Synthesis and catalytic applications of metal–organic frameworks: a review on recent literature

Hybrid Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for Various Catalysis Applications

Porous materials have been gaining popularity in catalysis applications, solving the current ecological challenges. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are especially noteworthy for their high surface areas and customizable chemistry, giving them a wide range of potential applications in catalysis remediation. The review study delves into the various applications of MOFs in catalysis and provides a comprehensive summary. This review thoroughly explores MOF materials, specifically focusing on their diverse catalytic applications, including Lewis catalysis, oxidation, reduction, photocatalysis, and electrocatalysis. Also, this study emphasizes the significance of high-performance MOF materials, which possess adjustable properties and exceptional features, as a novel approach to tackling technological challenges across multiple sectors. MOFs make it an ideal candidate for catalytic reactions, as it enables efficient conversion rates and selectivity. Furthermore, the tunable properties of MOF make it possible to tailor its structure to suit specific catalytic requirements. This feature improves performance and reduces costs associated with traditional catalysts. In conclusion, MOF materials have revolutionized the field of catalysis and offer immense potential in solving various technological challenges across different industries.

Electrochemical conversion of CO2 using metalorganic frameworks-based materials: A review on recent progresses and outlooks

Global warming has been mainly attributed to the excessive release of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere. Several CO2 capture and conversion technologies have been developed in the past few decades with their own merits and limitations. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 is one of the most attractive techniques for combating CO2 emissions. However, the efficacy of the electrochemical reduction of CO2 hinges on the efficiency of the utilized materials (i.e., electrocatalysts). Metal organic frameworks (MOFs)-based materials have recently emerged as attractive tools for various applications, including the electrochemical conversion of CO2. Although there are some review articles on CO2 capture and conversion using different materials, reviews focusing specifically on the electrochemical conversion of CO2 using MOFs-based materials are still comparatively lacking. Additionally, the field of electrochemical conversion of CO2 into valuable chemicals is currently gaining high momentum, requiring comprehensive and recent reviews, which would provide researchers/professionals with a quick and easy access to the recent developments in this rapidly evolving research area. Accordingly, this article comprehensively reviews recent studies on the electrochemical conversion of CO2 using pristine/modified/functionalized MOFs as well as composite materials containing MOFs. Additionally, single atom catalysts (SACs) derived from MOFs and their applications for the electrochemical conversion of CO2 has also been reviewed. Furthermore, obstacles, challenges, limitations, and remaining research gaps have been identified, and future works to tackle them have been highlighted. Overall, this review article provides valuable discussion and insights into the recent advancements in the field of electrochemical conversion of CO2 into chemicals using MOFs-based materials.

Organic and Metal-Organic Polymer-Based Catalysts-Enfant Terrible Companions or Good Assistants?

This overview provides insights into organic and metal-organic polymer (OMOP) catalysts aimed at processes carried out in the liquid phase. Various types of polymers are discussed, including vinyl (various functional poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) and perfluorinated functionalized hydrocarbons, e.g., Nafion), condensation (polyesters, -amides, -anilines, -imides), and additional (polyurethanes, and polyureas, polybenzimidazoles, polyporphyrins), prepared from organometal monomers. Covalent organic frameworks (COFs), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and their composites represent a significant class of OMOP catalysts. Following this, the preparation, characterization, and application of dispersed metal catalysts are discussed. Key catalytic processes such as alkylation-used in large-scale applications like the production of alkyl-tert-butyl ether and bisphenol A-as well as reduction, oxidation, and other reactions, are highlighted. The versatile properties of COFs and MOFs, including well-defined nanometer-scale pores, large surface areas, and excellent chemisorption capabilities, make them highly promising for chemical, electrochemical, and photocatalytic applications. Particular emphasis is placed on their potential for CO2 treatment. However, a notable drawback of COF- and MOF-based catalysts is their relatively low stability in both alkaline and acidic environments, as well as their high cost. A special part is devoted to deactivation and the disposal of the used/deactivated catalysts, emphasizing the importance of separating heavy metals from catalysts. The conclusion provides guidance on selecting and developing OMOP-based catalysts.

Metal-organic frameworks for biomedical applications: A review

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are emergent materials in diverse prospective biomedical uses, owing to their inherent features such as adjustable pore dimension and volume, well-defined active sites, high surface area, and hybrid structures. The multifunctionality and unique chemical and biological characteristics of MOFs allow them as ideal platforms for sensing numerous emergent biomolecules with real-time monitoring towards the point-of-care applications. This review objects to deliver key insights on the topical developments of MOFs for biomedical applications. The rational design, preparation of stable MOF architectures, chemical and biological properties, biocompatibility, enzyme-mimicking materials, fabrication of biosensor platforms, and the exploration in diagnostic and therapeutic systems are compiled. The state-of-the-art, major challenges, and the imminent perspectives to improve the progressions convoluted outside the proof-of-concept, especially for biosensor platforms, imaging, and photodynamic therapy in biomedical research are also described. The present review may excite the interdisciplinary studies at the juncture of MOFs and biomedicine.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Catalytic Performance of a New Heterobimetallic Y/Tb Metal-Organic Framework with High Catalytic Activity

