mice. Brain 22:5n-6 acid was increased by the high-fat diet in both non-diabetic and diabetic mice, but this increase was smaller in diabetic mice. Diabetes alone did not alter the percentage of any individual fatty acid in brain. This indicates that the effects of a high-fat diet on liver and brain phospholipid fatty acid compositions are partially attenuated by concomitant hyperglycemia with hypoinsulinemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Levant
- Departments of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Mail Stop 1018, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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Passos PP, Borba JMC, Rocha-de-Melo AP, Guedes RCA, da Silva RP, Filho WTM, Gouveia KMM, Navarro DMDAF, Santos GKN, Borner R, Picanço-Diniz CW, Pereira A, de Oliveira Costa MSM, Rodrigues MCA, Andrade-da-Costa BLDS. Dopaminergic cell populations of the rat substantia nigra are differentially affected by essential fatty acid dietary restriction over two generations. J Chem Neuroanat 2012; 44:66-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Revised: 05/05/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Hadders-Algra M. Prenatal and early postnatal supplementation with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: neurodevelopmental considerations. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94:1874S-1879S. [PMID: 21525202 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.110.001065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
It takes >20 y before the human brain obtains its complex adult configuration. Most dramatic neurodevelopmental changes occur prenatally and early postnatally, including a major transformation in cortical organization 3-4 mo after term. The long-lasting changes have practical implications for studies evaluating the effect of prenatal and early postnatal supplementation with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs). Whether studies of the effect of supplementation will reveal an effect not only depends on the dosage and duration of supplementation but also on 1) the timing of supplementation, 2) the age at which the outcome is assessed, 3) the application of age-specific sensitive neurodevelopmental tools, and 4) the functional domain evaluated. Studies of the effects of prenatal supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or fish oil have provided inconsistent results. However, maternal and neonatal concentrations of DHA and arachidonic acid are associated with improved outcomes in early infancy, and concentrations of DHA are associated with favorable neurodevelopmental outcome beyond early infancy. Studies of LC-PUFA supplementation in preterm infants have not shown evidence of a positive effect on neurodevelopmental outcome. Similar studies in full-term infants have indicated that supplementation with 0.30% DHA (by wt) promotes neurodevelopmental outcome in early infancy, but positive effects on later outcome have not been shown. However, information on the effects on outcomes at school age or later is virtually absent. This article stresses the need for long-term longitudinal studies that apply age-specific, sensitive neurodevelopmental tools, which also take into account lifestyle habits, maternal prepregnancy nutritional status, and genetic variation in metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mijna Hadders-Algra
- Department of Pediatrics, Developmental Neurology, University Medical Center, Groningen, Netherlands.
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Zhao J, Gillam ME, Taylor CG, Weiler HA. Deposition of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is limited in forebrain of young obese fa/fa Zucker rats fed a diet high in α-linolenic acid but devoid of DHA. J Nutr Biochem 2011; 22:835-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2010.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Revised: 06/20/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Davis-Bruno K, Tassinari MS. Essential fatty acid supplementation of DHA and ARA and effects on neurodevelopment across animal species: a review of the literature. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 92:240-50. [PMID: 21678548 DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.20311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Docosahexanoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) are long chain essential fatty acids used as supplements in commercial infant formula. DHA/ARA deficient states are associated with adverse neurological outcomes in animals and humans. Preterm infants are at risk for DHA/ARA deficiency. A few clinical reports on the effects of fatty acid supplementation have shown benefit in preterm, low birth weight, and normal infants in the first year of life, whereas others did not. Studies in animals have reported shortened gestation, fetal growth retardation, reduced infant body mass, and increased fetal mortality with consumption of fatty acids during pregnancy. To understand the data that support fatty acid supplementation in infant formula, a review of the animal model literature was undertaken, to examine the effects of DHA/ARA on neurodevelopment, including the effects on visual acuity. Several points emerged from this review. (1) Animal studies indicate that requirements for DHA/ARA vary depending on developmental age. Alterations of the ratio of DHA/ARA can impact developmental outcome. (2) The available studies suggest that while supplementation of DHA/ARA in an appropriate ratio can increase tissue levels of these fatty acids in the brain and retina, tissues sensitive to depletion of fatty acids, the benefit of routine supplementation remains unclear. Few studies measure functional outcome relative to changes in physiologic pools of DHA/ARA after supplementation. (3) Animal literature does not support a clear long-term benefit of replenishing DHA/ARA tissue levels and administration of these fatty acids at concentrations above those in human milk suggests adverse effects on growth, survival, and neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Davis-Bruno
- Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA.
