Food security and the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES): ensuring progress by 2030

Food Insecurity and Outpatient Care Utilization Among Indonesian Older Adults

This study aims to examine the complex relationship between household food insecurity and outpatient care utilization among Indonesian older adults. Individual-level data from the 2020 National Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS; n = 29 950 older adults aged 60 and over in poor self-rated health who are unable to do daily activities) and environmental-level data (n = 84 096 villages in a data aggregation across 514 municipalities) from the 2021 Village Potential Data Census Collection Survey (PODES) are used in a two-level binary logistic regression model. Older adults who live in severely food insecure households (odds ratio [OR] 1.963) and lack of health insurance (OR 1.654) are more likely of not utilizing outpatient care. The interclass correlation coefficient value is 0.162, indicating that primary health care services in every village improve outpatient care utilization. Food insecurity is the major determinant of reduced likelihood of outpatient care utilization, which can be explained by household resource constraints.

An analytical overview of the composition and characteristics of China's food safety standards

This paper discusses the framework of China's food safety standards and provides a brief overview of the problems and developmental characteristics of food safety in China. The composition and characteristics of China's food safety standards are revealed by an analysis of the changes in China's general food standards, an overview of the characteristics of the hygiene requirements in the production and operation process, and an introduction to food product and test method standards. In conclusion, Chinese food safety standards are still being improved, but they must also be effectively implemented and followed up in real time in order to continuously improve the quality of food and reduce food safety incidents. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Prevalence of food insecurity among caregivers of young children during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ireland

Our objectives were to explore the prevalence of food insecurity in primary caregivers of young children in Ireland and to compare two tools for measuring food insecurity during the COVID-19 crisis. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted among caregivers of children aged <2 years in Ireland in May/June 2020. Relevant survey questions were closed-ended using two established tools for measuring food poverty/insecurity; the Irish Food Poverty Indicator and the Food Insecurity Experience Scale, developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Descriptive statistics were used to calculate the prevalence of food poverty/insecurity. To explore agreement in the classification of food insecurity by the Food Poverty Indicator and the Food Insecurity Experience Scale, Cohen's κ was used. Analyses are based on 716 participants; most had a 3rd-level education and were married or in a partnership. Per the food poverty index, Ireland's national measure of food poverty, 3.9% (n = 28) of our sample were experiencing food poverty. This rose to 10.5% (n = 75) experiencing food insecurity when using the Food Insecurity Experience Scale, which also measures worry/anxiety around access to food. There was low agreement between the tools, with 11.3% of the sample classified as food secure by one tool and food insecure by the other. Our current measure of food poverty in Ireland may not be sufficient to describe the food-access struggles or worry/anxiety about food access, experienced by the population, particularly during an emergency like COVID-19.

Food budget ratio as an equitable metric for food affordability and insecurity: a population-based cohort study of 121 remote Indigenous communities in Canada

BACKGROUND

Food insecurity is a public health issue for many regions globally, and especially Indigenous communities. We propose food budget ratio (FBR)-the ratio of food spending to after-tax income-as an affordability metric that better aligns with health equity over traditional price-focused metrics. Existing census and inflation monitoring programs render FBR an accessible tool for future affordability research.

METHODS

Public census and food pricing datasets from 2011 to 2021 were analyzed to evaluate food affordability for a cohort of 121 remote Indigenous communities in Canada (n = 80,354 persons as of March 2021). Trends in population-weighted versus community-weighted averages, inflation-adjusted mean price of the Revised Northern Food Basket (RNFB), and distributions of FBR, per-capita price of food, and per-capita after-tax income were calculated and compared to Canada at large.

RESULTS

Population-weighted versus community-weighted mean price of the RNFB differed by < 5% for most points in time, peaking at 17%. Mean raw price of the RNFB was relatively stable, while mean inflation-adjusted price of the RNFB decreased 19%. Mean and standard deviation in FBR trended downwards from (0.40; 0.21) in 2011 to (0.25; 0.10) in 2021, while the mean for Canada held stable at 0.10 ± 0.01. Mean and standard deviation in inflation-adjusted per-capita price of food fell from ($5,621; $493) to ($4,510; $243), while the Canada-wide mean rose from $2,189 to $2,567; values for per-capita after-tax income increased from ($17,384; $7,816) to ($21,661; $9,707), while the Canada-wide mean remained between $24,443 and $26,006. Current Nutrition North Canada (NNC) subsidy rates correlate closely with distance to nearest transportation hub (σXY = 0.68 to 0.70) whereas food pricing, after-tax income, and FBR correlate poorly with distance (σXY = -0.22 to 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The FBR approach yields greater insights on food affordability compared to price-based results, while using readily available public datasets. Whereas 19% reductions in RNFB per-capita food price were observed, FBR decreased 63% yet remained 2.5 times the Canada-wide FBR. The reduction in FBR was driven both by the reduced price of food and a 25% increase in after-tax income. It is recommended that NNC consider FBR for performance measurement and setting subsidy rates.

