Andrographis paniculata Formulations: Impact on Diterpene Lactone Oral Bioavailability

Enhancing oral bioavailability of andrographolide using solubilizing agents and bioenhancer: comparative pharmacokinetics of Andrographis paniculata formulations in beagle dogs

CONTEXT

The therapeutic potential of andrographolide is hindered by its poor oral bioavailability and unpredictable pharmacokinetics, primarily due to its limited water solubility.

OBJECTIVE

This work aimed to enhance the solubility and pharmacokinetics of andrographolide, a bioactive compound in Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees (Acanthaceae), using solubilizing agents and a bioenhancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four groups of beagles were compared: (1) A. paniculata powder alone (control), (2) A. paniculata powder with 50% weight/weight (w/w) β-cyclodextrin solubilizer, (3) A. paniculata powder with 1% w/w sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solubilizer, and (4) A. paniculata powder co-administered with 1% w/w SDS solubilizer and 10% piperine bioenhancer. All groups received a consistent oral dose of 3 mg/kg of andrographolide, administered both as a single dose and multiple doses over seven consecutive days.

RESULTS

Thirteen chemical compounds were identified in A. paniculata powder, including 7 diterpenoids, 5 flavonoids, and 1 phenolic compound. A. paniculata co-administration with either 50% w/w β-cyclodextrin or 1% w/w SDS, alone or in combination with 10% w/w piperine, significantly increased systemic andrographolide exposure by enhancing bioavailability (131.01% to 196.05%) following single and multiple oral co-administration. Glucuronidation is one possible biotransformation pathway for andrographolide, as evidenced by the excretion of glucuronide conjugates in urine and feces.

CONCLUSION

The combination of solubilizing agents and a bioenhancer improved the oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of andrographolide, indicating potential implications for A. paniculata formulations and clinical therapeutic benefits. Further investigation in clinical studies is warranted.

Quality by design optimization of formulation variables and process parameters for enhanced transdermal delivery of nanosuspension

This investigation aims to fabricate, characterize, and optimize organogel containing andrographolide nanosuspension to enhance transdermal drug delivery into and across the skin in vitro. We identified the critical material attributes (CMAs) and critical process parameters (CPPs) that impact key characteristics of andrographolide nanosuspension using a systematic quality-by-design approach. We prepared andrographolide nanosuspension using the wet milling technique and evaluated various properties of the formulations. The CMAs were types and concentrations of polymers, types and concentrations of surfactants, drug concentration, and lipid concentration. The CPPs were volume of milling media and milling duration. Mean particle size, polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency, and drug loading capacity as critical quality attributes were selected in the design for the evaluation and optimization of the formulations. Furthermore, we developed and evaluated organogel formulation to carry andrographolide nanosuspension 0.05% w/w. Drug release and permeation studies were conducted to assess the drug release kinetics and transdermal delivery of andrographolide. We presented the alteration in the average particle size, polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency, drug-loading capacity, and drug release among various formulations to select the optimal parameters. The permeation study indicated that organogel delivered markedly more drug into the receptor fluid and skin tissue than DMSO gel (n = 3, p < 0.05). This enhancement in transdermal drug delivery was demonstrated by cumulative drug permeation after 24 h, steady-state flux, permeability coefficient, and predicted steady-state plasma concentration. Drug quantity in skin layers, total delivery, delivery efficiency, and topical selectivity were also reported. Conclusively, andrographolide nanosuspension-loaded organogel significantly increased transdermal drug delivery in vitro.

Andrographolide: A promising therapeutic agent against organ fibrosis

Fibrosis is the terminal pathology of chronic illness in many organs, marked by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins. These changes influence organ function, ultimately resulting in organ failure. Although significant progress has been achieved in comprehending the molecular pathways responsible for fibrosis in the last decades, effective and approved clinical therapies for the condition are still lacking. Andrographolide is a diterpenoid isolated and purified mainly from the aboveground parts of the Andrographis paniculata plant, which possesses good effects of purging heat, detoxifying, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory. In-depth research has gradually confirmed the anticancer, antioxidant, antiviral and other effects of Andro so that it can play a preventive and therapeutic role in various diseases. Over the past few years, an increasing number of research findings have indicated that Andro exerts antifibrotic effects in various organs by acting on transforming growth factor-β/small mother against decapentaplegic protein, mitogen-activated protein kinases, nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2, nuclear factor kappa-B and other signalling molecules to inhibit inflammation, oxidative stress, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, fibroblast activation and collagen buildup. This review presents a compilation of findings regarding the antifibrotic impact of Andro in tissue and cell models in vitro and in vivo. Emphasis is placed on the potential therapeutic benefits of Andro in diseases related to organ fibrosis. Existing studies and cutting-edge technologies on Andro pharmacokinetics, toxicity and bioavailability are briefly discussed to provide evidence for accelerating its clinical conversion and adoption.