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Levant B, Zarcone TJ, Fowler SC. Developmental effects of dietary n-3 fatty acids on activity and response to novelty. Physiol Behav 2010; 101:176-83. [PMID: 20457171 PMCID: PMC2923479 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/29/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Insufficient availability of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) during pre- and neonatal development decreases accretion of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) in the developing brain. Low tissue levels of DHA are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In this study, 1st- and 2nd-litter male Long-Evans rats were raised from conception on a Control diet containing alpha-linolenic acid (4.20 g/kg diet), the dietarily essential fatty acid precursor of DHA, or a diet Deficient in alpha-linolenic acid (0.38 g/kg diet). The Deficient diet resulted in a decrease in brain phospholipid DHA of 48% in 1st-litter pups and 65% in 2nd-litter pups. Activity, habituation, and response to spatial change in a familiar environment were assessed in a single-session behavioral paradigm at postnatal days 28 and 70, inclusive. Activity and habituation varied by age with younger rats exhibiting higher activity, less habituation, and less stimulation of activity induced by spatial novelty. During the first and second exposures to the test chamber, 2nd-litter Deficient pups exhibited higher levels of activity than Control rats or 1st-litter Deficient pups, and less habituation during the first exposure, but were not more active after introduction of a novel spatial stimulus. The higher level of activity in a familiar environment, but not after introduction of a novel stimulus is consistent with clinical observations in ADHD. The observation of this effect only in 2nd-litter rats fed the Deficient diet suggests that brain DHA content, rather than dietary n-3 PUFA content, likely underlies these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Levant
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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Davis PF, Ozias MK, Carlson SE, Reed GA, Winter MK, McCarson KE, Levant B. Dopamine receptor alterations in female rats with diet-induced decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): interactions with reproductive status. Nutr Neurosci 2010; 13:161-9. [PMID: 20670471 PMCID: PMC2955509 DOI: 10.1179/147683010x12611460764282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2009] [Revised: 10/02/2009] [Accepted: 10/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Decreased tissue levels of n-3 (omega-3) fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are implicated in the etiologies of non-puerperal and postpartum depression. This study examined the effects of a diet-induced loss of brain DHA content and concurrent reproductive status on dopaminergic parameters in adult female Long-Evans rats. An alpha-linolenic acid-deficient diet and breeding protocols were used to produce virgin and parous female rats with cortical phospholipid DHA levels 20-22% lower than those fed a control diet containing adequate alpha-linolenic acid. Decreased brain DHA produced a significant main effect of decreased density of ventral striatal D(2)-like receptors. Virgin females with decreased DHA also exhibited higher density of D(1)-like receptors in the caudate nucleus than virgin females with normal DHA. These receptor alterations are similar to those found in several rodent models of depression, and are consistent with the proposed hypodopaminergic basis for anhedonia and motivational deficits in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F. Davis
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics
| | | | - Susan E. Carlson
- Department of Dietetics & Nutrition
- Kansas Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center. Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | | | - Michelle K. Winter
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics
- Kansas Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center. Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Kenneth E. McCarson
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics
- Kansas Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center. Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Beth Levant
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics
- Kansas Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center. Kansas City, Kansas, USA
