Implications of Impaired Endurance Performance following Single Bouts of Resistance Training: An Alternate Concurrent Training Perspective

No evidence of improvements in energy metabolism after 1 week of nitrate and citrulline co-supplementation in elite rowers

PURPOSE

Citrulline (CIT) and beetroot extract (BR) supplements positively impacts exercise performance in elite rowers. However, its influence on metabolic outcomes such as whole-body volumes of oxygen consumption (VO2) and carbon dioxide production (VCO2), substrate oxidation, energy expenditure (EE), and gross efficiency remains unknown. We studied the effects of 1 week of daily co-supplementation of 3.5 g BR (500 mg NO3-) plus 6 g CIT on VO2 and VCO2 kinetics, substrate utilization, EE, and gross efficiency in elite male rowers compared to a placebo and to a BR supplementation.

METHODS

Twenty elite rowers participated in this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial completing 1 week of supplementation in each group of study: Placebo (PLAG); BRG; and BR-CITG. Efficiency (70% VO2max) and performance (incremental maximal) tests were performed, and gas-exchange data were collected via indirect calorimetry.

RESULTS

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed no mean between-condition differences on respiratory exchange ratio (RER), EE, and gross efficiency in the efficiency test (all P > 0.06), and in the performance test (all P > 0.28). Moreover, in both tests no interaction Time × Supplement effects were observed for VO2, VCO2, RER, EE, substrate oxidation, and, gross efficiency (all P > 0.12).

CONCLUSION

After 1 week, no effects on energy metabolism and substrate utilization were observed after the daily co-ingestion of BR extract plus CIT supplement, therefore longer (> 7 days) and higher doses of supplementation might be needed to influence metabolism.

The Impact of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage on Various Cycling Performance Metrics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

ABSTRACT

Devantier-Thomas, B, Deakin, GB, Crowther, F, Schumann, M, and Doma, K. The impact of exercise-induced muscle damage on various cycling performance metrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 38(8): 1509-1525, 2024-This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the impact of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) on cycling performance. The primary outcome measure was cycling performance, whereas secondary outcome measures included creatine kinase (CK), delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and muscular contractions. Data were extracted and quantified through forest plots to report on the standardized mean difference and p values. The meta-analysis showed no significant change in oxygen consumption at 24-48 hours ( p > 0.05) after the muscle damage protocol, although ventilation and rating of perceived exertion significantly increased ( p < 0.05) during submaximal cycling protocols. Peak power output during both sprint and incremental cycling performance was significantly reduced ( p < 0.05), but time-trial and distance-trial performance showed no change ( p > 0.05). Measures of CK and DOMS were significantly increased ( p < 0.05), whereas muscular force was significantly reduced following the muscle-damaging protocols ( p < 0.05), confirming that cycling performance was assessed during periods of EIMD. This systematic review showed that EIMD affected both maximal and submaximal cycling performance. Therefore, coaches should consider the effect of EIMD on cycling performance when implementing unaccustomed exercise into a cycling program. Careful consideration should be taken to ensure that additional training does not impair performance and endurance adaptation.

The repeated bout effect of traditional resistance training on cycling efficiency and performance

PURPOSE

This study examined the repeated bout effect of two resistance training bouts on cycling efficiency and performance.

METHODS

Ten male resistance-untrained cyclists (age 38 ± 13 years; height 180.4 ± 7.0 cm; weight 80.1 ± 10.1; kg; VO2max 51.0 ± 7.6 ml.kg-1.min-1) undertook two resistance training bouts at six-repetition maximum. Blood creatine kinase (CK), delayed-onset of muscle soreness (DOMS), counter-movement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), submaximal cycling and time-trial performance were examined prior to (Tbase), 24 (T24) and 48 (T48) h post each resistance training bout.

RESULTS

There were significantly lower values for DOMS (p = 0.027) after Bout 2 than Bout 1. No differences were found between bouts for CK, CMJ, SJ and submaximal cycling performance. However, jump height (CMJ and SJ) submaximal cycling measures (ventilation and perceived exertion) were impaired at T24 and T48 compared to Tbase (p < 0.05). Net efficiency during submaximal cycling improved at Bout 2 (23.8 ± 1.2) than Bout 1 (24.3 ± 1.0%). There were no changes in cycling time-trial performance, although segmental differences in cadence were observed between bouts and time (i.e. Tbase vs T24 vs T48; p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Cyclists improved their cycling efficiency from Bout 1 to Bout 2 possibly due to the repeated bout effect. However, cyclists maintained their cycling completion times during exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in both resistance training bouts, possibly by altering their cycling strategies. Thus, cyclists should consider EIMD symptomatology after resistance training bouts, particularly for cycling-specific technical sessions, regardless of the repeated bout effect.