Factors Associated With Food Insecurity Among a Community-Based Sample of Older Adults in a North Florida County

Food insecurity impacts the lives of 7.6 million U.S. adults aged 60 and older and is linked to numerous life challenges. This study examined the nature of food insecurity among community-based participants ≥65 years in a north Florida county and conceptualized food insecurity as encompassing the lack of food and individual adaptability. Thus, food insecurity was measured using three dependent variables: (1) worrying that food would run out, (2) cutting meal size or skipping meals, and (3) food not lasting. Logistic regression revealed that older participants, those with better-perceived health status, and those who were confident that they could find solutions to their problems had lower odds of reporting food insecurity. However, respondents who lived in low-income, low-access zip codes and those who received food assistance were more likely to report food insecurity. To improve outcomes and reduce healthcare disparities, solutions to food insecurity must vary in focus and approach.

A systematic review of the direct and indirect COVID-19's impact on food security and its dimensions: pre-and post-comparative analysis

BACKGROUND

Since its emergence, the COVID-19 pandemic has compromised the food security both directly by impacting food supply chain and indirectly by overwhelming the individual health and/or personal financial situation. The overarching aim of the current study is to assess aspects of the food security crisis that have arisen due to COVID-19 and to identify which, if any, food security dimensions were specifically compromised.

METHODS

Primary research articles were initially identified through four online databases (Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science), with the references of each paper then also reviewed for additional article. The food security status of individuals and the wider community, both before and after the emergence of COVID-19, were examined.

RESULTS

Of the 2,057 studies initially identified, a total of ten were included in the final review. The included studies confirmed that COVID-19 had substantially impacted food security, with individuals, households and the wider community experiencing food insecurity. Nine of the included studies aruged that the food accessibility dimension was the most compromised.

CONCLUSION

To address the identified direct and indirect food security issues associated with COVID-19, it is proposed that a combination of prevention practices and proactive food security activities is required. Integrating food security interventions, supporting and facilitating food security resilience, and conducting further studies on the food security of COVID-19 are also recommended.

Determinants of the food insecurity at household level in Pakistan: A multilevel model approach

Food insecurity is a major concern for the developing world and around 37% of the population of Pakistan is food insecure. This paper utilizes the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) to assess the population prevalence of food insecurity and to identify their risk factors and determinants at the household level in Pakistan. This study employs a multi-level random coefficient model, using the Pakistan Panel Household Survey (PPHS-2010) dataset; representative data from 4,130 households. Factors like; income of the household, gender, education, household size, land ownership, and shocks of food insecurity allow the incidence of idiosyncratic shocks (injuries and/or casualties) at the community level, which affects the food insecurity situation of the community, rather differently were included. The study confirms a statistically significant inverse relationship between household income, household size, and household head education with food insecurity and a positive association of shocks and inflation with food insecurity at the household level. Specifically, with increasing per capita income of the household, food insecurity declines (coefficient: -0.083, statistically significant at 1%) and food insecurity increases with shocks (coefficient: 0.058, statistically significant at 1% significance level). The study also reveals a significant heterogeneity at a one percent significance level in the determinants of food insecurity at the district, community, and household levels. The income of the household, household head gender and education level, household size, household assets, shocks, injuries, and inflationary pressure are important determinants of food insecurity in Pakistan.

Heat is associated with short-term increases in household food insecurity in 150 countries and this is mediated by income

Rising temperatures are expected to stall progress on food insecurity by reducing agricultural yields in the coming decades. But hot periods may also increase food insecurity within days when it gets too hot to work and earn an income, thus limiting households' capability to purchase food. Here I exploit variations in heat levels during a household survey spanning 150 countries in a quasi-natural experiment to show that particularly hot weeks are associated with higher chances of food insecurity among households (0.5767, 95% confidence interval 0.2958-0.8576, t = 4.024, d.f. = 427,816, P < 0.001). This association is mediated by reductions in income and health for households and the effects are stronger in countries with lower incomes and more agricultural or precarious forms of employment. The results highlight the importance of labour market disruptions for food insecurity and suggest integration of these concerns into heat action plans and food programmes.

Can tailored home-delivered meal services alleviate self-rated frailty of the low-income older adults in Korea?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine whether the tailored home-delivered meal (HDM) services included nutrition counseling impacts alleviating self-rated frailty among low-income older adults in Korea.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Pre- and post-test were implemented on May 27 and on November 25 in 2019 during 3 weeks, respectively, before and after the 6 months intervention program. Participants completed a questionnaire measuring frailty, malnutrition, food security, depression, and underlying diseases. Initially, 136 older adults were selected as participants for this study, they were recipients of a free meal program from 2 senior welfare centers in Seoul, the final sample size of those who completed the intervention program was 117 (female 70.9%, male 29.1%). Statistical analyses were conducted with IBM SPSS package program, paired t-test and χ2 test to validate the test.