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Destaillats F, Joffre C, Acar N, Joffre F, Bezelgues JB, Pasquis B, Cruz-Hernandez C, Rezzi S, Montoliu I, Dionisi F, Bretillon L. Differential effect of maternal diet supplementation with alpha-Linolenic adcid or n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on glial cell phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine fatty acid profile in neonate rat brains. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2010; 7:2. [PMID: 20148111 PMCID: PMC2819247 DOI: 10.1186/1743-7075-7-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2009] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) are of crucial importance for the development of neural tissues. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a dietary supplementation in n-3 fatty acids in female rats during gestation and lactation on fatty acid pattern in brain glial cells phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylserine (PS) in the neonates. Methods Sprague-Dawley rats were fed during the whole gestation and lactation period with a diet containing either docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 0.55%) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 0.75% of total fatty acids) or α-linolenic acid (ALA, 2.90%). At two weeks of age, gastric content and brain glial cell PE and PS of rat neonates were analyzed for their fatty acid and dimethylacetal (DMA) profile. Data were analyzed by bivariate and multivariate statistics. Results In the neonates from the group fed with n-3 LC-PUFA, the DHA level in gastric content (+65%, P < 0.0001) and brain glial cell PE (+18%, P = 0.0001) and PS (+15%, P = 0.0009) were significantly increased compared to the ALA group. The filtered correlation analysis (P < 0.05) underlined that levels of dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), DHA and n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) were negatively correlated with arachidonic acid (ARA) and n-6 DPA in PE of brain glial cells. No significant correlation between n-3 and n-6 LC-PUFA were found in the PS dataset. DMA level in PE was negatively correlated with n-6 DPA. DMA were found to occur in brain glial cell PS fraction; in this class DMA level was correlated negatively with DHA and positively with ARA. Conclusion The present study confirms that early supplementation of maternal diet with n-3 fatty acids supplied as LC-PUFA is more efficient in increasing n-3 in brain glial cell PE and PS in the neonate than ALA. Negative correlation between n-6 DPA, a conventional marker of DHA deficiency, and DMA in PE suggests n-6 DPA that potentially be considered as a marker of tissue ethanolamine plasmalogen status. The combination of multivariate and bivariate statistics allowed to underline that the accretion pattern of n-3 LC-PUFA in PE and PS differ.
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Bókkon I, Vimal RLP. Retinal phosphenes and discrete dark noises in rods: A new biophysical framework. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2009; 96:255-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2009.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2009] [Revised: 06/28/2009] [Accepted: 07/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Reza-López SA, Anderson GH, Szeto IMY, Taha AY, Ma DWL. High vitamin intake by Wistar rats during pregnancy alters tissue fatty acid concentration in the offspring fed an obesogenic diet. Metabolism 2009; 58:722-30. [PMID: 19375598 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2009.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2008] [Accepted: 01/26/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Diet during pregnancy affects the long-term health of the offspring. Vitamins are known to modulate lipid metabolism, which may be reflected in tissue fatty acid (FA) concentrations. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of high vitamin intake during pregnancy on tissue FA concentration of the offspring. Wistar rats were fed an AIN-93G diet with either the recommended vitamin or 10-fold higher amounts (HV) during pregnancy. Afterward, offspring were weaned onto an obesogenic diet. Liver, quadriceps, adipose, and brain were collected over 48 weeks. Fatty acid concentration of tissue total lipids was analyzed by gas chromatography. At birth, the liver from HV offspring was higher in monounsaturated, stearic, and arachidonic acids. At weaning, the liver from HV offspring was higher in stearic and oleic acids; and in adipose tissue, n-6 and n-3 FAs were lower only in the male HV offspring (P < .05). At 12 weeks, HV offspring had higher concentrations of total fat, saturates, monounsaturates, and n-6 FA in muscle (P < .05), but not in other tissues. At 48 weeks, gestational diet did not affect tissue total lipid FA concentrations; but differences remained in specific tissue phospholipids species. Liver phospholipids from HV offspring were lower in monounsaturates and n-6 FA. Brain phosphatidylethanolamine was higher in oleic, n-6 FA, and docosahexaenoic acid in the HV offspring. Phosphatidylinositol was lower in saturates, monounsaturates, arachidonic, and docosahexaenoic acids only in HV female offspring. These observations demonstrate that high vitamin intake during pregnancy has short- and long-term effects on tissue FA concentration in the offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra A Reza-López
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3E2