Terminalia bellirica and Andrographis paniculata dietary supplementation in mitigating heat stress-induced behavioral, metabolic and genetic alterations in broiler chickens

BACKGROUND

Heat stress (HS) is one of the most significant environmental stressors on poultry production and welfare worldwide. Identification of innovative and effective solutions is necessary. This study evaluated the effects of phytogenic feed additives (PHY) containing Terminalia bellirica and Andrographis paniculata on behavioral patterns, hematological and biochemical parameters, Oxidative stress biomarkers, and HSP70, I-FABP2, IL10, TLR4, and mTOR genes expression in different organs of broiler chickens under chronic HS conditions. A total of 208 one-day-old Avian-480 broiler chicks were randomly allocated into four treatments (4 replicate/treatment, 52 birds/treatment): Thermoneutral control treatment (TN, fed basal diet); Thermoneutral treatment (TN, fed basal diet + 1 kg/ton feed PHY); Heat stress treatment (HS, fed basal diet); Heat stress treatment (HS, fed basal diet + 1 kg/ton feed PHY).

RESULTS

The findings of the study indicate that HS led to a decrease in feeding, foraging, walking, and comfort behavior while increasing drinking and resting behavior, also HS increased red, and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) counts, and the heterophile/ lymphocyte (H/L) ratio (P < 0.05); while both mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) were decreased (P < 0.05). In addition, HS negatively impacted lipid, protein, and glucose levels, liver and kidney function tests, and oxidative biomarkers by increasing malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and decreasing reduced glutathion (GSH) activity (P < 0.05). Heat stress (HS) caused the upregulation in HSP70, duodenal TLR4 gene expression, and the downregulation of I-FABP2, IL10, mTOR in all investigated tissues, and hepatic TLR4 (P < 0.05) compared with the TN treatment. Phytogenic feed additives (PHY) effectively mitigated heat stress's negative impacts on broilers via an improvement of broilers' behavior, hematological, biochemical, and oxidative stress biomarkers with a marked decrease in HSP70 expression levels while all tissues showed increased I-FABP2, IL10, TLR4, and mTOR (except liver) levels (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Phytogenic feed additives (PHY) containing Terminalia bellirica and Andrographis paniculata have ameliorated the HS-induced oxidative stress and improved the immunity as well as the gut health and welfare of broiler chickens.

Novel inhaled andrographolide for treatment of lung cancer: In vitro assessment

Andrographolide is a plant-based compound that showed promising activity against lung cancer. However, the compound's poor water solubility and low bioavailability limit its oral administration. Inhaled drug delivery of andrographolide is highly favourable as it delivers active ingredients directly into the affected lungs. In the current study, we compared in vitro aerosol performance, anti-cancer activity and storages stability of two (2) inhalable andrographolide formulations. Formulation 1 was prepared using precipitation and spray drying techniques, while Formulation 2 was prepared via direct spray drying technique. Drug morphology and physicochemical properties were confirmed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. In vitro aerosol dispersion profile was evaluated using the next-generation impactor (NGI). Formulation 1 consisted of elongated crystals while Formulation 2 was made up of amorphous spherical particles. Both formulations had an inhalable fraction (<5 μm) of more than 40 %, making them suitable for pulmonary drug delivery. The formulations also showed an IC25 of less than 100 μg/mL against the human lung carcinoma cells (A549). Formulation 1 and 2 was stable in a vacuum condition at 30 °C for up to 6 and 3 months, respectively. Novel inhalable andrographolide dry powders were successfully produced with a good aerosol profile, potent anti-cancer activity and adequate storage stability, which deserve further in vivo investigations.

