Characterization, possible sources and health risk assessment of PM2.5-bound Heavy Metals in the most industrial city of Iran

Evaluating health risks of PM2.5-bound heavy elements in Faridabad, Haryana (India): an industrial perspective

The present study is focused on investigating the heavy/toxic metals (Al, Ni, Cr, Pb, Cu, As, Mn, and Zn) of PM2.5 and assessing their associated human health risks. During the study period (July 2022 to July 2023), the PM2.5 samples were collected from two distinct sites in Faridabad (92 samples from site 1 and 85 samples from site 2). In this study, the US EPA's Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS) was followed to evaluate the human health risk associated with PM2.5-bound heavy elements. The annual average of PM2.5 concentrations was 108 ± 16 µg m⁻3 at site 1 and 154 ± 11 µg m⁻3 at site 2, approximately three to four times higher than the national ambient air quality standards (annual, 40 µg m-3). The analysis of enrichment factors (EFs) for the elements Cr, As, Zn, Cu, Mn, Pb, and Ni indicates that the heavy elements associated with PM2.5 primarily originate from anthropogenic sources. The application of the conditional bivariate probability function (CBPF) model for Faridabad revealed local pollution sources contributing to elevated mass concentrations at the receptor site from the southern (S), northwestern (NW), northeastern (NE), southwestern (SW), and southeastern (SE) regions. Furthermore, positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis identified the predominant sources of PM2.5-bound heavy elements as industrial emissions (41%), vehicular emissions (34%), and combustion processes (25%). After a thorough assessment of health hazards, Cr appeared as a significant carcinogenic risk factor. Children with elevated hazard quotient (HQ) values for Mn and Cr indicated non-carcinogenic health problems. Ultimately, this analysis reinforces the necessity for rigorous monitoring and intervention to safeguard public health from the potentially harmful effects of heavy elements.

Quantifying the noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks resulting from the inhalation of PM2.5-bound metals: A multicity analysis and implications for public health

Toxic metals in PM2.5 represent a growing public health concern because of their potential health effects. Ambient PM2.5 samples were collected from five provinces around Bangkok from December 2020 to December 2021. The concentrations of PM2.5 and metals (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, nickel, lead, and vanadium) were analyzed. The noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were evaluated via Monte Carlo simulations in four age groups (0 to <6, 6 to <12, 12 to <18, 18-70 years), with a dataset comprising 2282 heavy metal assays within the particulate matter. Significantly higher PM2.5 concentrations were detected in provinces with higher factory densities, as well as higher concentrations during haze periods than during non-haze periods. The HI values for all age groups and provinces were lower than 1, indicating acceptable noncarcinogenic risks. The carcinogenic risks from PM2.5-bound metals varied between 7.08×10-7 and 4.29×10-6, indicating increased cancer risks, for preschool children and adults. Cancer risk was highest in industrial areas, followed by areas with dense traffic, and lowest in agricultural areas. The results indicated that Thailand's current air quality regulations, which primarily provide only lead limits, are insufficient considering the high carcinogenic potential of other metals. The Monte Carlo simulation results confirmed that lowering Thailand's 24-h PM2.5 standard from 37.5 to either 25 or 15 µg m-3, as specified in the 2021 World Health Organization guidelines, would decrease cancer risk by 9.63-43.18 %.

Integrated meta-analyses of genome-wide effects of PM2.5 in human cells identifies widespread dysregulation of genes and pathways associated with cancer progression and patient survival

Epidemiological studies have consistently shown a positive association between exposure to ambient PM2.5, a major component of air pollution, and various types of cancer. Previous biological research has primarily focused on the association between PM2.5 and lung cancer, with limited investigation into other cancer types. In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis on multiple PM2.5-treated normal human cell lines to identify potential molecular targets and pathways of PM2.5. Our analysis revealed 310 common differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that exhibited significant dysregulation upon exposure to PM2.5. These dysregulated genes covered a diverse range of functional categories, including oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and immune-related genes, which collectively contribute to PM2.5-induced carcinogenesis. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed the up-regulation of pathways associated with HIF-1, VEGF, and MAPK signalling, all of which have been implicated in various cancers. Induction in the levels of HIF pathway genes (HIF1⍺, HIF2⍺, VEGFA, BNIP3, EPO and PGK1) upon PM2.5 treatment was also confirmed by qRT-PCR. Furthermore, the construction of a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network unveiled hub genes, such as NQO1 and PDGFRB, that are known to be dysregulated and significantly correlated with overall survival in lung and breast cancer patients, suggesting their potential clinical significance. This study provides a deep insight into how PM2.5-mediated dysregulation of oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes across various human tissues may play an important role in PM2.5-induced carcinogenesis. Further exploration of these dysregulated molecular targets may enhance our understanding of the biological effects of PM2.5 and facilitate the development of preventive strategies and targeted therapies for PM2.5-associated cancers.

Year-long and seasonal differences of PM2.5 chemical characteristics and their role in the viability of human lung epithelial cells (A549)

Fine particulate matters-PM2.5 in the air can have considerable negative effects on human health and the environment. Various human cell-based studies examined the effect of PM2.5 on human health in different cities of the world using various chemical parameters. Unfortunately, limited information is available regarding the relationship between toxicity and chemical characteristics of PM2.5 collected in Istanbul, Türkiye, located in one of the most populated cities in the world. To investigate the chemical characteristics and cytotoxicity of PM2.5 in Istanbul, samples were collected for 12 months, then potentially toxic metals, oxidative potential, and particle indicators (e.g., functional groups and elements) were determined, and the cytotoxicity of PM2.5 on human A549 lung alveolar epithelial cells was examined. The mean PM2.5 mass concentration was 24.0 ± 17.4 µg m-3 and higher in cold months compared to other seasons. Moreover, the results of the metals, elemental, and functional groups indicated that seasonal and monthly characteristics were influenced by the regional anthropogenic sources and photochemistry input. The cytotoxicity results also showed that the viability of A549 cells was reduced with the exposure of PM2.5 (30-53%) and higher cytotoxicity was obtained in summer compared to the other seasons due to the impact of the metals, elements, and oxidative characteristics of PM2.5.