A three-dimensional heterobimetallic porous structure with the formula {[Y3.5Tb1.5L6(OH)3(H2O)1.5 (DMF)1.5] n ·1.5H2O·DMF} n (L = 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoate) (Y/Tb-MOF) has been synthesized and characterized by single crystal and powder X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), electrophoretic mobility, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The structure presents two metal environments: a bioaugmented isosceles wedge (mm2) MO8 and a tricapped trigonal prism (-6m2) MN3O6. These configurations facilitate the creation of channels with a diameter of 10.7 Å, enabling its utilization as an active catalyst where the heterobimetallic nature of the assembly will be explored. This mixed-metal metal-organic framework has been tested in the cycloaddition of epoxides with carbon dioxide as well as in the cyanosilylation and hydroboration reactions of carbonylic substrates. Additionally, a monometallic Tb-MOF analogue has been synthesized for comparative evaluation of their catalytic performances. Both the mixed metal and monometallic variants exhibit outstanding activity in the cyanosilylation and hydroboration of carbonyls and in the synthesis of carbonates under CO2 pressure. However, only the latter exhibits high recyclability.

MOFs for next-generation cancer therapeutics through a biophysical approach-a review

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising nanocarriers for cancer treatment due to their unique properties. Featuring high porosity, extensive surface area, chemical stability, and good biocompatibility, MOFs are ideal for efficient drug delivery, targeted therapy, and controlled release. They can be designed to target specific cellular organelles to disrupt metabolic processes in cancer cells. Additionally, functionalization with enzymes mimics their catalytic activity, enhancing photodynamic therapy and overcoming apoptosis resistance in cancer cells. The controllable and regular structure of MOFs, along with their tumor microenvironment responsiveness, make them promising nanocarriers for anticancer drugs. These carriers can effectively deliver a wide range of drugs with improved bioavailability, controlled release rate, and targeted delivery efficiency compared to alternatives. In this article, we review both experimental and computational studies focusing on the interaction between MOFs and drug, explicating the release mechanisms and stability in physiological conditions. Notably, we explore the relationship between MOF structure and its ability to damage cancer cells, elucidating why MOFs are excellent candidates for bio-applicability. By understanding the problem and exploring potential solutions, this review provides insights into the future directions for harnessing the full potential of MOFs, ultimately leading to improved therapeutic outcomes in cancer treatment.

Copper(II) Ions Originating from CuBTC MOF Act as a Soluble Catalyst in the Friedländer Synthesis

The copper-based metal-organic framework (MOF), CuBTC (where H3BTC = benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate), has been reported as a reusable heterogeneous catalyst for the Friedländer synthesis of substituted quinolines, which are desirable targets in the pharmaceutical industry. Because of this application, we further investigated the CuBTC-catalyzed Friedländer synthesis of 3-acetyl-2-methyl-4-phenylquinoline. CuBTC was synthesized in-house and used as a catalyst for the Friedländer synthesis. Fresh and used CuBTC were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), powder X-ray diffraction (pXRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The used CuBTC shows structural breakdown in pXRD patterns and SEM images. Despite the structural breakdown, the desired product, 3-acetyl-2-methyl-4-phenylquinoline, is still produced in a moderate yield (76.3% ± 0.2), as confirmed via time-of-flight mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy of the recovered supernatant solution indicates the presence of copper(II) ions in solution. Thus, we hypothesized that the standard Friedländer conditions may degrade the CuBTC framework, resulting in copper(II) ions in solution. Control experiments with copper(II) from Cu(NO3)2·3H2O catalyzes the Friedländer reaction in yields (75.6% ± 0.1) equal to that of the CuBTC MOF. Overall, our findings suggest that CuBTC acts as a copper(II) source, and the copper(II) ions originating from the CuBTC MOF are responsible for the observed catalysis.

Exploring the Gamma-Ray Enhanced NIR-Luminescence and Cytotoxic Potential of Lanthanide-Naphthalene Dicarboxylate based Metal-Organic Frameworks

In this investigation, we explore the integration of lanthanides into Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) to enable Near-Infrared (NIR) emission. Specifically, we focus on Lanthanide-Naphthalene Dicarboxylate based MOFs (Ln-MOFs), incorporating elements such as Praseodymium (Pr), Samarium (Sm), Dysprosium (Dy), and Erbium (Er). The synthesis of Ln-MOFs is achieved via the hydrothermal method. The structure, morphology, thermal stability, and luminescence properties of synthesized Ln-MOFs have been evaluated through different characterization techniques. Upon photoexcitation at 350 nm, Ln-MOFs show the emission in the Visible and NIR region. Further, the luminescence intensity of Ln-MOFs enhanced by 2-3 folds in the visible region and 6-8 folds in NIR region after exposing to Gamma irradiation at 150 kGy. Cytotoxic effect on the viability of MDA-MB 231 and MDA-MB 468 Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells was evaluated by MTT assay. The results revealed that among all synthesized MOFs, Pr-MOF exhibited an aggressive cytotoxic effect. Additionally, analysis of phase-contrast microscopy data indicates that Pr-MOF induces alterations in the morphology of both MDA-MB 231 and MDA-MB 468 TNBC cells when compared to untreated controls. The findings in this study reveal the utilization of Ln-MOFs for studying cytotoxicity and highlight their ability to enhance near-infrared (NIR) emission when exposed to gamma radiation.