A Systematic review of the factors that affect soccer players' short-passing ability-based on the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test

OBJECTIVE

This study synthesizes evidence from the Loughborough Passing Test to evaluate the short-passing ability of soccer players and summarizes the reported variables that affect this ability to provide support for the development and improvement of short-passing abilities in soccer players.

METHODS

In this systematic review using the PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search was conducted in Web of Science, PubMed, and EBSCOhost from inception to July 2023 to identify relevant articles from the accessible literature. Only studies that used the Loughborough test to assess athletes' short-passing ability were included. The quality of the included studies was independently assessed by two reviewers using the PEDro scale, and two authors independently completed the data extraction.

RESULTS

Based on the type of intervention or influencing factor, ten studies investigated training, nine studies investigated fatigue, nine studies investigated supplement intake, and five studies investigated other factors.

CONCLUSION

Evidence indicates that fitness training, small-sided games training, and warm-up training have positive effects on athletes' short-passing ability, high-intensity special-position training and water intake have no discernible impact, mental and muscular exhaustion have a significantly negative effect, and the effect of nutritional ergogenic aid intake is not yet clear. Future research should examine more elements that can affect soccer players' short-passing ability.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://inplasy.com/ ., identifier: INPLASY20237.

Acute Response to Training after Returning from the Off-Season in Elite Rugby League Athletes

The purposes of this study were to quantify the physiological response to the initial two-week preseason period in elite male rugby league (RL) athletes, and to determine if a repeated bout effect (RBE) occurs. Eighteen RL players were monitored for the initial two-week preseason period. Blood samples were collected on days (D)1, D2, D4, D5, D8, D9, D11 and D12 to measure creatine kinase (CK). Neuromuscular power was assessed on D1, D5, D8 and D12. During field-based sessions, the external training load was quantified using global positioning system technology, whilst the internal load was quantified using the training impulse and the session rating of perceived exertion. Resistance-based gym session volume was quantified by total repetitions x weight lifted. Perceived measures of fatigue and muscle soreness were assessed on all training days. Two-way (day x week) repeated measures analysis of variance and Bonferroni's corrected post-hoc tests identified significant changes. There were no significant changes in CK activity (649.2 ± 255.0 vs. 673.8 ± 299.1 µL; p = 0.63) or internal training load measures from week 1 to week 2. External training load measures including total distance (4138.1 ± 198.4 vs. 4525.0 ± 169.2 m; p < 0.001) and repeated high-intensity efforts (12.6 ± 1.8 vs. 17.5 ± 1.8 au; p < 0.001) significantly increased in week 2 compared to week 1. Internal training loads and CK activity did not change in response to an increase in external training loads during the initial preseason. The current results provide support for a 'real world' perspective of the RBE phenomenon that may be more applicable for team sport practitioners.

Acute Effect of Different Velocity-Based Training Protocols on 2000-meter Rowing Ergometer Performance

ABSTRACT

Leandro Quidel-Catrilelbún, ME, Ruiz-Alias, SA, García-Pinillos, F, Ramirez-Campillo, R, and Pérez-Castilla, A. Acute effect of different velocity-based training protocols on 2000-m rowing ergometer performance. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): e8-e15, 2024-This study aimed to explore the acute effect of 4 velocity-based resistance training (VBT) protocols on 2000-m rowing ergometer (RE2000) time trial, as well as the behavior of the maximal neuromuscular capacities when RE2000 is performed alone or preceded by VBT protocols in the same session. Fifteen male competitive rowers (15-22 years) undertook 5 randomized protocols in separate occasions: (a) RE2000 alone (control condition); (b) VBT against 60% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) with a velocity loss in the set of 10% followed by RE2000 (VBT60-10 + RE2000); (c) VBT against 60% 1RM with a velocity loss in the set of 30% followed by RE2000 (VBT60-30 + RE2000); (d) VBT against 80% 1RM with a velocity loss in the set of 10% followed by RE2000 (VBT80-10 + RE2000); (e) VBT against 80% 1RM with a velocity loss in the set of 30% followed by RE2000 (VBT80-30 + RE2000). The load-velocity relationship (load-axis intercept [L0], velocity-axis intercept [v0], and area under the load-velocity relationship line [Aline]) was used to evaluate the maximal neuromuscular capacities during the prone bench pull exercise before and after each protocol. The time trial was significantly longer for VBT60-30 + RE2000 and VBT80-30 + RE2000 than for RE2000, VBT60-10 + RE2000 and VBT80-10 + RE2000 (all p < 0.001; ES = 0.10-0.15). L0 and Aline were significantly reduced after all protocols (p < 0.001; ES = 0.10-0.13), with Aline reduction more accentuated for VBT60-10 + RE2000, VBT60-30 + RE2000, VBT80-30 + RE2000, and RE2000 (all p = 0.001; ES = 0.11-0.18) than for VBT80-10 + RE2000 (p = 0.065; ES = 0.05). Therefore, VBT protocols with greater velocity loss in the set (30% vs. 10%) negatively affected subsequent rowing ergometer performance, in line with impairment in Aline pulling performance.