Personal Strategies to Reduce the Cardiovascular Impacts of Environmental Exposures

Ubiquitous environmental exposures increase cardiovascular disease risk via diverse mechanisms. This review examines personal strategies to minimize this risk. With regard to fine particulate air pollution exposure, evidence exists to recommend the use of portable air cleaners and avoidance of outdoor activity during periods of poor air quality. Other evidence may support physical activity, dietary modification, omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, and indoor and in-vehicle air conditioning as viable strategies to minimize adverse health effects. There is currently insufficient data to recommend specific personal approaches to reduce the adverse cardiovascular effects of noise pollution. Public health advisories for periods of extreme heat or cold should be observed, with limited evidence supporting a warm ambient home temperature and physical activity as strategies to limit the cardiovascular harms of temperature extremes. Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substance exposure can be reduced by avoiding contact with perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substance-containing materials; blood or plasma donation and cholestyramine may reduce total body stores of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances. However, the cardiovascular impact of these interventions has not been examined. Limited utilization of pesticides and safe handling during use should be encouraged. Finally, vasculotoxic metal exposure can be decreased by using portable air cleaners, home water filtration, and awareness of potential contaminants in ground spices. Chelation therapy reduces physiological stores of vasculotoxic metals and may be effective for the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.

Control priority based on source-specific DALYs of PM2.5-bound heavy metals by PMF-PSCF-IsoSource model in urban and suburban Beijing

To determine the priority control sources, an approach was proposed to evaluate the source-specific contribution to health risks from inhaling PM2.5-bound heavy metals (PBHMs). A total of 482 daily PM2.5 samples were collected from urban and suburban areas of Beijing, China, between 2018 and 2019. In addition to the PMF-PSCF model, a Pb isotopic IsoSource model was built for more reliable source apportionment. By using the comprehensive indicator of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic health risks could be compared on a unified scale. The study found that the annual average concentrations of the total PBHMs were significantly higher in suburban areas than in urban areas, with significantly higher concentrations during the heating season than during the nonheating season. Comprehensive dust accounted for the largest contribution to the concentration of PBHMs, while coal combustion contributed the most to the DALYs associated with PBHMs. These results suggest that prioritizing the control of coal combustion could effectively reduce the disease burden associated with PBHMs, leading to notable public health benefits.

Investigation of source and infiltration of toxic metals in indoor PM2.5 using Pb isotopes during a season of high pollution in an urban area

Lead (Pb) isotope ratio has been applied in source investigation for particulate matter in size < 2.5 μm. However, arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd) are carcinogenic to human and their isotope analysis is difficult. This study investigated whether the Pb isotope ratio was a useful indicator in identifying the sources of As and Cd indoors and investigating its influencing factors. This study also calculated the infiltration factor (Finf) for metals to assess the influences of indoor- and outdoor-generated metals to indoor air. The As and Cd concentrations in indoor air were 0.87 ± 0.69 and 0.19 ± 0.15 ng/m3, respectively; the corresponding values for outdoor air were 1.44 ± 0.80 and 0.33 ± 0.19 ng/m3. The Finf of As and Cd were 0.60 ± 0.37 and 0.58 ± 0.39, and outdoor was a predominant contributor to indoor As and Cd. The Pb isotopes ratio indicated that traffic-related emission was a major contributor to Pb. The Pb concentration was associated with those of As and Cd in indoor or outdoor air, as was the 208Pb/207Pb ratio in outdoor air. Significant correlations between indoor 208Pb/207Pb values and As and Cd concentrations in indoor air were found only in study houses with air change rate > 1.5 h-1. These findings suggested that traffic-related emission was identified as a major source of As and Cr. The 208Pb/207Pb is a useful indicator in investigating the source of As and Cd; however, the air change rate influences the applicability of this approach on source identification.

Selenium and zinc alleviate quaternary metal mixture -induced neurotoxicity in rats by inhibiting oxidative damage and modulating the expressions of NF-kB and Nrf2/Hmox-1 pathway

Background

This study evaluated the potential protective effects of Zn and Se in the cerebellum and cerebral cortex, two fundamentally important brain regions, in albino rats that were exposed to heavy metals mixture (Al, Pb, Hg and Mn).

Methods

Animals were divided into five groups of seven animals per group with following patterns of exposure, controls group 1 were orally treated with deionized water for 60 days; group 2 was exposed to heavy metal mixture (HMM) with following concentrations (20 mg·kg-1 of Pb body weight; 0.40 mg·kg-1 of Hg; 0.56 mg·kg-1 of Mn; and 35 mg·kg-1; of Al), while groups 3,4 and 5 were exposed to HMM and orally co-treated with zinc chloride (ZnCl2; 0.80 mg/kg), sodium selenite (Na2SeO3;1.50 mg/kg) and zinc chloride plus sodium selenite (ZnCl0.2 + Na2SeO3) respectively.

Results

Exposure to HMM depressed cellular antioxidant apparatus, induced generation of lipid peroxidation markers (Malondialdehyde and NO), downregulated expression of transcription factors (Nrf2, and NF-kB) and upregulated Caspase 3 levels. HMM potentiated acetylcholinesterase activity and induced moderate histopathological alterations. Nevertheless, Zn, Se and in particular Zn + Se had recovering effects on all mentioned hazardous effects produced by HMM exposure in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.