A new method for the preparation of MgAl layered double hydroxide-copper metal-organic frameworks structures: application to electrocatalytic oxidation of formaldehyde

In this research, we present a novel design protocol for the in-situ synthesis of MgAl layered double hydroxide-copper metal-organic frameworks (LDH-MOFs) nanocomposite based on the electrocoagulation process and chemical method. The overall goal in this project is the primary synthesis of para-phthalic acid (PTA) intercalated MgAl-LDH with Cu (II) ions to produce the paddle-wheel like Cu-(PTA) MOFs nanocrystals on/in the MgAl-LDH structure. The physicochemical properties of final product; Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDH, were characterized by the surface analysis and chemical identification methods (SEM, EDX, TEM, XRD, BET, FTIR, CHN, DLS, etc.). The Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDH nanocomposite was used to modification of the carbon paste electrode (CPE); Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDH/CPE. The electrochemical performance of Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDH/CPE was demonstrated through the utilization of electrochemical methods. The results show a stable redox behavior of the Cu (III)/Cu (II) at the surface of Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDH/CPE in alkaline medium (aqueous 0.1 M NaOH electrolyte). Then, the Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDH/CPE was used as a new electrocatalyst toward the oxidation of formaldehyde (FA). Electrochemical data show that the Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDH/CPE exhibits superior electrocatalytic performance on the oxidation of FA. Also the diffusion coefficient, exchange current density (J°) and mean value of catalytic rate constant (Kcat) were found to be 1.18 × 10-6 cm2 s-1, 23 mA cm-2 and 0.4537 × 104 cm3 mol-1 s-1, respectively. In general, it can be said the Cu-(PTA) MOFs/MgAl-LDHs is promising candidate for applications in direct formaldehyde fuel cells.

Biomedical application of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in cancer therapy: Stimuli-responsive and biomimetic nanocomposites in targeted delivery, phototherapy and diagnosis

The nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary field that has become a hot topic in cancer therapy. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous materials and hybrid composites consisted of organic linkers and metal cations. Despite the wide application of MOFs in other fields, the potential of MOFs for purpose of cancer therapy has been revealed by the recent studies. High surface area and porosity, significant drug loading and encapsulation efficiency are among the benefits of using MOFs in drug delivery. MOFs can deliver genes/drugs with selective targeting of tumor cells that can be achieved through functionalization with ligands. The photosensitizers and photo-responsive nanostructures including carbon dots and gold nanoparticles can be loaded in/on MOFs to cause phototherapy-mediated tumor ablation. The immunogenic cell death induction and increased infiltration of cytotoxic CD8+ and CD4+ T cells can be accelerated by MOF platforms in providing immunotherapy of tumor cells. The stimuli-responsive MOF platforms responsive to pH, redox, enzyme and ion can accelerate release of therapeutics in tumor site. Moreover, MOF nanocomposites can be modified ligands and green polymers to improve their selectivity and biocompatibility for cancer therapy. The application of MOFs for the detection of cancer-related biomarkers can participate in the early diagnosis of patients.

The antibacterial activity of three zeolitic-imidazolate frameworks and zinc oxide nanoparticles derived from them

Zinc has been widely studied for its antibacterial properties due to its low toxicity, availability, and low cost. This research focused on analysing the antibacterial effects of three types of MOFs (metal-organic frameworks) with zinc as the central metal: ZIF-4, ZIF-7, and ZIF-8. The study found that ZIF-8 had the strongest antibacterial effect, while ZIF-7 had the weakest among them. These findings were consistent with the results of the ICP (inductively coupled plasma) analysis, which measured the amount of zinc released. Additionally, the antibacterial effect of ZIF-8 was found to be higher than that of zinc oxide species obtained from calcination of the compounds. Among the zinc oxide samples, ZnO nanoparticles which derived from ZIF-4 showed the highest antibacterial activity.

Recent advances in metal-organic framework (MOF)-based agricultural sensors for metal ions: a review

Metal ions have great significance for agricultural development, food safety, and human health. In turn, there exists an imperative need for the development of novel, sensitive, and reliable sensing techniques for various metal ions. Agricultural sensors for the diagnosis of both agricultural safety and nutritional health can establish quality and safety traceability systems of both agro-products and food to guarantee human health, even life safety. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are utilized widely for the design of diversified sensors due to their distinctive structural characteristics and extraordinary optical and electrical properties. To serve agricultural sensors better, this review is dedicated to providing a brief overview of the synthesis of MOFs, the modification of MOFs, the fabrication of MOF-based film electrodes, the applications of MOF-based agricultural sensors for metal ions, which are centered on electrochemical sensors and optical sensors, and current challenges of MOF-based agricultural sensors. In addition, this review also provides potential future opportunities for the development and practical application of agricultural sensors.

Ratiometric Lanthanide Metal‐Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for Smartphone‐Assisted Visual Detection of Food Contaminants and Water: A Review

Developing a reliable portable biosensor is crucial for ensuring food safety and human health. This involves accurately detecting contaminants in food and water at their source. Smartphone cameras have recently become useful for capturing color or fluorescence changes that occur when a probe interacts with specific molecules on paper or in a chemical solution. Ratiometric designs, which self‐calibrate and minimize the impact of environmental changes, are gaining popularity. These designs rely on color changes or fluorescence shifts, which are easily assessable with smartphones. This overview highlights advances in ratiometric optical sensing using Metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs) with lanthanide components coupled with smartphones. These advancements allow contaminants in food and water to be visually identified. The article explains the principles, properties, and applications of color changes for visual detection in food safety. Using lanthanide metal‐organic frameworks with smartphones offers a potent method to detect contaminants, enhancing food safety and safeguarding human health.