The Repeated Bout Effect of Multiarticular Exercises on Muscle Damage Markers and Physical Performances: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses

ABSTRACT

Doma, K, Matoso, B, Protzen, G, Singh, U, and Boullosa, D. The repeated bout effect of multiarticular exercises on muscle damage markers and physical performances: a systematic review and meta-analyses. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): 2504-2515, 2023-This systematic review and meta-analysis compared muscle damage markers and physical performance measures between 2 bouts of multiarticular exercises and determined whether intensity and volume of muscle-damaging exercises affected the outcomes. The eligibility criteria consisted of (a) healthy male and female adults; (b) multiarticular exercises to cause muscle damage across 2 bouts; (c) outcome measures were compared at 24-48 hours after the first and second bouts of muscle-damaging exercise; (d) at least one of the following outcome measures: creatine kinase (CK), delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS), muscle strength, and running economy. Study appraisal was conducted using the Kmet tool, whereas forest plots were derived to calculate standardized mean differences (SMDs) and statistical significance and alpha set a 0.05. After screening, 20 studies were included. The levels of DOMS and CK were significantly greater during the first bout when compared with the second bout at T24 and T48 (p < 0.001; SMD = 0.51-1.23). Muscular strength and vertical jump performance were significantly lower during the first bout compared with the second bout at T24 and T48 (p ≤ 0.05; SMD = -0.27 to -0.40), whereas oxygen consumption and rating of perceived exertion were significantly greater during the first bout at T24 and T48 (p < 0.05; SMD = 0.28-0.65) during running economy protocols. The meta-analyses were unaffected by changes in intensity and volume of muscle-damaging exercises between bouts. Multiarticular exercises exhibited a repeated bout effect, suggesting that a single bout of commonly performed exercises involving eccentric contractions may provide protection against exercise-induced muscle damage for subsequent bouts.

The Effects of Pre-conditioning on Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several studies have utilised isometric, eccentric and downhill walking pre-conditioning as a strategy for alleviating the signs and symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) following a bout of damaging physical activity.

OBJECTIVES

This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of pre-conditioning strategies on indices of muscle damage and physical performance measures following a second bout of strenuous physical activity.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, CINAHL and Scopus.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Studies meeting the PICO (population, intervention/exposure, comparison, and outcome) criteria were included in this review: (1) general population or "untrained" participants with no contraindications affecting physical performance; (2) studies with a parallel design to examine the prevention and severity of muscle-damaging contractions; (3) outcome measures were compared using baseline and post-intervention measures; and (4) outcome measures included any markers of indirect muscle damage and muscular contractility measures.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals with no resistance training experiences in the previous 6 or more months.

INTERVENTIONS

A single bout of pre-conditioning exercises consisting of eccentric or isometric contractions performed a minimum of 24 h prior to a bout of damaging physical activity were compared to control interventions that did not perform pre-conditioning prior to damaging physical activity.

STUDY APPRAISAL

Kmet appraisal system.

SYNTHESIS METHODS

Quantitative analysis was conducted using forest plots to examine standardised mean differences (SMD, i.e. effect size), test statistics for statistical significance (i.e. Z-values) and between-study heterogeneity by inspecting I2.