Conclusions

Selenium and zinc exert neuroprotection via Nrf2/NF-kB signaling pathways against quaternary heavy metal mixture-induced impairments in albino Sprague Dawley rats.

Estimating the geographical patterns and health risks associated with PM2.5-bound heavy metals to guide PM2.5 control targets in China based on machine-learning algorithms

PM2.5 is the main component of haze, and PM2.5-bound heavy metals (PBHMs) can induce various toxic effects via inhalation. However, comprehensive macroanalyses on large scales are still lacking. In this study, we compiled a substantial dataset consisting of the concentrations of eight PBHMs, including As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn, across different cities in China. To improve prediction accuracy, we enhanced the traditional land-use regression (LUR) model by incorporating emission source-related variables and employing the best-fitted machine-learning algorithm, which was applied to predict PBHM concentrations, analyze geographical patterns and assess the health risks associated with metals under different PM2.5 control targets. Our model exhibited excellent performance in predicting the concentrations of PBHMs, with predicted values closely matching measured values. Noncarcinogenic risks exist in 99.4% of the estimated regions, and the carcinogenic risks in all studied regions of the country are within an acceptable range (1 × 10-5-1 × 10-6). In densely populated areas such as Henan, Shandong, and Sichuan, it is imperative to control the concentration of PBHMs to reduce the number of patients with cancer. Controlling PM2.5 effectively decreases both carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic health risks associated with PBHMs, but still exceed acceptable risk level, suggesting that other important emission sources should be given attention.

Evaluation of air quality and health risks associated with trace elements in respirable particulates (PM2.5) from Islamabad, Pakistan

Fine atmospheric particulates are associated with numerous environmental and health issues as they can penetrate deeply in the respiratory tract thereby adversely affecting the human health. This study aimed to investigate the concentrations of trace elements in the respirable (PM2.5) fraction of the atmospheric particulates and to understand their pollution status and health risks. The samples were collected from Islamabad, and the metals were extracted using HNO3 and HCl based extraction method. Atomic absorption spectroscopy was employed to quantify the concentrations of selected trace elements. PM2.5 exhibited considerable variations in their minimum (4.737 µg/m3) and maximum (108.1 µg/m3) levels. The significant contributors among the selected elements bound to PM2.5 were Ca (1016 ng/m3), K (759.8 ng/m3), Mg (483.0 ng/m3), Fe (469.7 ng/m3), and Zn (341.1 ng/m3), while Ag (0.578 ng/m3) was found at the lowest levels with an overall descending order: Ca > K > Mg > Fe > Zn > Cu > Pb > Ni > Cd > Mn > Sr > Cr > Co > Li > Ag. Multivariate PCA and CA identified industrial activities, combustion processes and automobile emissions as the main anthropogenic contributors to particulate pollution. Enrichment factors and geoaccumulation indices were computed to assess the pollution status. The results also revealed that among the trace elements, Cd showed extremely high contamination, followed by Ag, Zn, and Pb, which showed moderate to high contamination in the atmospheric particulates. Carcinogenic health risks from Pb and Ni were found to be within the safe limit (1.0 × 10-6); however, Cr, Co, and Cd exposure was linked to significant cancer risks. The present elemental levels in PM2.5 were also compared with the reported levels from other regions around the world.

Spatial pattern and environmental drivers of breast cancer incidence in Chinese women

Breast cancer (BC) had the highest incidence of all cancers in Chinese women. However, studies on spatial pattern and environmental drivers of BC were still lacked as they were either limited in a small area or few considered the comprehensive impact of multiple risk factors. In this study, we firstly performed spatial visualization and the spatial autocorrelation analysis based on Chinese women breast cancer incidence (BCI) data of 2012-2016. Then, we explored the environmental drivers related to BC by applying univariate correlation analysis and geographical detector model. We found that the BC high-high clusters were mainly distributed in the eastern and central regions, such as Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, and Anhui Provinces. The BCI in Shenzhen was significantly higher than other prefectures. Urbanization rate (UR), per capita GDP (PGDP), average years of school attainment (AYSA), and average annual wind speed (WIND) had higher explanatory power on spatial variability of the BCI. PM10, NO2, and PGDP had significant nonlinear enhanced effect on other factors. Besides, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was negatively associated with BCI. Therefore, high socioeconomic status, serious air pollution, high wind speed, and low vegetation cover were the risk factors for BC. Our study may able to provide evidence for BC etiology research and precise identification of areas requiring focused screening.

Comparison of the chemical health risk assessment of exposure to metal fumes for the furnace operator of a foundry industry using quantitative and semi-quantitative methods

Heavy metals have several adverse effects on the workers' bodies due to their accumulation in the vital organs. Besides that, the current study aimed to assess the health risk of exposure to metal fumes for furnace operators working in a foundry industry based on the three different methods. The current sectional descriptive-analytical research conducted on a foundry industry in Isfahan (Iran) in 2022. Three common methods currently available, including the Semi-Quantitative Risk Assessment Method (SQRCA) and two methods provided based on the US-EPA provided technique, were used in this study. At first, the extent of people's exposure to metal fumes of Fe, Ni, Cr, and Mn was measured. Then, the chemical risk assessment of exposure to these metals' fumes was done using the three methods, and their results were compared. The SPSS Ver.25 has been used for data analysis and comparison in the current study. Results indicated that the furnace operator's exposure to all four metals was above the allowed limit of occupational exposure. The chemical risk assessment results also showed that in the first method (US-EPA-based), the risk of exposure for all workers was acceptable, while in the second method (SQCRA), the risk level of a majority of workers was medium, and in the third method (US-EPA-based), the risk level of a majority of workers was not acceptable. Comparing the methods showed that average risk scores in the first and second methods were significant compared to the exposure to fumes with equivalent concentration (P_value<0.05). The average score of carcinogenicity risk in method 3 was significant compared to the concentration of chromium and nickel (P-_value < 0.05), but it was not significant for iron and manganese and the non-carcinogenic risk of chromium and nickel. Chemical exposure risk level for the furnace operator was approximately moderate in all three methods. In terms of complexity and information required to implement the method, all three methods were almost the same, with the difference that the results of the first method cannot be generalized to other people who have the same job conditions because individual information such as a person's weight is used to calculate its score.