RESULTS

There were statistically significant differences in the score of the Tilburg Frailty Indicator (TFI) before and after receiving the tailored HDM services (pre-test 9.46, post-test 2.8, P < 0.01). The differences in the score of TFI by 3 risk groups at the pre-test decreased as a result of receiving these services.

CONCLUSIONS

The tailored HDM services alleviated the self-rated frailty of low-income older adults with limited mobility in a community setting. Based on the positive outcomes this study could be applied to developing social services for aging in place.

Ethiopia National Food and Nutrition Survey to inform the Ethiopian National Food and Nutrition Strategy: a study protocol

INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia has made significant progress in reducing malnutrition in the past two decades. Despite such improvements, a substantial segment of the country's population remains chronically undernourished and suffers from micronutrient deficiencies and from increasing diet-related non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and cancer. This survey aims to assess anthropometric status, dietary intake and micronutrient status of Ethiopian children, women and adolescent girls. The study will also assess coverage of direct and indirect nutrition-related interventions and map agricultural soil nutrients. The survey will serve as a baseline for the recently developed Ethiopian Food System Transformation Plan and will inform the implementation of the National Food and Nutrition Strategy.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

As a population-based, cross-sectional survey, the study will collect data from the 10 regions and 2 city administrations of Ethiopia. The study population will be women of reproductive age, children aged 0-59 months, school-aged children and adolescent girls. A total of 16 596 households will be surveyed, allowing the generation of national and regional estimates. A two-stage stratified cluster sampling procedure will be used to select households. In the first stage, 639 enumeration areas (EAs) will be selected using probability-proportional-to-size allocation. In the second stage, 26 eligible households will be selected within each EA using systematic random selection. Primary outcomes include coverage of direct and indirect nutrition interventions, infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices, food insecurity, dietary intakes, mental health, anthropometric status, micronutrient status and soil nutrient status.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The protocol was fully reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Ethiopian Public Health Institute (protocol no: EPHI-IRB-317-2020). The study is based on voluntary participation and written informed consent is required from study participants. The findings will be disseminated via forums and conferences and will be submitted for publication in peer-reviewed journals.

Measurement in the study of human exposure to animal feces: A systematic review and audit

BACKGROUND

Human exposure to animal feces is increasingly recognized as an important transmission route of enteric pathogens. Yet, there are no consistent or standardized approaches to measurement of this exposure, limiting assessment of the human health effects and scope of the issue.

OBJECTIVE

To inform and improve approaches to the measurement of human exposure to animal feces, we audited existing measurement in low- and middle-income countries.

METHODS

We systematically searched peer-reviewed and gray literature databases for studies with quantitative measures of human exposure to animal feces and we classified measures in two ways. First, using a novel conceptual model, we categorized measures into three 'Exposure Components' identified a priori (i.e., Animal, Environmental, Human Behavioral); one additional Component (Evidence of Exposure) inductively emerged. Second, using the exposure science conceptual framework, we determined where measures fell along the source-to-outcome continuum.

RESULTS

We identified 1,428 measures across 184 included studies. Although studies overwhelmingly included more than one single-item measure, the majority only captured one Exposure Component. For example, many studies used several single-item measures to capture the same attribute for different animals, all of which were classified as the same Component. Most measures captured information about the source (e.g. animal presence) and contaminant (e.g. animal-sourced pathogens), which are most distal from exposure on the source-to-outcome continuum.

DISCUSSION

We found that measurement of human exposure to animal feces is diverse and largely distal from exposure. To facilitate better assessment of the human health effects of exposure and scope of the issue, rigorous and consistent measures are needed. We recommend a list of key factors from the Animal, Environmental, and Human Behavioral Exposure Components to measure. We also propose using the exposure science conceptual framework to identify proximal measurement approaches.

What's to Eat and Drink on Campus? Public and Planetary Health, Public Higher Education, and the Public Good

Public higher education institutions (PHEIs) have a unique and important role in responding to the public and planetary health crisis-they are centers of research on public and planetary health and of learning for young people, and have a public good mission. Yet, PHEI campus food environments are predominantly unhealthy and environmentally unsustainable, and associated with unhealthy food choices and unhealthy students. PHEIs are addressing high levels of student food insecurity (FI) that disproportionately affect the most vulnerable groups. Yet, because student FI is measured as individual access to adequate quantities of food, campus responses to FI often overlook unhealthy food environments. These environments result from neoliberal PHEI business policies that prioritize short-term revenue and encourage superfluous consumption, and unhealthy, environmentally harmful diets. PHEIs need to move beyond neoliberalism to honor their public good mission, including prioritizing health, the environment, and equity, in decisions about food on campus. My goal in this perspective is to encourage inclusive campus discussion about why this change is required to adequately respond to the crisis of student, public, and planetary health, and about how to begin.