An Overview of Metal-organic Framework Based Electrocatalysts: Design and Synthesis for Electrochemical Hydrogen Evolution, Oxygen Evolution, and Carbon Dioxide Reduction Reactions

Due to the increasing global energy demands, scarce fossil fuel supplies, and environmental issues, the pursued goals of energy technologies are being sustainable, more efficient, accessible, and produce near zero greenhouse gas emissions. Electrochemical water splitting is considered as a highly viable and eco-friendly energy technology. Further, electrochemical carbon dioxide (CO2 ) reduction reaction (CO2 RR) is a cleaner strategy for CO2 utilization and conversion to stable energy (fuels). One of the critical issues in these cleaner technologies is the development of efficient and economical electrocatalyst. Among various materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are becoming increasingly popular because of their structural tunability, such as pre- and post- synthetic modifications, flexibility in ligand design and its functional groups, and incorporation of different metal nodes, that allows for the design of suitable MOFs with desired quality required for each process. In this review, the design of MOF was discussed for specific process together with different synthetic methods and their effects on the MOF properties. The MOFs as electrocatalysts were highlighted with their performances from the aspects of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), and electrochemical CO2 RR. Finally, the challenges and opportunities in this field are discussed.

A zinc-containing porphyrin aluminum MOF in sorption of diethyl sulfide vapor: mechanistic experimental and computational study

We report a mechanistic study of the interactions in the sorption of volatile organic sulfur compound (VOSC) diethyl sulfide (DES) by zinc porphyrin aluminum MOF (actAl-MOF-TCPPZn) compound 3. First, interactions were studied under dynamic conditions with the vapor of DES in flowing air, using in situ time-dependent ATR-FTIR spectroscopy in a controlled atmosphere with a new facile spectroscopic mini-chamber. The first binding site includes μ(O-H) and COO- groups as detected by characteristic peak shifts. Control experiments with a model compound, which lacks porosity and these groups, show no peak shifts. An additional insight was obtained by DFT computations using small clusters. The kinetics of sorption of DES by compound 3 is of the Langmuir adsorption model and pseudo-first order with rate constant robs = 0.442 ± 0.056 min-1. Sorption of DES under static conditions in saturated vapor results in stoichiometric adsorption complex [Al-MOF-TCPPZn]1(DES)4 characterized by spectroscopic, structural and gravimetric methods; the adsorbed amount is very high (381 mg g-1 sorbent). The repetitive sorption and desorption of DES are conducted, with facile regeneration. Finally, the mechanistic details were determined by Raman and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy using a confocal Raman microscope. Photoexcitation of compound 3 at 405 nm into the Soret band of the metalloporphyrin linker shows the characteristic PL peaks of Q-bands: the purely electronic Q(0-0) and first vibronic Q(0-1) bands. Upon interaction with DES, preferential quenching of PL from the Q(0-0) band occurs with a significant increase of the signal of the vibronic Q(0-1) band, reflecting bonding to the metalloporphyrin ring. Compound 3 is of interest to mechanistic studies of VOSCs, their removal from air, and optical chemo-sensing.

Interaction of a Porphyrin Aluminum Metal-Organic Framework with Volatile Organic Sulfur Compound Diethyl Sulfide Studied via In Situ and Ex Situ Experiments and DFT Computations

The study presents complementary experiments and quantum chemical DFT computations to reveal the molecular-level interactions of an advanced nanomaterial, porphyrin aluminum metal-organic framework (compound 2), with the volatile organic sulfur compound diethyl sulfide (DES). First, the intermolecular host-guest interactions during the sorption of DES were explored under dynamic conditions, using the vapor of DES in flowing air. The in situ time-dependent ATR-FTIR spectroscopy in a controlled atmosphere was significantly improved though the use of a new facilely built spectroscopic mini-chamber. The binding site of DES in compound 2 involves the μ(O-H) and COO- groups of the linker of the sorbent. Further, the chemical kinetics of the sorption of DES was investigated, and it follows the Langmuir adsorption kinetic model. That is, depending on the time interval, the process obeys either the pseudo-first- or pseudo-second-order rate law. For the Langmuir adsorption of the pseudo-first order, the rate constant is robs = 0.165 ± 0.017 min-1. Next, the interaction of compound 2 with the saturated vapor of DES yields the adsorption complex compound 3 [Al-MOF-TCPPH2]2(DES)7. The adsorbed amount of DES is very large at 36.5 wt.% or 365 mg/g sorbent, one of the highest values reported on any sorbent. The molecular modes of bonding of DES in the complex were investigated through quantum chemical DFT computations. The adsorption complex was facilely regenerated by gentle heating. The advanced functional material in this work has significant potential in the environmental remediation of diethyl sulfide and related volatile organic sulfur compounds in air, and it is an interesting target of mechanistic studies of sorption.