Assessment of indoor air quality and their inter-association in hospitals of northern India-a cross-sectional study

This study was commenced to evaluate the indoor and outdoor air quality concentrations of PM_2.5, sub-micron particles (PM_>2.5, PM_1.0-2.5, PM_{0.50 -1.0}, PM_0.25-0.50, and PM_<0.25), heavy metals, and microbial contaminants along with their identification in three different hospitals of Lucknow City. The study was conducted from February 2022 to April 2022 in hospitals situated in the commercial, residential, and industrial belts of the city. The indoor concentration trend of particulate matter as observed during the study suggested that most of the highest concentrations belonged to the hospital situated in an industrial area. The highest obtained indoor and outdoor concentrations for PM_1.0-2.5, PM_0.50-1.0, PM_0.25-0.50, and PM_<0.25 are 40.44 µg/m³, 56.08 µg/m³, 67.20 µg/m³, 74.50 µg/m³, 61.9 µg/m³, 79.3 µg/m³, 82.0 µg/m³, and 93.9 µg/m³, respectively, which belonged to hospital C situated in the industrial belt. However, for PM_>2.5, the highest indoor concentration obtained belonged to hospital B, i.e., 30.7 µg/m³, which is situated in the residential belt of the city. Regarding PM_2.5, the highest indoor and outdoor concentrations obtained are 149.41 µg/m³ and 227.45 µg/m³, which were recorded at hospital A and hospital C, respectively. The present study also observed that a high bacterial load of 1389.21 CFU/m³ is recorded in hospital B, and the fungi load was highest in hospital C with 786.34 CFU/m³. Henceforth, the present study offers thorough information on the various air pollutants in a crucial indoor setting, which will further aid the researchers in the field to identify and mitigate the same more precisely.

Surveillance of long-term environmental elements and PM2.5 health risk assessment in Yangtze River Delta, China, from 2016 to 2020

PM2.5 metal pollution significantly harms human health. The air quality in Wuxi is poor, especially in winter, and long-term monitoring of PM2.5 elements comprising has not been performed previously. In the present study, 420 PM2.5 samples were collected from January 2016 to December 2020. Eleven elements, including Al, Mn, Ni, Cr, As, Cd, Sb, Hg, Pb, Se, and Tl, were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The mean PM2.5 level was 56.1 ± 31.0 μg/m3, with a tendency of yearly decreasing and a significant seasonal distribution variation. The concentration of 11 elements in the PM2.5 samples was 0.38 ± 0.33 μg/m3. Al was the highest element with a range of 37.5-2148 ng/m3. Meanwhile, the spatial distribution differences were compared by literatures review. Based on the Crystal Ball model, health risks were assessed dynamically using Monte Carlo uncertainty analysis. After 10,000 simulations, the mean value of the hazard index for nine elements was 0.743, and Mn contributed the most to the hazard index among elements, with a correlation of 0.3464. The average carcinogenic risk was 1.01 × 10-5, which indicated that the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were within the acceptable range. However, considerable attention should be paid to the potential health risks associated with long-term Al, Mn, and As exposure. This study provides detailed data on local atmospheric pollution characteristics, helps identify potential risk elements, and contributes to the development of effective regional air quality management.

Statistical modeling approach for PM10 prediction before and during confinement by COVID-19 in South Lima, Perú

A total of 188,859 meteorological-PM$$_{10}$$ 10 data validated before (2019) and during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020) were used. In order to predict PM$$_{10}$$ 10 in two districts of South Lima in Peru, hourly, daily, monthly and seasonal variations of the data were analyzed. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and linear/nonlinear modeling were applied. The results showed the highest annual average PM$$_{10}$$ 10 for San Juan de Miraflores (SJM) (PM$$_{10}$$ 10 -SJM: 78.7 $$\upmu$$ μ g/m$$^{3}$$ 3 ) and the lowest in Santiago de Surco (SS) (PM$$_{10}$$ 10 -SS: 40.2 $$\upmu$$ μ g/m$$^{3}$$ 3 ). The PCA showed the influence of relative humidity (RH)-atmospheric pressure (AP)-temperature (T)/dew point (DP)-wind speed (WS)-wind direction (WD) combinations. Cool months with higher humidity and atmospheric instability decreased PM$$_{10}$$ 10 values in SJM and warm months increased it, favored by thermal inversion (TI). Dust resuspension, vehicular transport and stationary sources contributed more PM$$_{10}$$ 10 at peak times in the morning and evening. The Multiple linear regression (MLR) showed the best correlation (r = 0.6166), followed by the three-dimensional model LogAP-LogWD-LogPM$$_{10}$$ 10 (r = 0.5753); the RMSE-MLR (12.92) exceeded that found in the 3D models (RMSE $$<0.3$$ < 0.3 ) and the NSE-MLR criterion (0.3804) was acceptable. PM$$_{10}$$ 10 prediction was modeled using the algorithmic approach in any scenario to optimize urban management decisions in times of pandemic.