Identifying nutrition-sensitive development options in Madagascar through a positive deviance approach

Context-adapted interventions are needed to alleviate the burden of food and nutrition insecurity on resource-poor rural households in southeastern Madagascar. The Positive Deviance approach implies identifying locally viable development solutions by focusing on particularly successful, innovative individuals. To identify promising practices that could be promoted as part of food and nutrition security (FNS) interventions in the Atsimo Atsinanana region of southeastern Madagascar, positive deviance was searched among smallholder farmers. Positive deviants are defined as households with overall optimal performance across four aspects of FNS: household-level food security, women’s diet quality, child’s diet quality, and low diarrhea incidence. To identify positive deviants, a two-step procedure was followed. Based on quantitative survey data from 413 rural smallholder households (mother-child pairs) with a child aged between 6 and 23 months, each household’s four performance scores were adjusted by removing the average effects of household resources. Then, households with Pareto-optimal performance were identified regarding the four aspects. Subsequently, 16 positive deviants were revisited and positive deviant practices were identified through in-depth interviews. A set of practices were validated through focus group discussions with local nutrition and agriculture experts. Positive deviant practices include the adoption of agricultural innovation, such as new cash crops, as well as nutrition-sensitive market behaviors and reliance on off-farm activities. In addition, some ethno-cultural factors help to explain positive deviance. These diverse positive deviant practices may serve as examples and inspiration for locally grounded development interventions targeting FNS in southeastern Madagascar.

Improving nutrition through biofortification-A systematic review

Nutritious foods are essential for human health and development. However, malnutrition and hidden hunger continue to be a challenge globally. In most developing countries, access to adequate and nutritious food continues to be a challenge. Although hidden hunger is less prevalent in developed countries compared to developing countries where iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) deficiencies are common. The United Nations (UN) 2nd Sustainable Development Goal was set to eradicate malnutrition and hidden hunger. Hidden hunger has led to numerous cases of infant and maternal mortalities, and has greatly impacted growth, development, cognitive ability, and physical working capacity. This has influenced several countries to develop interventions that could help combat malnutrition and hidden hunger. Interventions such as dietary diversification and food supplementation are being adopted. However, fortification but mainly biofortification has been projected to be the most sustainable solution to malnutrition and hidden hunger. Plant-based foods (PBFs) form a greater proportion of diets in certain populations; hence, fortification of PBFs is relevant in combating malnutrition and hidden hunger. Agronomic biofortification, plant breeding, and transgenic approaches are some currently used strategies in food crops. Crops such as cereals, legumes, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits have been biofortified through all these three strategies. The transgenic approach is sustainable, efficient, and rapid, making it suitable for biofortification programs. Omics technology has also been introduced to improve the efficiency of the transgenic approach.

Food insecurity, low dietary diversity and poor mental health among Syrian refugee mothers living in vulnerable areas of Greater Beirut, Lebanon

Syrian refugees in Lebanon are facing vulnerabilities that are affecting their food insecurity (FI) levels. The objectives of this study were to measure dietary diversity, FI and mental health status of Syrian refugee mothers in Lebanon and to explore its associations with their anaemia and nutritional status. A cross-sectional study was conducted among mothers with children under 5 years (n 433) in Greater Beirut, Lebanon. Dietary diversity was measured using the Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women (MDD-W) of reproductive age and FI using the global Food Insecurity Experience Scale at the individual level. Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were measured to assess the maternal mental health status. Data on socio-economic characteristics, anthropometric measurements and Hb concentrations were collected. Overall, 63·3 % of the mothers had a low dietary diversity (LDD) and 34·4 % were moderately to severely food insecure, with 12·5 % being severely food insecure. The prevalence of PTSD, moderate depression and severe depression was 13·2, 11·1 and 9·9 %, respectively. A significant correlation was found between LDD and FI (P < 0·001). Low income was significantly associated with LDD and FI. Poor mental health was significantly associated with FI. LDD and FI were not associated with anaemia and nutritional status of mothers. Low-income households had significantly higher intakes of grains and refined starchy staples, whereas high-income households consumed more nutritious foods and sweets. Evidence of inadequate diet quality, FI and poor mental health among Syrian refugee mothers in Lebanon is presented. Multifaceted actions are needed to reduce FI and improve dietary diversity.

Screening Food Insecure during Pregnancy: Pilot Testing an Effective Brief Tool for Use in an Australian Antenatal Care Setting

The purpose of this research is: (1) to determine the prevalence of food insecurity among pregnant people using the 10-, 6-, and 2-item iterations of the USA Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) and the single item measure, and (2) identify an appropriate combination of questions that could be used to identify food insecurity in a clinical setting for a population of people who are pregnant in Australia. Cross-sectional survey collecting self-reported data from pregnant people in Australia (open May 2021 to March 2022). Survey included demographic characteristics, including income/welfare use, education, age, pregnancy information, household size and composition, and two measures of food insecurity. In total, 303 participants were included in the analysis. Sensitivity and specificity of the various combinations of questions were conducted. Food insecurity was estimated using the single item, and the 2-item, 6-item, and 10-item versions of the HFSSM, food insecurity was 6.2%, 11.4%, 11.7%, and 14.3% respectively. Respondents who were living in households that were food insecure answered affirmatively to question one, two, or three of the HFSSM, with the combination of questions one and three showing the best sensitivity and specificity for the whole sample, as well as for those who have characteristics likely to lead to food insecurity. Further testing of the 2-items, comprised of items one and three from the HFSSM, need to be conducted with a larger and more diverse sample to determine if this is an appropriate screening tool in an antenatal clinical setting to determine food insecurity during pregnancy.