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Levant B, Ozias MK, Davis PF, Winter M, Russell KL, Carlson SE, Reed GA, McCarson KE. Decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid content produces neurobiological effects associated with depression: Interactions with reproductive status in female rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008; 33:1279-92. [PMID: 18707812 PMCID: PMC2582014 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2007] [Revised: 04/28/2008] [Accepted: 06/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Decreased tissue levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) are implicated in the etiologies of non-puerperal and postpartum depression. With the aim of determining neurobiological sequelae of decreased brain DHA content, this study examined the effects of a loss of brain DHA content and concurrent reproductive status in adult female Long-Evans rats. An alpha-linolenic acid-deficient diet and breeding protocols were used to produce virgin and parous female rats with cortical phospholipid DHA levels 23-26% lower than virgin and parous rats fed a control diet containing adequate alpha-linolenic acid. Parous dams were tested/euthanized at weaning (postnatal day 20) of the second litter; virgin females, during diestrus. Decreased brain DHA was associated with decreased hippocampal BDNF gene expression and increased relative corticosterone response to an intense stressor, regardless of reproductive status. In virgin females with decreased brain DHA, serotonin content and turnover in frontal cortex were decreased compared to virgin females with normal brain DHA. In parous dams with decreased brain DHA, the density of 5-HT(1A) receptors in the hippocampus was increased, corticosterone response to an intense stressor was increased, and the latency to immobility in the forced swim test was decreased compared to parous dams with normal DHA. These findings demonstrate neurobiological alterations attributable to decreased brain DHA or an interaction of parous status and brain DHA level. Furthermore, the data are consistent with findings in depressed humans, and thus support a role for DHA as a factor in the etiologies of depressive illnesses, particularly postpartum depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Levant
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
| | - Marlies K. Ozias
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Paul F. Davis
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Michelle Winter
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Kristin L. Russell
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Susan E. Carlson
- Department of Dietetics & Nutrition, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA,Department of Pediatrics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA,The Kansas Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Gregory A. Reed
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
| | - Kenneth E. McCarson
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA,The Kansas Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 USA
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Differences in fatty acid composition between cerebral brain lobes in juvenile pigs after fish oil feeding. Br J Nutr 2008; 100:794-800. [PMID: 18315890 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114508943737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Very long-chain n-3 PUFA from fish are suggested to play a role in the development of the brain. Fish oil feeding results in higher proportions of n-3 PUFA in the brains of newborn piglets. However, the effect of fish oil on the fatty acid composition of specific cerebral brain lobes in juvenile pigs is largely uninvestigated. This study examined the effect of a fish oil diet on the fatty acid composition of the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital brain lobes in juvenile pigs (7 weeks old). Pigs were randomly allocated to a semipurified pig diet containing either 4% (w/w) fish oil (n 19) or 4% (w/w) high-oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSF diet, n 18) for a period of 8 weeks. The fish oil diet resulted in significantly higher proportions (%) of DHA in the frontal (10.6 (SD1.2)), parietal (10.2 (SD1.5)) and occipital brain lobes (9.9 (SD 1.3)), but not in the temporal lobe (7.7 (SD1.6)), compared with pigs fed the HOSF diet (frontal lobe, 7.5 (SD1.0); parietal lobe, 8.1 (SD 1.3); occipital lobe, 7.3 (SD1.2), temporal lobe, 6.6 (SD1.2). Moreover, the proportion of DHA was significantly lower in the temporal lobe compared with the frontal, parietal and occipital brain lobes in pigs fed a fish oil diet. In conclusion, the brains of juvenile pigs appear to be responsive to dietary fish oil, although the temporal brain lobe is less responsive compared with the other three brain lobes. The functional consequences of these differences are a challenging focus for future investigation.