Health and economic impacts of ambient air particulate matter (PM2.5) in Karaj city from 2012 to 2019 using BenMAP-CE

The present study aims to estimate the effects of PM_2.5 on the health and economy of Karaj city from 2012 to 2019. In this study, mortality attributed to long-term exposure to PM_2.5 and its spatial distribution in Karaj over the 2012-2019 period were estimated using the Global Exposure Mortality Model (GEMM) concentration-response function and BenMAP software. PM_2.5 hourly concentration data of air quality monitoring stations were used to estimate PM_2.5 for the whole city of Karaj. The economic effects of this pollutant were also assessed using the value of statistical life (VSL) method. The results showed that the annual average PM_2.5 concentration during the studied time increased and was higher than the air quality guideline levels recommended by the World Health Organization. Also, the annual number of deaths attributed to PM_2.5 in adults (older than 25 years) was estimated to be about 1200. The highest to lowest proportions of PM_2.5-related deaths were non-accidental mortality, ischemic heart attack, stroke, acute respiratory tract infection, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer, in the order of their appearance. The results showed that the economic loss attributed to this pollutant was estimated at 380 to 504 million USD per year. Due to the effects of PM_2.5 on health and the economy in this city, we suggest conducting special planning to control and reduce the concentration of ambient air particulate matter by improving the public transportation system and updating industrial processes.

Cigarette butts in two urban areas from Brazil: Links among environmental impacts, demography and market

Environmental impacts are currently linked to smoking cigarette behavior, as cigarette butts (CBs) represent the most common litter item in natural areas. Despite this, even the best ranked Brazilian cities, in terms of urban cleaning, have no information about urban littered CBs. Thus, CBs were monitored in Santos and Niterói cities, aiming to assess contamination, Cigarette Butt Pollution Index (CBPI) and the illegal market size. CBs were collected in 36 walkways considering different land usage types and urban density levels. The CBPI was calculated, and brands were used to identify the size of the illegal market. CBs contamination in Santos (0.25 CBs/m²) was three times higher than Niterói (0.08 CBs/m²) and their occurrence and distribution presented no relationship with land usage types and urban population densities levels. CBPI = 17.6 was severe and the highest so far reported. A total of 28 cigarette brands were found both studied cities. Further, illegal cigarette consumption in Santos and Niteroi was estimated, based on brands of collected CBs, at 25.2% and 36.8%, respectively. Such data may be valuable for implementation of logistic reverse actions seeking to environmentally sustainable and socially resilient cities. Cigarette consumption threatens human life and the environment, and tobacco companies should be accountable for the pollution they generate.

Effect of Short- to Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Particulate Matter on Cognitive Function in a Cohort of Middle-Aged and Older Adults: KoGES

Exposure to ambient air pollution and its threat to human health is a global concern, especially in the elderly population. Therefore, more in-depth studies are required to understand the extent of the harmful effects of particulate matter (PM) based on duration and levels of exposure. An investigation was conducted to determine the association between short- (1-14 days), medium- (1, 3, and 6 months), and long-term (1, 2, and 3 years) exposure to air pollutants (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀) and cognitive function among Koreans (4175 participants, mean age 67.8 years, 55.2% women) aged over 50 years. Higher levels of PM_2.5 exposure for short to long term and PM₁₀ exposure for medium to long term were found to be associated with decreased cognitive function, as indicated by lower scores of the Mini-Mental State Examination adopted in Korean (K-MMSE). There were significant effect modifications by sex, age group, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and smoking status in the association between long-term PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ exposure and cognitive function. These findings, which underscore the importance of the efforts to reduce the exposure levels and durations of air pollutants, especially in the vulnerable elderly population, provide evidence for establishing more stringent policies for air pollution regulations.

Composition, Source Apportionment, and Health Risk of PM2.5-Bound Metals during Winter Haze in Yuci College Town, Shanxi, China

The composition, source, and health risks of PM2.5-bound metals were investigated during winter haze in Yuci College Town, Shanxi, China. The 24-h PM2.5 levels of 34 samples ranged from 17 to 174 μg·m−3, with a mean of 81 ± 35 μg·m−3. PM2.5-bound metals ranked in the following order: Zn > Cu > Pb > As > Ni > Cr (VI) > Cd > Co. The concentrations of 18% As and 100% Cr (VI) exceeded the corresponding standards of the Ambient Air Quality Standards set by China and the WHO. Subsequently, positive matrix factorization analyses revealed that the three major sources of metals were combustion (37.91%), traffic emissions (32.19%), and industry sources (29.9%). Finally, the non-carcinogenic risks for eight metals indicated that only 2.9% of the samples exceeded a threshold value of one, and As accounted for 45.31%. The total carcinogenic risk values for six metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr (VI), Ni, and Pb) were in the range from 10−6 to 10−4, with Cr (VI) and As accounting for 80.92% and 15.52%, respectively. In conclusion, winter haze in Yuci College Town was characterized by higher metal levels and health risks; among the metals, As and Cr (VI) were probably the main contributors.

Effects of particulate matter (PM2.5) on life history traits, oxidative stress, and defensome system in the marine copepod Tigriopus japonicus

Particulate matter (PM_2.5) generated in large cities creates new problems in marine ecosystems and may adversely affect its inhabitants. However, the mechanisms underlying the same remain unclear; hence, we investigated the effects of PM_2.5 on life history traits (e.g., mortality, development, and fecundity), cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, antioxidant enzyme (e.g., glutathione peroxidase [GPx], superoxide dismutase [SOD], and catalase [CAT]) activities, and the transcript levels of detoxification-related genes (cytochrome P450s [CYPs]) and antioxidant (glutathione S-transferases [GSTs]) in the copepod Tigriopus japonicus. Among the life history traits, developmental time was the only trait to significantly deviate (P < 0.05) in response to PM_2.5 (compared to that in the controls). Significant changes in ROS levels and antioxidant enzymatic activities (P < 0.05) in response to PM_2.5, suggested that PM_2.5 can induce oxidative stress, leading to adverse effects on the T. japonicus life history. In addition, PM_2.5 induced a differential regulation of various CYP and GST genes, particularly CYP307E1, GST-kappa, and GST-sigma were significantly upregulated (P < 0.05), suggesting that these genes likely play crucial roles in detoxification mechanisms and could be useful as reliable biomarkers for PM_2.5 toxicity. Overall, the results of this study provide new insights into the potential toxicity of PM_2.5.