[Validity of an instrument for screening households at risk of food insecurity in different strata of the Brazilian population]

The absence of risk screening tools for food insecurity compromises the ability to assess, monitor, and provide immediate assistance to those in hunger, especially during emergencies such as the COVID-19 crisis. Hence, this study sought to test the validity of an instrument for Screening Households at Risk of Food Insecurity (TRIA) in different strata of the Brazilian population TRIA uses questions 2 and 4 of the Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale (EBIA), originally validated using data from the Brazilian National Survey of Demography and Health of Children and Women (PNDS 2006). In this study, using data from the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey (PNAD 2013), its reproducibility was tested by repeating the original combinatorial procedures, examining whether the parameters of sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and positive predictive values (PPV) and negative values (NPV) would result in the same arrangement of questions. Moreover, convergent validity was analyzed by comparing the strength of association between food insecurity and dietary variables using two binomial regression models (TRIA x EBIA). Results indicated that the combination of questions 2 and 4 performed best among the population strata studied, and presented optimal convergent validity. PPV and NPV adjusted for food insecurity prevalence in states ranged from 42.8% (Santa Catarina) to 87.6% (Amazonas) and 95.8% (Amazonas) to 99.5% (Santa Catarina), respectively. In conclusion, besides being reproducible, TRIA presented excellent validity parameters, especially among vulnerable groups. It can thus be used in care practice and as an instrument of food and nutritional surveillance in Brazil.

Dietary Patterns, Food Insecurity, and Their Relationships with Food Sources and Social Determinants in Two Small Island Developing States

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) have high burdens of nutrition-related chronic diseases. This has been associated with lack of access to adequate and affordable nutritious foods and increasing reliance on imported foods. Our aim in this study was to investigate dietary patterns and food insecurity and assess their associations with socio-demographic characteristics and food sources. We recruited individuals aged 15 years and above from rural and urban areas in Fiji (n = 186) and St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG) (n = 147). Data collection included a 24 h diet recall, food source questionnaire and the Food Insecurity Experience Scale. We conducted latent class analysis to identify dietary patterns, and multivariable regression to investigate independent associations with dietary patterns. Three dietary patterns were identified: (1) low pulses, and milk and milk products, (2) intermediate pulses, and milk and milk products and (3) most diverse. In both SIDS, dietary pattern 3 was associated with older age, regularly sourcing food from supermarkets and borrowing, exchanging, bartering or gifting (BEB). Prevalence of food insecurity was not statistically different across dietary patterns. In both SIDS, food insecurity was higher in those regularly sourcing food from small shops, and in SVG, lower in those regularly using BEB. These results complement previous findings and provide a basis for further investigation into the determinants of dietary patterns, dietary diversity and food insecurity in these settings.

Development and Validation of a Direct Food Insecurity Measurement Instrument: A Study Protocol (Preprint).. [DOI: 10.2196/preprints.40945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

BACKGROUND

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to achieve sustainable food security with a focus on eradicating hunger and poverty. Although some progress has been made, conflicts and food insecurity issues are still inevitable worldwide. In Malaysia, food insecurity is still evident in 2021 as food-insecure groups were present in the surveyed population. The problem leads to negative impacts on the health and development of individuals. To tackle this problem, an appropriate measurement tool is needed to assess the experience of food insecurity among Malaysians. A valid, reliable and culturally specific food insecurity measurement tool is needed for further planning and implementation.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective is to develop a direct food insecurity measurement instrument that will assist practitioners in assessing food security status in communities.

METHODS

This paper describes a mixed-methods sequential study to develop and validate a direct food insecurity measurement tool that is culturally specific for use in Malaysia. It begins with a qualitative study to understand the experience of food insecurity among food bank beneficiaries through interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA). Validation procedures will then be conducted to validate the instrument under study, assessing content validity, construct validity and reliability. Finally, a pilot study will be conducted to evaluate the instrument in order to increase the credibility of this measurement tool in directly assessing the experience of food insecurity.

RESULTS

In-depth interviews for qualitative data will be carried out after ethics approval and expected to be completed by 2022 November 30. For validation procedures, it is estimated to be completed by 2023 June 31.

CONCLUSIONS

This study will enable the development and validation of a direct food insecurity measurement tool to be used nationwide in Malaysia, and will go part of the way in assessing the relationship between the determinants and consequences of food insecurity status.