Significance of MOF adsorbents in uranium remediation from water

Uranium is considered as one of the most perilous radioactive contaminants in the aqueous environment. It has shown detrimental effects on both flora and fauna and because of its toxicities on human beings, therefore its exclusion from the aqueous environment is very essential. The utilization of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as an adsorbent for the removal of uranium from the aqueous environment could be a good approach. MOFs possess unique properties like high surface area, high porosity, adjustable pore size, etc. This makes them promising adsorbents for the removal of uranium from contaminated water. In this paper, sources of uranium in the water environment, human health disorders, and application of the different types of MOFs as well as the mechanisms of uranium removal have been discussed meticulously.

A roadmap to enhance gas permselectivity in metal-organic framework-based mixed-matrix membranes

Performing gas separation at high efficiency with minimum energy input and reduced carbon footprint is a major challenge. While several separation methods exist at various technology readiness levels, porous membrane-based separation is considered as a disruptive technology. To attain sustainability and required efficiency, different approaches of membrane design have been explored. However, the selectivity-permeation trade-off and membrane aging have restricted further advancement. In this regard, a new generation composite made of organic polymers and metal-organic framework (MOF) fillers shows substantial promise. Organic polymer matrix allows easy processibility, but it has poor permselectivity for gas molecules. Metal-organic frameworks are excellent sieving materials; however, they suffer from poor processibility issues. A combination of these two components makes an ideal sieving membrane, which can potentially outnumber the existing energy intensive distillation strategies. In this perspective, we have discussed key indices that regulate gas permselectivity by a careful selection of the existing literature. While the target gas flux and selectivity values have been a part of many previous reviews and articles, we have presented a concise discussion on the interface design of the MOF-polymer membrane, morphology, and orientation control of MOF fillers in the matrix. Following this, a future roadmap to overcome challenges related to MOF-polymer interfacial defects is outlined.

Sulfate Radical-Based Degradation of Organic Pollutants: A Review on Application of Metal-Organic Frameworks as Catalysts

The degradation of organic pollutants present in domestic and industrial effluents is a matter of concern because of their high persistence and ecotoxicity. Recently, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are being emphasized for organic pollutant removal from effluents, as they have shown higher degradation efficiencies when compared to conventional activated sludge processes. Sulfate radical-based methods are some of the AOPs, mainly carried out using persulfate (PS) and peroxymonosulfate (PMS), which have gained attention due to the ease of sulfate radical generation and the effective degradation of organic molecules. PMS is gaining more popularity because of its high reactivity and ability to generate excess sulfate radicals. PMS has been the major focus; therefore, its mechanism has been explained, and limitations have been elaborated. The involvement of metal-organic frameworks for PMS/PS activation applied to organic pollutant removal and recent advances in the application of biochar and hydrogel-assisted metal-organic frameworks have been discussed.

MOFganic Chemistry: Challenges and Opportunities for Metal-Organic Frameworks in Synthetic Organic Chemistry

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous, crystalline solids constructed from organic linkers and inorganic nodes that have been widely studied for applications in gas storage, chemical separations, and drug delivery. Owing to their highly modular structures and tunable pore environments, we propose that MOFs have significant untapped potential as catalysts and reagents relevant to the synthesis of next-generation therapeutics. Herein, we outline the properties of MOFs that make them promising for applications in synthetic organic chemistry, including new reactivity and selectivity, enhanced robustness, and user-friendly preparation. In addition, we outline the challenges facing the field and propose new directions to maximize the utility of MOFs for drug synthesis. This perspective aims to bring together the organic and MOF communities to develop new heterogeneous platforms capable of achieving synthetic transformations that cannot be replicated by homogeneous systems.

Sonocrystallization of a novel ZIF/zeolite composite adsorbent with high chemical stability for removal of the pharmaceutical pollutant azithromycin from contaminated water

Water pollution management, reduction, and elimination are critical challenges of the current era that threaten millions of lives. By spreading the coronavirus in December 2019, the use of antibiotics, such as azithromycin increased. This drug was not metabolized, and entered the surface waters. ZIF-8/Zeolit composite was made by the sonochemical method. Furthermore, the effect of pH, the regeneration of adsorbents, kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics were attended. The adsorption capacity of zeolite, ZIF-8, and the composite ZIF-8/Zeolite were 22.37, 235.3, and 131 mg/g, respectively. The adsorbent reaches the equilibrium in 60 min, and at pH = 8. The adsorption process was spontaneous, endothermic associated with increased entropy. The results of the experiment were analyzed using Langmuir isotherms and pseudo-second order kinetic models with a R2 of 0.99, and successfully removing the composite by 85% in 10 cycles. It indicated that the maximum amount of drug could be removed with a small amount of composite.

Metal-Organic Framework (MOF)-A Universal Material for Biomedicine

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a very promising platform for applications in various industries. In recent years, a variety of methods have been developed for the preparation and modification of MOFs, providing a wide range of materials for different applications in life science. Despite the wide range of different MOFs in terms of properties/sizes/chemical nature, they have not found wide application in biomedical practices at present. In this review, we look at the main methods for the preparation of MOFs that can ensure biomedical applications. In addition, we also review the available options for tuning the key parameters, such as size, morphology, and porosity, which are crucial for the use of MOFs in biomedical systems. This review also analyses possible applications for MOFs of different natures. Their high porosity allows the use of MOFs as universal carriers for different therapeutic molecules in the human body. The wide range of chemical species involved in the synthesis of MOFs makes it possible to enhance targeting and prolongation, as well as to create delivery systems that are sensitive to various factors. In addition, we also highlight how injectable, oral, and even ocular delivery systems based on MOFs can be used. The possibility of using MOFs as therapeutic agents and sensitizers in photodynamic, photothermal, and sonodynamic therapy was also reviewed. MOFs have demonstrated high selectivity in various diagnostic systems, making them promising for future applications. The present review aims to systematize the main ways of modifying MOFs, as well as the biomedical applications of various systems based on MOFs.