Is Active Moss Biomonitoring Comparable to Air Filter Standard Sampling?

Recently, significant attention has been paid to air quality awareness and its impact on human health, especially in urban agglomerations. Many types of dust samplers for air quality monitoring are used by governmental environmental monitoring agencies. However, these techniques are associated with high costs; as a consequence, biological methods such as active moss biomonitoring are being developed. The main disadvantages of such techniques are the lack of standardization of the preparation procedures and the lack of reliable comparisons of results with data from instrumental analyses. Our study aimed to compare the results obtained from active biomonitoring with the use of three moss species: Pleurozium schreberi, Sphagnum fallax and Dicranum polysetum. Samples were exposed via the moss-bag technique to measure the concentrations of analytes (Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb) which had accumulated among the total suspended particulates (TSP) collected from the filters of a dust collector in the city of Opole (Opole voivodeship, Poland). With regard to the physicochemical and biological traits of the mosses, their assessed lifetime and actual photochemical efficiency (yield) following exposure were meagre, which may have been related to the change of environment and their exposure to pollutants. When comparing the results obtained by the two methods used to monitor air pollution, the biomonitoring method was found to be incompletely consistent with the reference method. Biological monitoring using mosses must be carefully considered depending on the monitoring objectives, the required level of sensitivity and quality of measurement and the type of pollutant.

Effects of ambient air pollutants on hospital admissions and deaths for cardiovascular diseases: a time series analysis in Tehran

Short-term exposures to air pollution have been associated with various adverse health effects. In this study, we investigated the associations between ambient air pollutants with the number of hospital admissions and mortality from cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). This time series study was conducted in Tehran for the years 2014-2017 (1220 day). We collected the ambient air pollutant concentration data from the regulatory monitoring stations. The health data were obtained from the Ministry of Health and Medical Education. A distributed lag non-linear model (DLNM) was used for the analyses. Total CVDs and ischemic heart disease (IHD) admissions were associated with CO for each 1 mg/m³ increase at lags of 6 and 7 days. Also, there was a positive association between total CVDs (RR 1.01; 1.001 to 1.03), IHD (RR 1.04; 1.006 to 1.07), and cerebrovascular diseases (RR 1.03; 1.005 to 1.07) mortality with SO₂ at a lag of 4 days. PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ were associated with cerebrovascular disease admissions in females aged 16-65 years and 16 years and younger for each 10 µg/m³ increase, respectively. Short-term exposure to SO₂, NO₂, and CO was associated with hospital admissions and mortality for CVDs, IHD, cerebrovascular diseases, and other cardiovascular diseases at different lags. Moreover, females were more affected by ambient air pollutants than males in terms of their burden of CVDs. Therefore, identifying the likely harmful effects of pollutants given their current concentrations requires the planning and implementation of strategies to reduce air pollution.

Extraction and determination of organic/inorganic pollutants in the ambient air of two cities located in metropolis of Tehran

In the present study, PM_2.5, volatile organic compounds (VOC), heavy metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)-bonded PM_2.5 as well as asbestos fibers were investigated in two cities in the east of Tehran, Iran. To this end, 72 samples were collected from six stations located in the cities of Varamin and Pakdasht from March 2018 to March 2019. The concentration of BTEX compounds, PAHs, and heavy metals were measured using gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-Mas), and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), respectively. In addition, phase contrast microscopy (PCM) method was used to identify the properties of asbestos fibers. The results obtained from the present showed that the mean concentrations of PM_2.5, heavy metals, PAHs, BTEX, and asbestos fibers were 52.05 µg/m³, 319.08 ng/m³, 3.97 ng/m³, 40.58 µg/m³, and 2.84 f/L, respectively. In addition, the results obtained from PCA and heavy metals sources showed that transport fleets were the natural source of most of these pollutants. In case of PAH sources, transport and incineration of coal had the highest contribution in the emission. Furthermore, the risk assessment showed that most of the compounds have a higher risk value than the guideline value spatial distribution and also showed that stations close to airports, city terminals, and highways were more polluted than other parts of the city. Therefore, in order to have healthy air and with the least pollution, it seems necessary to formulate the necessary strategies in the cities of Varamin and Pakdasht.

Release of particulate matter from nano-enabled building materials (NEBMs) across their lifecycle: Potential occupational health and safety implications

The present study investigates potential nanomaterial releases and occupational health risks across the lifecycle of nano-enabled building materials (NEBMs), namely, insulations and coatings. We utilized real-world degradation scenarios of a) sanding (mechanical), b) incineration (thermal), and c) accelerated UV-aging (environmental) followed by incineration. Extensive physicochemical characterization of the released lifecycle particulate matter (LCPM) was performed. The LCPM2.5 aerosol size fraction was used to assess the acute biological, cytotoxic and inflammatory effects on Calu-3 human lung epithelial cells. RNA-Seq analysis of exposed cells was performed to assess potential for systemic disease. Findings indicated that release dynamics and characteristics of LCPM depended on both the NEBM composition and the degradation scenario(s). Incineration emitted a much higher nanoparticle number concentration than sanding (nearly 4 orders of magnitude), which did not change with prior UV-aging. Released nanofillers during sanding were largely part of the matrix fragments, whereas those during incineration were likely physicochemically transformed. The LCPM from incineration showed higher bioactivity and inflammogenicity compared to sanding or sequential UV-aging and incineration, and more so when metallic nanofillers were present (such as Fe2O3). Overall, the study highlights the need for considering real-world exposure and toxicological data across the NEBM lifecycle to perform adequate risk assessments and to ensure workplace health and safety.