An Assessment of the Impact of COVID-19 on the Agri-Food System in Caribbean Small Island Developing States

The COVID-19 pandemic impacts have arguable been more pronounced in the developing world, such as the Small Island States (SIDS) of the Caribbean, where a plethora of geophysical and socio-political factors have led to increased vulnerability, particularly in fragile sectors such as agriculture. The pandemic added another layer of complexity to the unstable agri-food systems of SIDS in the Caribbean. Measures to contain the unfolding crisis have tremendously disrupted food systems by threatening the production, distribution, and marketing of commodities which exposed the frailty of the region's food security. Caribbean SIDS are highly dependent on food imports and relies on international markets to secure food. Many are also dependent on agricultural exports and have a large portion of their population involved in agriculture making them particularly vulnerable to the rigors of the pandemic. Export restrictions on foodstuff and prohibitions due to lockdowns and border closures further exacerbated these challenges. Additionally, food and nutrition security in the region is also subjected to the effects of climate change and climate-related disasters. Dealing with the impacts of co-occurring disasters is, therefore, an ever-present threat. This study examines the impact of COVID-19 on the agri-food supply in the Caribbean. It also identified measures and initiatives adopted to cope with these disruptive consequences. The study involves the use of internet-based surveys and focus group discussions and internet-based surveys with stakeholders and online searches for related literature. A total of 96 farmers, 60 food distributors, 84 food service operators, and 237 consumers from the region participated in the online survey and 4 focus group discussions between January and November 2021. The results confirmed that the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic were evident along the entire agri-food supply chain and numerous challenges and shocks were identified across all participating groups and countries. Some challenges and shocks such as loss of income and related challenges including lower sales and loss of markets affected all groups in the study but to varying degrees and based on socio-demographic factors. In general people of lower income status and smaller businesses were more susceptible to the negative impacts of the pandemic.

Characterizing the Structural Evolution of Cereal Trade Networks in the Belt and Road Regions: A Network Analysis Approach

Cereal trade is essential for economic and commercial cooperation among countries along the "Belt and Road" (BRI). It helps ensure food security and contributes to building a community of interests and destinies for the BRI countries. Based on the UN Comtrade database, this study, using a network analysis approach, investigates the structural characteristics and spatiotemporal dynamics of cereal trade networks among the "Belt and Road" countries. Results show that: (1) The cereal trade among the BRI countries has formed well-connected and complex trade networks, and the "Belt and Road" initiative has significantly promoted cereal trade networks among the BRI countries. (2) The backbone structures of cereal trade networks along the BRI are in geographical proximity. India, Russia, and Ukraine are the most important trading partners and absolute core nodes in the trade networks, influencing the entire cereal trade networks. (3) The BRI cereal trade networks exhibit significant core-periphery structures, with considerable power asymmetries between the countries reflecting food supply and demand differences. In general, the BRI cereal trade networks have developed from relatively diversified to polarized. Supply chains in the cereal trade network are dominated by a few large countries and are fragile, with weak resilience and low resistance to risk. Therefore, governments should continue to strengthen regional cooperation, optimize cereal trade network structure, enhance their reserve capacity, and build a stronger system to guarantee food security and prevent risk. All these measures will support the food security of the "Belt and Road" countries.

The mental health impact of multiple deprivations under protracted conflict: A multi-level study in the occupied Palestinian territory

Building on the literatures examining the impacts of deprivation and war and conflict on mental health, in this study, we investigate the impact of different forms of deprivation on mental health within a context of prolonged conflict in the occupied Palestinian territory(oPt). We expand the operationalization go deprivation while accounting for more acute exposures to conflict and political violence and spatial variations. We use multilevel modelling of data from the Socio-Economic & Food Security Survey 2014 conducted by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, which included a sample size of 7827 households in the West Bank(WB) and Gaza Strip(GS). We conduct the analysis for the combined sample, as for the WB and GS separately. We use a General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ12) score as our main outcome measure of poor health. We used various measures of deprivation including subjective deprivation, material deprivation, food deprivation, and political deprivation. In addition to the different measures of deprivation, we included acute political, health, and economic shocks in our analysis along with background socio-demographic characteristics. The results indicate significant variance at the locality level. We find a significant association between poor mental health and subjective, economic, political, and food deprivation; health, economic, and political stressors; age, and being a woman. Post-secondary education and wealth have a significant inverse association with poor mental health. Subjective deprivation is the strongest predictor of GHQ12 score in the models whereby people who feel very deprived have GHQ12 scores that are almost 4-points higher than people who do not feel deprived. Economic conditions, particularly subjective measures, are significant predictors of mental health status. Our findings confirm that political and social factors are determinants of health. Feeling deprived is an important determinant of mental health. The community effect suggests that spatial characteristics are influencing mental health, and warrant further investigation.