Kinetics of Guest-Induced Structural Transitions in Metal-Organic-Framework MIL-53(Al)-NH2 Probed by High-Pressure Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

A nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) study of a pore opening in amino-functionalized metal-organic framework (MOF) MIL-53(Al) in response to methane pressure variation is presented. Variations of both NMR signal intensities and transversal relaxation rates for methane are found to reveal hysteretic structural transitions in the MOF material, which are smeared out over broad pressure ranges. Experiments with pressure reversals upon an incomplete adsorption/desorption gave deeper insight into the microscopic transition mechanisms. These experiments have unequivocally proven that the non-stepwise pore opening/closing transitions observed in the experiments are governed by a distribution of the opening/closing pressures over different MOF crystallites, for example, due to a distribution of the crystal sizes or shapes. The slow kinetics of the structural transitions measured in the hysteresis regime revealed a complex free energy landscape for the phase transition process.

Design of hydrotalcite and biopolymers entrapped tunable cerium organic cubic hybrid material for superior fluoride adsorption

The excess fluoride in drinking water is serious risk which leads to fluorosis. The adsorption method is facile route for defluoridation studies. Hybrid adsorbent possesses unique advantages like high surface area and high stability has been employed for water treatment. In the present work, hydrotalcite (HT) fabricated Ce-metal organic frameworks (MOFs) bridged with biopolymers (alginate and chitosan) namely HT-CeMOFs@Alg-CS cubic hybrid beads was developed and employed towards fluoride removal in batch mode. The fabricated HT-CeMOFs@Alg-CS beads were analyzed by DTA, FTIR, SEM, EDAX, TGA and XRD studies. Besides, FTIR and EDAX proved the affinity of HT-CeMOFs@Alg-CS cubic hybrid beads on fluoride was majorly attributed by electrostatic interaction, ion-exchange and complexation mechanism. To include detail insight into adsorption route; the kinetics, thermodynamic and isotherm studies were investigated for fluoride adsorption. The equilibrium data of HT-CeMOFs@Alg-CS cubic hybrid beads for fluoride adsorption was fitted with Langmuir isotherm model. Thermodynamic investigation results demonstrated that the fluoride adsorption was spontaneous with endothermic nature. The regeneration and field investigation results revealed that the developed HT-CeMOFs@Alg-CS cubic hybrid beads are reusable and more apt at field environment.

Overview on recent advances of magnetic metal-organic framework (MMOF) composites in removal of heavy metals from aqueous system

Developing a novel, simple, and cost-effective analytical technique with high enrichment capacity and selectivity is crucial for environmental monitoring and remediation. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous coordination polymers that are self-assembly synthesized from organic linkers and inorganic metal ions/metal clusters. Magnetic metal-organic framework (MMOF) composites are promising candidate among the new-generation sorbent materials available for magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) of environmental contaminants due to their superparamagnetism properties, high crystallinity, permanent porosity, ultrahigh specific surface area, adaptable pore shape/sizes, tunable functionality, designable framework topology, rapid and ultrahigh adsorption capacity, and reusability. In this review, we focus on recent scientific progress in the removal of heavy metal ions present in contaminated aquatic system by using MMOF composites. Different types of MMOFs, their synthetic approaches, and various properties that are harnessed for removal of heavy metal ions from contaminated water are discussed briefly. Adsorption mechanisms involved, adsorption capacity, and regeneration of the MMOF sorbents as well as recovery of heavy metal ions adsorbed that are reported in the last ten years have been discussed in this review. Moreover, particular prospects, challenges, and opportunities in future development of MMOFs towards their greener synthetic approaches for their practical industrial applications have critically been considered in this review.

Two pillared-layer metal-organic frameworks based on the pinwheel trinuclear carboxylate-clusters of Zn(II) and Co(II): synthesis, crystal structures, magnetic study, and Lewis acid catalysis

Using a dicarboxylic acid, [1,1'-biphenyl]-4,4'-dicarboxylic acid (H₂L1) and an exobidentate ligand, (1E,1'E)-N,N'-(1,4-phenylene)bis(1-(pyridin-4-yl)methanimine) (L2), two 3D interpenetrated networks, {[Zn₃(L1)₃(L2)]·9H₂O}_n (Zn-MOF) and {[Co₃(L1)₃(L2)(DMF)]·0.5DMF}_n (Co-MOF), have been prepared in good yields. The crystal structure analysis of Zn-MOF and Co-MOF revealed that both have a 3D pillared-layer structure based on pinwheel trinuclear metal-carboxylate clusters as secondary building units (SBUs). Furthermore, the structures also exhibited three-fold interpenetration. Although the overall networks in Zn-MOF and Co-MOF showed significant resemblances, there are marked differences in their crystal structures, which are associated with the coordination environment of the metal centre and the binding modes of the carboxylates. Gas adsorption studies (N₂ at 77 K and 1 bar) indicated that Co-MOF is more porous than Zn-MOF. Magnetic measurements on Co-MOF indicate a significant antiferromagnetic interaction (45 K to 303 K) between trimeric Co(II) S = 3/2 spins through syn-syn carboxylato bridges. Both MOFs were studied for the Lewis acid catalyzed Knoevenagel condensation reactions between benzaldehydes and malononitrile with an active methylene group, where Zn-MOF was found to be a better catalyst than Co-MOF. This was supported by the Monte Carlo simulations indicating the better substrate binding ability of Zn-MOF than Co-MOF.