The effect of PM2.5-related hazards on biomarkers of bronchial epithelial cells (A549) inflammation in Karaj and Fardis cities

Fine particles (especially PM2.5 particles) in ambient air can cause irreversible effects on human health. In the present study, seasonal variations in toxicity PM2.5 (cell viability and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines) were exposed human lung cells (A549) to concentrations of PM2.5 samples in summer (sPM2.5) and winter (wPM2.5) seasons. Cells were separately exposed to three concentrations of PM2.5 (25, 50, and 100 μg/mL) and three times (12 h, 1 and 2 days). We evaluated cell viability by MTT assay [3- (4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) -2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] and liberation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6 and interleukin-8) by the ELISA method. The toxicological results of this study showed that increasing the concentration of PM2.5 particulates and contact time with it reduces cell viability and increases inflammatory responses. Seasonal cytotoxicity of PM2.5 particles in high-traffic areas at summer season compared to winter season was lower. The lowest percent of viability at 2 days of exposure and 100 μg/mL exposure in the winter sample was observed. Also, PM2.5 particles were influential in the amount of interleukins 8 and 6. The average release level of IL-6 and IL-8 in the cold season (winter) and the enormous exposure time and concentrations (2 days-100 μg/mL) was much higher than in the hot season (summer). These values were twice as high for winter PM2.5 samples as for summer samples. The compounds in PM2.5 at different seasons can cause some biological effects. The samples' chemical characteristics in two seasons displayed that the PMs were diverse in chemical properties. In general, heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were more in the winter samples. However, the samples of wPM2.5 had a lower mass quota of metals such as aluminum, iron, copper, zinc, and magnesium. Concentrations of chromium, cadmium, arsenic, mercury, nickel, and lead were more significant in the sample of wPM2.5.

Potential cytotoxicity of PM2.5-bound PAHs and toxic metals collected from areas with different traffic densities on human lung epithelial cells (A549)

Laboratory and epidemiological researches have indicated that ambient air particulate matter have a plays critical role in causing diseases. The current research evaluated the chemical attributes of PM2.5 in the ambient air of the cities of Karaj and Fardis and determined its toxicological effects on human lung epithelial cells (A549). In the study city, 16 points were selected from the two high-traffic and low-traffic points for sampling. A sampling of ambient air was carried out in spring, summer, autumn, and winter 2018-19. Air sampling was performed for 24 h according to the EPA-TO/13A guidelines. To analyze of toxic metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), ICP-OES and GC-MS were used, respectively, and for cell toxicity analysis, an ELISA reader was used. Then from SPSS, Excel and R software were used for statistical analysis. The results of the current study indicated that the concentration of PAHs carcinogenic in the autumn season in high-traffic stations was the highest and equal to 9.3 ng/m3, and in the spring season in the low-traffic stations, it was the lowest and equal to 5.82 ng/m3. In general, during the period of study, Heavy metals including Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu, and Al had the highest concentration compared to other metals. However, Hg, Cr, As, Pb, Cu, Cd, and Zn were higher concentration in the winter and autumn seasons than in the spring and summer seasons. Cell viability measurements by using MTT showed that low-traffic and high-traffic stations had the highest toxicity in autumn season compared to other seasons. (p < 0.05). In general, high-traffic stations had the highest toxicity than low-traffic stations. The general conclusion of the present study was that PM2.5-bound PAHs and toxic metals, due to their high concentration, were toxic pollutants in air for residents of Karaj and Fardis. Also, the high concentration of PM2.5 caused the mitochondrial activity of A549 cells to stop and this stop was more significant in cold seasons and high-traffic areas.

Effects of diesel-engine exhaust emissions on seed germination and seedling growth of Brassicaceae family using digital image analysis

This paper describes a multi-phase investigation into the direct effect of diesel exhaust emission on seed germination traits and biochemical changes responsible for observed effects in seeds belongs to the Brassica family. Diesel exhaust emissions were collected in germination boxes and seeds were exposed to diesel exhaust pollutants for durations of 30 to 120 min with 30 min intervals. Observed effects include seed germination inhibition, changes in seeds' antioxidants activity, and protein content. The lowest seed germination of canola (71 %) and arugula (84 %) was observed when seeds were exposed to 120 min of diesel exhaust pollution. Seed exposure to diesel exhaust emission for 60 min, caused a 23 % and 8 % decline of germination index of canola and arugula, respectively. The maximum seed soluble protein for canola (3.72 mg/g FW) was observed in seeds exposed to 120 min diesel exhaust pollution declined to 1.65 mg/g FW, and 0.60 mg/g FW after 60 and 30 min exposure to diesel exhaust, respectively. The maximum protein content of arugula seeds (0.95 mg/g FW) was observed in the control treatment and it was reduced to 0.72 mg/g FW and 0.53 mg/g FW after 60 and 90 min exposure to diesel exhaust pollution. Catalase activity was significantly reduced as canola seed exposure to diesel exhausted was increased while there were no statistically significant changes for catalase activity of arugula seeds. All evidence suggested that time of exposure was the key phytotoxic component of exhaust emissions, and highlights the potential for detrimental effects of vehicle emissions on agro-ecosystems.