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Levant B, Ozias MK, Carlson SE. Diet (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid content and parity affect liver and erythrocyte phospholipid fatty acid composition in female rats. J Nutr 2007; 137:2425-30. [PMID: 17951480 DOI: 10.1093/jn/137.11.2425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The fatty acid composition of membrane phospholipids affects the physicochemical properties of the membrane and thus influences cell function. In this study, the effects of 1-4 sequential pregnancies on the phospholipid fatty acid compositions of the maternal liver and erythrocytes were determined in female rats fed diets containing alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), ALA and preformed docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; ALA+DHA), or minimal ALA (low ALA). Virgin females, fed the diets for commensurate durations, served as a control for reproduction. Liver and erythrocyte total phospholipid compositions were determined at weaning by TLC/GC. In both tissues, significant main effects of diet and reproductive status were detected for many fatty acids, but a significant interaction of diet, reproductive status, and duration of treatment (no. of reproductive cycles or equivalent time period for virgins) was detected only for DHA, 22:6(n-3). Primiparous dams fed the ALA and low ALA diet had decreased liver DHA content of 31% and 74%, respectively, compared with virgin females fed the ALA diet. Liver DHA did not decrease further after additional reproductive cycles. Liver DHA content was unchanged in parous dams fed the ALA+DHA diet, but virgin females fed this diet exhibited a 50% increase in liver DHA after 13 wk of treatment. Changes in erythrocyte DHA were of similar magnitude and time course to those observed in liver, suggesting that this tissue may serve as a marker for liver DHA status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Levant
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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Ozias MK, Carlson SE, Levant B. Maternal parity and diet (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid concentration influence accretion of brain phospholipid docosahexaenoic acid in developing rats. J Nutr 2007; 137:125-9. [PMID: 17182812 DOI: 10.1093/jn/137.1.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The long-chain PUFA, docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3), DHA], a major component of neuronal membrane phospholipids, accumulates in brain during late prenatal and early neonatal development and is essential for optimal attentional and cognitive function. Because all nutrition is supplied to the developing fetus/neonate by the mother and maternal DHA status is affected by parity, this study examined the effects of maternal diet and parity on DHA accretion in the developing brain. Whole brain total phospholipid fatty acid composition was determined by TLC and GC in weanling male Long-Evans rats (n = 5) from the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th litters of dams fed diets containing alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), containing ALA and preformed DHA (ALA + DHA), or lacking ALA (low-ALA). First-litter low-ALA offspring exhibited a decrease in phospholipid fatty acid DHA content to 68% of 1st-litter ALA pups. DHA in 2nd-litter low-ALA pups was further decreased to 55% of 1st-litter ALA pups, but further decreases were not observed in subsequent litters. DHA levels increased 15-20% in 2nd to 4th-litter ALA + DHA pups and 11% in 4th-litter ALA pups compared with 1st-litter ALA pups. These findings demonstrate that maternal diet and parity interact to affect offspring brain DHA status and suggest that maternal multiparity may place offspring at greater risk of decreased accretion of brain DHA if the maternal diet contains insufficient (n-3) PUFA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlies K Ozias
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
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Levant B, Ozias MK, Carlson SE. Specific brain regions of female rats are differentially depleted of docosahexaenoic acid by reproductive activity and an (n-3) fatty acid-deficient diet. J Nutr 2007; 137:130-4. [PMID: 17182813 DOI: 10.1093/jn/137.1.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Low tissue levels of (n-3) PUFA, particularly docosahexaenoic acid [DHA, 22:6(n-3)], are implicated in postpartum depression. Brain DHA content is depleted in female rats undergoing pregnancy and lactation when the diet supplies inadequate (n-3) PUFA. In this study, the effects of DHA depletion as a result of reproductive activity and an (n-3) PUFA-deficient diet were examined in 8 specific brain regions of female rats after undergoing 2 sequential reproductive cycles. Virgin females, fed the alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)-containing or deficient (low-ALA) diets for a commensurate duration (13 wk) served as a control for reproduction. Total phospholipid composition of each brain region was determined at weaning (postnatal d 21) by TLC/GC. The regional PUFA composition of ALA virgins was similar to that previously measured in male rats. All brain regions examined were affected by reproductive activity and/or the low-ALA diet; however, the magnitude of the loss of DHA and compensatory incorporation of docosapentaenoic acid [(n-6) DPA, 22:5(n-6)] varied among brain regions. In low-ALA parous dams, frontal cortex (77% of ALA virgin) and temporal lobe (83% of ALA virgin), regions involved in cognition and affect, were among those exhibiting the greatest depletion of DHA. Caudate-putamen also exhibited significant depletion of DHA (82% of ALA virgin), whereas only (n-6) DPA levels were altered in ventral striatum, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cerebellum. This pattern of changes in regional DHA and (n-6) DPA content suggests that specific neuronal systems may be differentially affected by depletion of brain DHA in the postpartum organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Levant
- Departments of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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