Identification and characterization of major bioactive compounds from Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) extracts showed multi-biomedical applications

The Andrographis paniculata recognized as most valuable medicinal plant in folk medicine. Hence, this research was designed to evaluate antibacterial potential of petroleum ether (PE) and methanol (ME) extracts of A. paniculata against skin infection causing bacterial pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris, and Propionibacterium acnes. Also assessed the antidiabetic (α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition assay), antioxidant, and photoprotective potential of PE and ME extract analyses. The major bioactive compounds were identified and characterized through UV, FTIR, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectra analyses. The ME extract contain more number of phytochemicals (alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, glycoside, protein, and phytosterol) than PE extract. The antibacterial activity result also revealed that the ME (as dose dependent) extract showed better activity at 250 mg mL-1 as in the following order: P. acnes (6-29 mm) > K. pneumoniae (3-28 mm) > S. aureus (3-27 mm) > P. vulgaris (3-26 mm) > S. pyogenes (2-25 mm) > E. aerogenes (1-23 mm). PE: E. aerogenes (3-20 mm) > P. vulgaris (2-19 mm) > P. acnes (3-18 mm) > K. pneumoniae (3-17 mm) > S. aureus (2-16 mm) > S. pyogenes (0-11 mm). The MIC value of ME extract was found as 100-150 mg mL-1 and it was better than PE extract. Similarly, the ME also possesses dose based α-glucosidase inhibition activity as up to 85% at 250 mg mL-1 concentration. The fluorescence spectra analysis method also stated that the ME extract possess photoprotective bioactive agent. The ME fractions (F01 and F02) obtained from TLC and column chromatogram were identified as 3-O-β-d-glucosyl-14- deoxyandrographiside and 14-deoxyandrographolide respectively through UV, FTIR, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectra analyses. Such compounds may be responsible for significant antibacterial activity against pathogenic bacteria causing skin infections, excellent antidiabetic activity, as well as photoprotective potential.

Development and Optimization of Andrographis paniculata Extract-Loaded Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System Using Experimental Design Model

The objectives of this study were to develop an optimized formulation for an Andrographis paniculata extract (AGPE)-loaded self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) using an experimental design and evaluate the characteristics of the developed SMEDDS. The solubility of andrographolide (AGP) in various solvents was investigated. The pseudo-ternary phase was constructed to provide an optimal range for each component to form microemulsions (MEs). The formulation was optimized using an I-optimal design mixture type, where the physical stability, droplet size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential were examined. Soft capsules of the optimized AGPE-loaded SMEDDS were manufactured. The dissolution and ex vivo membrane permeation were studied. Oleic acid, Tween® 80, and PEG 400 were the best solubilizers for AGP. The promising surfactant to co-surfactant ratio to generate ME was 3:1. The optimized SMEDDS contained 68.998% Tween® 80, with 13.257% oleic acid and 17.745% PEG 400. The assayed content of AGP, uniformity of dosage unit, and stability complied with the expected specifications. The dissolution and membrane permeability of AGPE-loaded SMEDDS was significantly improved from the A. paniculata extract (p < 0.05). All in all, the developed optimized AGPE-loaded SMEDDS was proven to contain optimal composition and AGP content where a stable ME could spontaneously be formed with enhanced delivery efficacy.

Hydroxyethyl Cellulose-Based Hydrogels as Controlled Release Carriers for Amorphous Solid Dispersion of Bioactive Components of Radix Paeonia Alba

Radix Paeoniae Alba (RPA) has been used extensively in Chinese traditional medicine to treat gastrointestinal disorders, immune-modulating diseases, cancers, and numerous other conditions. A few of its active components include paeoniflorin, albiflorin, lactiflorin, and catechin. However, their therapeutic effectiveness is compromised by poor pharmacokinetic profiles, low oral bioavailability, short half-lives, and poor aqueous solubility. In this study, hydroxyethyl cellulose-grafted-2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (HEC-g-AMPS) hydrogels were successfully prepared for the controlled release of Radix Paeonia Alba-solid dispersion (RPA-SD). A total of 43 compounds were identified in RPA-SD using UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS analysis. The hydrogel network formation was confirmed by FTIR, TGA, DSC, XRD, and SEM. Hydrogels' swelling and drug release were slightly higher at pH 1.2 (43.31% swelling, 81.70% drug release) than at pH 7.4 (27.73% swelling, 72.46% drug release) after 48 h. The gel fraction, drug release time and mechanical strength of the hydrogels increased with increased polymer and monomer concentration. Furthermore, the hydrogels were porous (84.15% porosity) and biodegradable (8.9% weight loss per week). Moreover, the synthesized hydrogels exhibited excellent antimicrobial and antioxidative properties.