Bacteria bioaerosol in the indoor air of educational microenvironments: Measuring exposures and assessing health effects

Exposure to bioaerosols has been identified to be linked the incidence of various health effects, i.e., infectious diseases, acute toxic effects, allergies, and cancer. The aim of this study was to determine the bacterial bioaerosols in the indoor air of the educational environments of Ardabil universities and to evaluate the exposure and to determine its health risk. In this cross-sectional study, different sections of the educational environments of Ardabil universities were studied. For differential diagnosis of bacteria, methods such as gram staining and biochemical detection methods including DNAse, catalase, oxidase, coagulase, bile esculin hydrolysis test, urease, citrate test, antibiotic resistance to novobiocin and Bacitracin, optochin, glucose uptake, and other differential tests were used. For sampling, a single-stage Anderson sampler was used at a flow rate of 28.3 l at a duration of 10 min per minute. The results showed that, in medical school of Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, the average concentration of bacteria in the outdoor air of school, halls, classes and rooms of professors and staff were 18, 88.4, 76.6, and 77.4 CFU/m³, respectively, and, in Ardabil Islamic Azad University, the average bacterial concentration was 103, 97, 124, and 132 CFU/m³ in the outdoor air of the schools, halls, classrooms, and rooms of professors and staff, respectively. The predominant bacterial species in indoor air are S. aureus, S. epidermidis, Actinomycetes, and Bacillus, respectively. As results indicated, the concentration of bacterial bioaerosols in indoor air is within the standard levels, but due to frequency of bacterial species, occurrence of different in lung and intestinal diseases can be expected among faculty, staff and students in the long-term.

Short-term effect of multi-pollutant air quality indexes and PM2.5 on cardiovascular hospitalization in Hamadan, Iran: a time-series analysis

Air pollutants are the most important environmental factors that contributed to cardiovascular disease (CVD). The present study aimed to investigate the number of hospitalization due to heart failure (HF) and myocardial infarction (MI) following the air pollutant exposure using a time-series regression analysis with a distributed lag model in Hamadan, Iran (2015-2019). A total of 2091 cases of CVD were registered. Based on the findings, the highest health effects on HF hospitalization were observed with air quality health index (AQHI) at lag 9 (RR = 1.043, 95% CI 0.991-1.098), and air quality index (AQI) at lags 2, 7, and 9 (RR = 1.001, 95% CI 0.998-1.002), for an increase in 1 unit of the indexes, and with PM_2.5 at lag 0 (RR = 1.001, 95% CI 0.996-1.004) for 10 μg/m³ increase in PM_2.5 levels. The highest health effects on MI hospitalization were calculated with AQHI at lag 10 (RR = 1.059, 95% CI 1.001-1.121) and AQI at lags 1 and 2 (RR = 1.001, 95% CI 0.998-1.002), for an increase in 1 unit of the indexes, and with PM_2.5 at lag 8 (RR = 1.002, 95% CI 0.997-1.005) for 10 μg/m³ increase in PM_2.5 levels. According to a seasonal classification, results showed that hospitalization in the warm season was higher than that of the cold season. Based on our knowledge, the current study is the first study that investigated the effect of air quality indexes on hospitalization due to HF and MI in Iran. Findings can provide basic information to plan preventive measures for reducing exposure chance and hospitalization rate in high-risk people.

Health risk assessment and source apportionment of heavy metals in atmospheric dustfall in a city of Khuzestan Province, Iran

The heavy metals in the atmospheric particulate matters are now considered a risk for humans and the environment. The purpose of this study was to assess the concentration, source apportionment, and health risk of heavy metals in atmospheric dustfall in Dezful City of Khuzestan Province, Iran. The dustfall samples were collected from five locations every month for one year (2018-2019). The heavy metals ( lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and nickel (Ni)) contents of dustfall samples were determined by ICP-OES. The monthly mean of dustfall for five sampling locations was 22.81 ± 21.9 ton.km- 2.month- 1. The mean concentrations of the examined heavy metals were assessed as Fe > Cr > Ni > Pb > Cd. The highest enrichment level belonged to Cd (59.35 ± 128.18) and all heavy metals had enrichment levels beyond 10. The HI (Hazard Index) values were less than one and there was no significant non-carcinogenic risk due to these heavy metals. For children, Ni showed the most HI with a value of 0.205. The calculations demonstrate that the obtained values of cancer risk in both groups are less than the acceptable range (10- 6 to 10- 4). The PMF (Positive Matrix Factorization) results indicated four main sources of pollutants, namely, vehicular exhaust, industrial, road dust, and nonferrous smelting. The results of the study revealed that industrial activities and traffic play crucial roles in increasing the heavy metals contamination of dustfall in Dezful City.

Removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from waste air stream using ozone assisted zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles coated on zeolite

The release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from stationary and mobile sources increases the concentration of these pollutants in the environment. These compounds have the potential to cause adverse effects on human health and the environment. The adoption of management and engineering procedures to control the emission of these pollutants to the air has become essential. The aim of this study was to use an advanced oxidation process namely the catalytic ozonation to reduce the concentration of these pollutants in industrial output. In this experimental study, the catalytic ozonation process in the presence of ZnO nanoparticles coated on zeolite media was used in a laboratory scale to treat the air contaminated with BTEX compounds as indicators of VOCs. For this purpose, First the nanocomposites were synthesized based on chemical co-precipitation method. SEM, XRD, BET and FT-IR analyses were performed to investigate the characteristics of nanocomposites. The variables including initial concentrations of BTEX (50-200 ppm), polluted air flow rate (5-20 l/h), humidity (0-75%) and ozone dose (0.25-1 g/h) were investigated. The concentration of BTEX compounds was measured by the Gas Chromatography (GC) technique according to the NIOSH 1501 manual. The results of SEM, XRD, BET and FT-IR analyses showed the proper synthesis of nanocomposites. According to the laboratory results, the optimal conditions of the process were found to be as follows: the initial concentration of pollutants equal to 50 ppm, inlet air flow rate of 5 l/h, relative air humidity of 25-35%, and inlet ozone concentration equal to 1 g/h. Under these conditions, the removal efficiency of the compounds: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene were obtained 98, 96, 92 and 91%, respectively. Simple ozonation and adsorption processes were less efficient than catalytic ozonation. This process had the ability to reduce the concentration of BTEX compounds to standard level.