Optimization and Synthesis of a La-TMA MOF with Some Improvements in Its Properties

A La-TMA metal-organic framework (MOF) made up of benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate and La(III) was synthesized by a different methodology compared to those in previous reports. By using various approaches, the structural characteristics and physical properties of the La-TMA MOF were analyzed. Eventually, the results showed micro-hexagonal hollow tubes with a high crystallinity grade and thermal stability (up to 400 °C) and a higher surface area compared with those from earlier reports. The BET surface area of a similar previous MOF was about 14.8 m²/g; however, in the current project, the BET surface area increased to about 34.49 m²/g and the Langmuir surface area to 42.3 m²/g.

Fast preparation of Eu(BTB) MOFs in dielectric barrier discharge liquid plasma for luminescent sensing of trace iron

Lanthanide metal-organic frameworks Eu(BTB) MOFs was synthesized in low-temperature plasma produced by dielectric barrier discharge (DBD). This DBD synthesis possesses the characteristics of rapid reaction (within 20 min), mild condition (low temperature and atmospheric pressure) and simple operation compared with many traditional synthesis methods. The prepared Eu(BTB) MOF material exhibits typical red light emitting of europium (Eu³⁺ ) at 617 nm, which can selectively and sensitively be quenched in the presence of trace iron(III) ion (Fe³⁺ ). A simple, fast and sensitive fluorescence sensing strategy of Fe³⁺ was thus constructed, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.5 μM. Compared with reported fluorescence probes, Eu(BTB) MOFs have also demonstrated the advantages of low cost, easy and fast preparation, great stability, and excellent optical properties, thus making them a promising fluorescence candidate for trace Fe³⁺ sensing for the potential application in biological systems in the future.

Recent Progress of Metal-Organic Frameworks and Metal-Organic Frameworks-Based Heterostructures as Photocatalysts

In the field of photocatalysis, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have drawn a lot of attention. MOFs have a number of advantages over conventional semiconductors, including high specific surface area, large number of active sites, and an easily tunable porous structure. In this perspective review, different synthesis methods used to prepare MOFs and MOFs-based heterostructures have been discussed. Apart from this, the application of MOFs and MOFs-based heterostructures as photocatalysts for photocatalytic degradation of different types of pollutants have been compiled. This paper also highlights the different strategies that have been developed to modify and regulate pristine MOFs for improved photocatalytic performance. The MOFs modifications may result in better visible light absorption, effective photo-generated charge carriers (e-/h+), separation and transfer as well as improved recyclability. Despite that, there are still many obstacles and challenges that need to be addressed. In order to meet the requirements of using MOFs and MOFs-based heterostructures in photocatalysis for low-cost practical applications, future development and prospects have also been discussed.

Confined-based catalyst investigation through the comparative functionalization and defunctionalization of Zr-MOF

In metal-organic frameworks, confined space as a chemical nanoreactor is as important as organocatalysis or coordinatively unsaturated metal site catalysis. In the present study, a set of mixed-ligand structures with UiO-66 architecture have been prepared. To the best of our knowledge, for the first time, structures derived by the solvothermal mixing ligand method and ultrasonic-assisted linker exchange approaches have been compared. Additionally, the relationship between the preparation method, structural properties, and catalytic efficiency of the prepared materials in the Knoevenagel condensation of aldehydes has been investigated. The prepared catalyst is very stable and can be recovered and reused for at least ten periods.

Recent developments in MIL-101 metal organic framework for heterogeneous catalysis

Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) are currently gaining considerable attention as heterogeneous catalysts. Since the functionality of the framework and the pore size of the MOFs can be adjusted over a wide range for various catalytic reactions, the usage of these materials as solid catalysts is attractive. One of the preferred catalytic mesoMOFs is MIL-101 (MIL: Material of Institute Lavoisier) family which has been mainly investigated. The large surface area, high pore volumes, and acceptable solvent/thermal stability (MIL-101(Cr) up to 300 °C) have led the MIL-101 family to be considered an ideal and widespread MOF for use as a great heterogeneous catalyst or solid support for a variety of reactions. The objective of this review is to present recent research on the use of the MIL-101 family for heterogeneous catalysis in gas and liquid phase reactions.