Profiles of Food Insecurity: Similarities and Differences across Selected CEE Countries

Food security (FS) is influenced by primarily financial but also sociodemographic factors. Identification of correlates of food insecurity (FI) is a crucial issue in the context of achieving sustainable development goals. The aims of the study were: (1) to recognize FI in the selected Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries, (2) to examine common socioeconomic and demographic characteristics for FI. The analysis used the set of eight-item FI indicators adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization, applying the Gallup World Poll survey data from 2017 to 2019. Multinomial logistic regressions were used to examine FI at mild and moderate or severe levels compared with FS. Differences in the profiles of FI were observed in analyzed countries: Poland, Lithuania and Slovakia. Lithuanians experienced the lowest FS, and Slovaks the highest. The FI status was associated with education, gender, age, household composition and income. It was found that the impact of these factors was not the same in the examined countries. Differences in profiles of FI in CEE countries indicate the need to analyze the problem individually for each country. Identifying groups particularly vulnerable to FI may allow appropriate targeting of instruments counteracting FI and adapt them to people with different characteristics.

Broken promises: a rights-based analysis of marginalised livelihoods and experiences of food insecurity in large-scale land investments in Tanzania

Proponents of large-scale land investments (LSLI) still promote them as a development opportunity, which can lead, among other benefits, to job creation and enhanced food security for local communities. However, there is increasing evidence that these investments often deprive affected communities of their access to land, with multiple negative impacts on livelihoods, food security and on the environment. This paper relies on empirical data to present an analysis of LSLI and food (in)security – crucially at the level of individuals in two villages in the Ruvuma region, Tanzania, over 10 years after the acquisition of village land within the Southern African Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT). We introduce an innovative framework that permits an integration of a rights-based approach with the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to explore smallholders’ livelihoods and experiences of food insecurity. Our paper demonstrates how this integration, along with attention we have given to the FAO’s PANTHER principles, adds the missing yet crucial dimension of accountability on the part of national governments as duty bearers. Our findings show that in the case of these two villages, the human rights principles of participation, accountability, transparency and empowerment are severely undermined, with women bearing the brunt in all these domains. This overall state of affairs is, we argue, due to inadequate monitoring and evaluation of LSLI processes themselves and low levels of commitment on the part of institutions in Tanzania to monitor the promises made by investors. This in turn demonstrates an accountability deficit on the part of duty-bearers within LSLIs, and limited capacity of affected community members to claim their rights. Individual food insecurity experience in the two communities correlates, among other characteristics, with lack of land ownership, employment and income-generating activities. The rights-based livelihoods framework applied in this study points to serious deficiencies in the LSLI model as presently endorsed in SAGCOT, and emphasises the fact that access to land in Tanzania is a precondition for the realisation of the right to adequate food and thus a critical requirement for achieving and maintaining food and nutrition security. We conclude by arguing that progressive coalitions within and beyond national states must devise policies and institutions that empower individuals and civil society actors to make demands on their governments to respect, protect and fulfil their obligations regarding the legally enforceable right to food.

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Anticipated Food Scarcity Scale (AFSS)

Mass media extensively inform societies about events threatening the global food supply (e.g., pandemics or Brexit). Consumers exposed to such communication may perceive food resources as becoming scarcer. In line with an evolutionary account, these perceptions can shift decision-making in domains such as food preferences or prosociality. However, existing literature has solely focused on actual and past food insecurity experiences threatening mostly low-income families, thus neglecting the future-oriented perceptions among the general population. This paper broadens the food insecurity research scope by developing a new construct-anticipated food scarcity (AFS)-which is defined as the perception that food resources are becoming less available (in the future). We have developed and psychometrically validated the 8-item Anticipated Food Scarcity Scale (AFSS) in eight studies (N = 1333). The 8-item AFSS is unidimensional and has good psychometric qualities. The scale is sensitive to food scarcity cues and, therefore, can be used in experimental research. Moreover, its relatively narrow set of items makes it an exceptionally potent tool for use in online surveys, field settings, and lab studies. Taken together, the AFSS presents an alternative approach to food scarcity measurement in affluent societies and, consequently, can foster novel research on food waste, prosocial behaviors, and other similar topic areas.

Food insecurity increases energetic efficiency, not food consumption: an exploratory study in European starlings

Food insecurity—defined as limited or unpredictable access to nutritionally adequate food—is associated with higher body mass in humans and birds. It is widely assumed that food insecurity-induced fattening is caused by increased food consumption, but there is little evidence supporting this in any species. We developed a novel technology for measuring foraging, food intake and body mass in small groups of aviary-housed European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Across four exploratory experiments, we demonstrate that birds responded to 1–2 weeks of food insecurity by increasing their body mass despite eating less. Food-insecure birds therefore increased their energetic efficiency, calculated as the body mass maintained per unit of food consumed. Mass gain was greater in birds that were lighter at baseline and in birds that faced greater competition for access to food. Whilst there was variation between experiments in mass gain and food consumption under food insecurity, energetic efficiency always increased. Bomb calorimetry of guano showed reduced energy density under food insecurity, suggesting that the energy assimilated from food increased. Behavioural observations of roosting showed inconsistent evidence for reduced physical activity under food insecurity. Increased energetic efficiency continued for 1–2 weeks after food security was reinstated, indicating an asymmetry in the speed of the response to food insecurity and the recovery from it. Future work to understand the mechanisms underlying food insecurity-induced mass gain should focus on the biological changes mediating increased energetic efficiency rather than increased energy consumption.