Novel wine in an old bottle: Preventive and therapeutic potentials of andrographolide in atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) frequently results in sudden death and poses a serious threat to public health worldwide. The drugs approved for the prevention and treatment of ASCVD are usually used in combination but are inefficient owing to their side effects and single therapeutic targets. Therefore, the use of natural products in developing drugs for the prevention and treatment of ASCVD has received great scholarly attention. Andrographolide (AG) is a diterpenoid lactone compound extracted from Andrographis paniculata. In addition to its use in conditions such as sore throat, AG can be used to prevent and treat ASCVD. It is different from drugs that are commonly used in the prevention and treatment of ASCVD and can not only treat obesity, diabetes, hyperlipidaemia and ASCVD but also inhibit the pathological process of atherosclerosis (AS) including lipid accumulation, inflammation, oxidative stress and cellular abnormalities by regulating various targets and pathways. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of AG underlying the prevention and treatment of ASCVD have not been corroborated, which may hinder its clinical development and application. Therefore, this review summarizes the physiological and pathological mechanisms underlying the development of ASCVD and the in vivo and in vitro pharmacological effects of AG on the relative risk factors of AS and ASCVD. The findings support the use of the old pharmacological compound ('old bottle') as a novel drug ('novel wine') for the prevention and treatment of ASCVD. Additionally, this review summarizes studies on the availability as well as pharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic properties of AG, aiming to provide more information regarding the clinical application and further research and development of AG.

Lower Concentrations of Amphotericin B Combined with Ent-Hardwickiic Acid Are Effective against Candida Strains

Life-threatening Candida infections have increased with the COVID-19 pandemic, and the already limited arsenal of antifungal drugs has become even more restricted due to its side effects associated with complications after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Drug combination strategies have the potential to reduce the risk of side effects without loss of therapeutic efficacy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the combination of ent-hardwickiic acid with low concentrations of amphotericin B against Candida strains. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were determined for amphotericin B and ent-hardwickiic acid as isolated compounds and for 77 combinations of amphotericin B and ent-hardwickiic acid concentrations that were assessed by using the checkerboard microdilution method. Time–kill assays were performed in order to assess the fungistatic or fungicidal nature of the different combinations. The strategy of combining both compounds markedly reduced the MIC values from 16 µg/mL to 1 µg/mL of amphotericin B and from 12.5 µg/mL to 6.25 µg/mL of ent-hardwickiic acid, from isolated to combined, against C. albicans resistant to azoles. The combination of 1 µg/mL of amphotericin B with 6.25 µg/mL of ent-hardwickiic acid killed all the cells of the same strain within four hours of incubation.

Antidiabetic effects of Andrographis paniculata supplementation on biochemical parameters, inflammatory responses, and oxidative stress in canine diabetes

Introduction: Diabetes mellitus is a common endocrine disorder that causes hyperglycemia in dogs. Persistent hyperglycemia can induce inflammation and oxidative stress. This study aimed to investigate the effects of A. paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees (Acanthaceae) (A. paniculata) on blood glucose, inflammation, and oxidative stress in canine diabetes. A total of 41 client-owned dogs (23 diabetic and 18 clinically healthy) were included in this double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Methods: The diabetic dogs were further divided into two treatments protocols: group 1 received A. paniculata extract capsules (50 mg/kg/day; n = 6) or received placebo for 90 days (n = 7); and group 2 received A. paniculata extract capsules (100 mg/kg/day; n = 6) or received a placebo for 180 days (n = 4). Blood and urine samples were collected every month. No significant differences in fasting blood glucose, fructosamine, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, superoxide dismutase, and malondialdehyde levels were observed between the treatment and placebo groups (p > 0.05). Results and Discussion: The levels of alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine were stable in the treatment groups. The blood glucose levels and concentrations of inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in the client-owned diabetic dogs were not altered by A. paniculata supplementation. Furthermore, treatment with this extract did not have any adverse effects on the animals. Non-etheless, the effects of A. paniculata on canine diabetes must be appropriately evaluated using a proteomic approach and involving a wider variety of protein markers.

A validated LC-MS/MS method for clinical pharmacokinetics and presumptive phase II metabolic pathways following oral administration of Andrographis paniculata extract

Andrographis paniculata, a medicinal plant in Thailand national list of essential medicines, has been proposed for treatment of patients with mild to moderate coronavirus disease 2019. This study aims to develop a highly selective and sensitive liquid chromatography triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry method for quantitative determination of major diterpenoids in plasma and urine with application in pharmacokinetics. Chromatographic separation was performed on C18 column using a gradient mobile phase of water and acetonitrile. Mass spectrometry was analyzed using multiple reaction monitoring with negative ionization mode. This validated analytical method was very sensitive, less time consuming in analysis, and allowed the reliability and reproducibility on its application. The clinical pharmacokinetics was evaluated after single oral administration of A. paniculata extract (calculated as 60 mg of andrographolide). The disposition kinetics demonstrated that major diterpenoids could enter into systemic circulation, but they are mostly biotransformed (phase II) into conjugated glucuronide and sulfate metabolites. These metabolites are predominantly found in plasma and then extremely eliminated, in part through urinary excretion. The successful application of this analytical method supports its suitable uses in further clinical benefits after oral administration of A. paniculata.