Construction of Pyrazine-Appended 1D and 3D Cobalt(II) Succinate Coordination Polymers: Influence of Solvent on Architectures and Applications in Gas Adsorption and NAC Detection

An underexplored reaction of pyrazine (rigid and linear) and succinic acid (flexible) with Co(NO₃)₂·6H₂O afforded four new coordination polymers (CPs): [Co(H₂O)(pyz)(suc)] (1), [Co(H₂O)₂(pyz)(suc)] (2), [Co(H₂O)₄(pyz)](suc) (3) and [Co₂(H₂O)₂(pyz)(suc)₂] (4), as well as [Co(HCO₂)₂(pyz)] (5) being lately reported along with well-known 6 and 7. The CPs were obtained as stable crystalline materials and characterized by conventional solid-state techniques, including X-ray crystallography. Hydrothermally produced compounds 1 and 2 were both 3D CPs. While 3 and 4 obtained under ambient/solvothermal conditions in DMSO generated 1D and 3D structures, 5 isolated from DMF under solvothermal conditions had a 3D structure. The topologies of the coordination polymers 1-7 were described by underlying nets 3D 5-c fet, 3D 4-c cds, 1D 2-c 2C1, 3D 5-c bnn, 3D 6-c rob, 1D 2-c 2C1, and 3D 6-c pcu, respectively. The plot of χ_M ^-1 versus T was essentially linear in the entire temperature range following the Curie-Weiss law with a Curie constant (C) of 2.525 and a negative Weiss constant (ϕ) of -46.24 K, suggesting weak antiferromagnetic (AF) exchange interactions. CO₂ and N₂ adsorption studies of 1-5 featured type III isotherms. 1 was found to show remarkably higher quenching efficiencies for nitrophenols (η = 98% for o-NP) over other NACs. The Stern-Volmer plot exhibited deviation in linearity with K _sv values about 200 times greater than that for the simplest nitroaromatic compound (NB), signifying its exclusive quenching ability toward 1. The LOD for p-NP addition to 1 was found to be 0.995 ppm.

Hygroscopic metal-organic framework MIL-160(Al): In-situ time-dependent ATR-FTIR and gravimetric study of mechanism and kinetics of water vapor sorption

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are advanced highly porous coordination polymers of high interest to separations, environmental remediation, catalysis, and biomedicine. While many MOFs are unstable in water and aqueous solutions, aluminum MOFs (Al-MOFs) offer an unprecedented stability. First, we synthesize unusual highly hygroscopic Al-MOF MIL-160(Al), purify it and assign FTIR peaks to specific groups as potential water binding sites. Further, we introduce a novel method of in-situ time-dependent ATR-FTIR spectroscopy to detect specific binding sites in MIL-160(Al) and investigate the progress of reaction. Specifically, we combine in-situ time-dependent ATR-FTIR spectroscopy with using water as "spectroscopic probe" to determine binding sites in MIL-160(Al) and their evolution during the reaction. The in-situ time-dependent ATR-FTIR spectra provide evidence of water bonding to: the μ-OH group, the carboxylate anion COO^- in 2,5-FDCA^2- linker, oxygen atom in the furan ring of the linker, and the C-C and C-H bonds of the furan ring of the linker. Then, we conduct mechanistic and kinetic study of sorption of water vapor on MIL-160(Al) in air using the combination of two complementary in-situ time-dependent methods: the ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and gravimetric analysis. Water vapor sorption on MIL-160(Al) results in the solid-state adsorption complex with up to four water molecules per unit of MIL-160(Al). Chemical kinetics of water sorption on MIL-160(Al) follows a pseudo-first order rate law and it is consistent with dynamics and timescale revealed by in-situ time-dependent ATR-FTIR. The combination of two in-situ time-dependent methods, the ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and gravimetry, forms a new powerful experimental approach to facilely study mechanisms, stoichiometry and chemical kinetics of various solid-gas reactions in the ambient and controlled environments.

Recent advancement in bimetallic metal organic frameworks (M’MOFs): Synthetic challenges and applications

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) is a burgeoning research field and has received increasing interest in recent years due to their inherent advantages of inorganic metal ions, range of organic linkers, tunable...

Metal–organic framework (MOF)-, covalent-organic framework (COF)-, and porous-organic polymers (POP)-catalyzed selective C–H bond activation and functionalization reactions

The review summarizes the state-of-the-art of C–H active transformations over crystalline and amorphous porous materials as new emerging heterogeneous (photo)catalysts.

Present and Perspectives of Photoactive Porous Composites Based on Semiconductor Nanocrystals and Metal-Organic Frameworks

This review focuses on the recent developments in synthesis, properties, and applications of a relatively new family of photoactive porous composites, integrated by metal halide perovskite (MHP) nanocrystals and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). The synergy between the two systems has led to materials (MHP@MOF composites) with new functionalities along with improved properties and phase stability, thus broadening their applications in multiple areas of research such as sensing, light-harvesting solar cells, light-emitting device technology, encryption, and photocatalysis. The state of the art, recent progress, and most promising routes for future research on these photoactive porous composites are presented in the end.

Metal-organic frameworks for diagnosis and therapy of infectious diseases

Infectious diseases are one of the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), which are porous coordination materials composed of bridging organic ligands and metallic ions or clusters, exhibits great potential to be used against several pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. MOFs can show sustained release capability, high surface area, adjustable pore size and structural flexibility, which makes them good candidates for new therapeutic systems. This review provides a detailed summary of the biological application of MOFs, focussing on diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. MOFs have been reported for usage as antimicrobial agents, drug delivery systems, therapeutic composites, nanozymes and phototherapies. Furthermore, different MOF-based biosensors have also been developed to detect specific pathogens by electrochemical, fluorometric and colorimetric assays. Finally, we present limitations and perspectives in this field.