Cross-national analysis of food security drivers: comparing results based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale and Global Food Security Index

The second UN Sustainable Development Goal establishes food security as a priority for governments, multilateral organizations, and NGOs. These institutions track national-level food security performance with an array of metrics and weigh intervention options considering the leverage of many possible drivers. We studied the relationships between several candidate drivers and two response variables based on prominent measures of national food security: the 2019 Global Food Security Index (GFSI) and the Food Insecurity Experience Scale’s (FIES) estimate of the percentage of a nation’s population experiencing food security or mild food insecurity (FI<mod). We compared the contributions of explanatory variables in regressions predicting both response variables, and we further tested the stability of our results to changes in explanatory variable selection and in the countries included in regression model training and testing. At the cross-national level, the quantity and quality of a nation’s agricultural land were not predictive of either food security metric. We found mixed evidence that per-capita cereal production, per-hectare cereal yield, an aggregate governance metric, logistics performance, and extent of paid employment work were predictive of national food security. Household spending as measured by per-capita final consumption expenditure (HFCE) was consistently the strongest driver among those studied, alone explaining a median of 92% and 70% of variation (based on out-of-sample R2) in GFSI and FI<mod, respectively. The relative strength of HFCE as a predictor was observed for both response variables and was independent of the countries used for model training, the transformations applied to the explanatory variables prior to model training, and the variable selection technique used to specify multivariate regressions. The results of this cross-national analysis reinforce previous research supportive of a causal mechanism where, in the absence of exceptional local factors, an increase in income drives increase in food security. However, the strength of this effect varies depending on the countries included in regression model fitting. We demonstrate that using multiple response metrics, repeated random sampling of input data, and iterative variable selection facilitates a convergence of evidence approach to analyzing food security drivers.

Exploring the Drivers and the Interventions towards Sustainable Food Security in the Food Supply Chain

The sustainability of food security is a global concern, and one of the priorities related to it is the ability to identify effective efforts that can protect food security along the food supply chain (FSC). The present study demystifies the relation of sustainability and food security and structurally identifies the sustainable drivers, and the pragmatic interventions that can critically contribute to the sustainability of food security within each stage of the FSC. A systematic review of articles from six databases was implemented. Thematic analysis was engaged to detect the sustainable drivers and interventions practised at each stage in the FSC for food security purposes. Six main themes of the drivers and interventions were derived from the analysis: food security governance involvement, input resource management, output management, information sharing, income, and technology. The result identifies the potential that quality management has on the mediating effect towards sustainable food security, through which a conceptual model for sustainable food security in the FSC was thus developed. It is deduced that mapping and categorizing the drivers and intervention of sustainable food securities could help deepen the understanding of effective and innovative practices towards food security in the FSC.

Liberal trade policy and food insecurity across the income distribution: an observational analysis in 132 countries, 2014-17

Background

Eradicating food insecurity is necessary for achieving global health goals. Liberal trade policies might increase food supplies but how these policies influence individual-level food insecurity remains uncertain. We aimed to assess the association between liberal trade policies and food insecurity at the individual level, and whether this association varies across country-income and household-income groups.

Methods

For this observational analysis, we combined individual-level data from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN with a country-level trade policy index from the Konjunkturforschungsstelle Swiss Economic Institute. We examined the association between a country's trade policy score and the probability of individuals reporting moderate-severe or severe food insecurity using regression models and algorithmic weighting procedures. We controlled for multiple covariates, including gross domestic product, democratisation level, and population size. Additionally, we examined heterogeneity by country and household income.

Results

Our sample comprised 460 102 individuals in 132 countries for the period of 2014–17. Liberal trade policy was not significantly associated with moderate-severe or severe food insecurity after covariate adjustment. However, among households in high-income countries with incomes higher than US$25 430 per person per year (adjusted for purchasing power parity), a unit increase in the trade policy index (more liberal) corresponded to a 0·07% (95% CI −0·10 to −0·04) reduction in the predicted probability of reporting moderate-severe food insecurity. Among households in the lowest income decile (<$450 per person per year) in low-income countries, a unit increase in the trade policy index was associated with a 0·35% (0·06 to 0·60) increase in the predicted probability of reporting moderate-severe food insecurity.

Interpretation

The relationship between liberal trade policy and food insecurity varied across countries and households. Liberal trade policy was predominantly associated with lower food insecurity in high-income countries but corresponded to increased food insecurity among the world's poorest households in low-income countries.

Funding

Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Economic and Social Research Council.