Mitochondrial toxicity evaluation of traditional Chinese medicine injections with a dual in vitro approach

There are technical obstacles in the safety evaluation of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) injections due to their complex chemical nature and the lack of rapid and accurate in vitro methods. Here, we established a dual in vitro mitochondrial toxicity approach combing the conventional "glucose/galactose" assay in HepG2 cells with the cytotoxic assay in mitochondrial respiration deficient cells. Using this dual in vitro approach, for the first time, we systematically assessed the mitochondrial toxicity of TCM injections. Four of the 35 TCM injections, including Xiyanping, Dengzhanhuasu, Shuanghuanglian, and Yinzhihuang, significantly reduced cellular ATP production in galactose medium in the first assay, and presented less cytotoxic in the respiration deficient cells in the second assay, indicating that they have mitochondrial toxicity. Furthermore, we identified scutellarin, rutin, phillyrin, and baicalin could be the potential mitochondrial toxic ingredients in the 4 TCM injections by combining molecular docking analysis with experimental validation. Collectively, the dual in vitro approach is worth applying to the safety evaluation of more TCM products, and mitochondrial toxic TCM injections and ingredients found in this study deserve more attention.

A Sensitive Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Method for Determination of 14-Deoxy-12(R)-Sulfo Andrographolide Concentration in Rat Plasma and its Application to a Pharmacokinetic Study

BACKGROUND

Andrographolide is a promising natural substance with numerous pharmacotherapy uses. 14-deoxy-12(R)-sulfo andrographolide (SAP) is the main metabolite of andrographolide in the intestine.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the pharmacokinetic properties of SAP, a precise and sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for the determination of SAP concentration in rat plasma was developed and validated in this study.

METHODS

Chromatographic separation was achieved on an Acpuity UPLC BEH C18 column with gradient elution that consisted of methanol and water at a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. MS/MS detection was carried out by the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode with negative electrospray ionization (ESI-) source, with the transitions of m/z 413.2→m/z 287.2 for SAP and m/z 269→m/z 133 for genistein [which was used as an internal standard (IS)].

RESULTS

The calibration curve of SAP was linear over the concentration range of 5-120 ng/mL. The selectivity, precision, accuracy, extraction recovery, matrix effect, and stability of the method were within acceptable ranges. This SAP quantification method was then successfully applied to a pharmacokinetic study of SAP. The area under the curve (AUC) of SAP in rats treated with SAP at 60 mg/kg by intravenous administration was 7498.53 ± 2405.02 mg/L·min. The AUC of SAP in rats treated with SAP at 60 mg/kg by oral administration was 97.74 ± 39.56 mg/L·min. Thus, the absolute oral bioavailability of SAP was determined to be 1.40%.

Discovery of Novel Andrographolide Derivatives as Antiviral Inhibitors against Human Enterovirus A71

Hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) caused by human enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) infection has been associated with severe neurological complications. With the lack of an internationally approved antiviral, coupled with a surge in outbreaks globally, EV-A71 has emerged as a neurotropic virus of high clinical importance. Andrographolide has many pharmacological effects including antiviral activity and its derivative, andrographolide sulfonate, has been used in China clinically to treat EV-A71 infections. This study sought to identify novel andrographolide derivatives as EV-A71 inhibitors and elucidate their antiviral mode of action. Using an immunofluorescence-based phenotypic screen, we identified novel EV-A71 inhibitors from a 344-compound library of andrographolide derivatives and validated them with viral plaque assays. Among these hits, ZAF-47, a quinolinoxy-andrographolide, was selected for downstream mechanistic studies. It was found that ZAF-47 acts on EV-A71 post-entry stages and inhibits EV-A71 protein expression. Subsequent luciferase studies confirm that ZAF-47 targets EV-A71 genome RNA replication specifically. Unsuccessful attempts in generating resistant mutants led us to believe a host factor is likely to be involved which coincide with the finding that ZAF-47 exhibits broad-spectrum antiviral activity against other enteroviruses (CV-A16, CV-A6, Echo7, CV-B5, CV-A24 and EV-D68). Furthermore, ZAF-46 and ZAF-47, hits from the screen, were derivatives of the same series containing quinolinoxy and olefin modifications, suggesting that an andrographolide scaffold mounted with these unique moieties could be a potential anti-EV-A71/HFMD strategy.