RESULTS

Following abstract and full-text screening, 23 articles were included in this paper. Based on the meta-analysis, the pre-conditioning group exhibited lower levels of creatine kinase at 24 h (SMD =  - 1.64; Z = 8.39; p = 0.00001), 48 h (SMD =  - 2.65; Z = 7.78; p = 0.00001), 72 h (SMD =  - 2.39; Z = 5.71; p = 0.00001) and 96 h post-exercise (SMD =  - 3.52; Z = 7.39; p = 0.00001) than the control group. Delayed-onset muscle soreness was also lower for the pre-conditioning group at 24 h (SMD =  - 1.89; Z = 6.17; p = 0.00001), 48 h (SMD =  - 2.50; Z = 7.99; p = 0.00001), 72 h (SMD =  - 2.73; Z = 7.86; p = 0.00001) and 96 h post-exercise (SMD =  - 3.30; Z = 8.47; p = 0.00001). Maximal voluntary contraction force was maintained and returned to normal sooner in the pre-conditioning group than in the control group, 24 h (SMD = 1.46; Z = 5.49; p = 0.00001), 48 h (SMD = 1.59; Z = 6.04; p = 0.00001), 72 h (SMD = 2.02; Z = 6.09; p = 0.00001) and 96 h post-exercise (SMD = 2.16; Z = 5.69; p = 0.00001). Range of motion was better maintained by the pre-conditioning group compared with the control group at 24 h (SMD = 1.48; Z = 4.30; p = 0.00001), 48 h (SMD = 2.20; Z = 5.64; p = 0.00001), 72 h (SMD = 2.66; Z = 5.42; p = 0.00001) and 96 h post-exercise (SMD = 2.5; Z = 5.46; p = 0.00001). Based on qualitative analyses, pre-conditioning activities were more effective when performed at 2-4 days before the muscle-damaging protocol compared with immediately prior to the muscle-damaging protocol, or 1-3 weeks prior to the muscle-damaging protocol. Furthermore, pre-conditioning activities performed using eccentric contractions over isometric contractions, with higher volumes, greater intensity and more lengthened muscle contractions provided greater protection from EIMD.

LIMITATIONS

Several outcome measures showed high inter-study heterogeneity. The inability to account for differences in durations between pre-conditioning and the second bout of damaging physical activity was also limiting.

CONCLUSIONS

Pre-conditioning significantly reduced the severity of creatine kinase release, delayed-onset muscle soreness, loss of maximal voluntary contraction force and the range of motion decrease. Pre-conditioning may prevent severe EIMD and accelerate recovery of muscle force generation capacity.

Influence of Cluster Sets on Mechanical and Perceptual Variables in Adolescent Athletes

Cluster sets (CS) are effective in maintaining performance and reducing perceived effort compared to traditional sets (TRD). However, little is known about these effects on adolescent athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of CS on the performance of mechanical and perceptual variables in young athletes. Eleven subjects [4 boys (age = 15.5 ± 0.8 years; body mass = 54.3 ± 7.0 kg; body height = 1.67 ± 0.04 m; Back Squat 1RM/body mass: 1.62 ± 0.19 kg; years from peak height velocity [PHV]: 0.94 ± 0.50) and 7 girls (age = 17.2 ± 1.4 years; body mass = 54.7 ± 6.3 kg; body height = 1.63 ± 0.08 m; Back Squat 1RM/body mass: 1.22 ± 0.16 kg; years from PHV: 3.33 ± 1.00)] participated in a randomized crossover design with one traditional (TRD: 3 × 8, no intra-set and 225 s interest rest) and two clusters (CS1: 3 × 2 × 4, one 30 s intra-set and 180 s inter-set rest; and CS2: 3 × 4 × 2, three 30 s intra-set and 90 s inter-set rest) protocols. The subjects were assessed for a Back Squat 1RM for the first meet, then performed the three protocols on three different days, with at least 48 h between them. During experimental sessions, a back squat exercise was performed, and mean propulsive velocity (MPV), power (MPP), and force (MPF) were collected to analyze performance between protocols, together with measures of countermovement jump (CMJ) and perceptual responses through Rating of Perceived Exertion for each set (RPE-Set) and the overall session (S-RPE), and Muscle Soreness (DOMS). The results showed that velocity and power decline (MVD and MPD) were favorable for CS2 (MVD: -5.61 ± 14.84%; MPD: -5.63 ± 14.91%) against TRD (MVD: -21.10 ± 11.88%; MPD: -20.98 ± 11.85%) (p < 0.01) and CS1 (MVD: -21.44 ± 12.13%; MPD: -21.50 ± 12.20%) (p < 0.05). For RPE-Set, the scores were smaller for CS2 (RPE8: 3.23 ± 0.61; RPE16: 4.32 ± 1.42; RPE24: 4.46 ± 1.51) compared to TRD (RPE8: 4.73 ± 1.33; RPE16: 5.46 ± 1.62; RPE24: 6.23 ± 1.97) (p = 0.008), as well as for Session RPE (CS2: 4.32 ± 1.59; TRD: 5.68 ± 1.75) (p = 0.015). There were no changes for jump height (CMJ: p = 0.985), and the difference between time points in CMJ (ΔCMJ: p = 0.213) and muscle soreness (DOMS: p = 0.437) were identified. Our findings suggest that using CS with a greater number of intra-set rests is more efficient even with the total rest interval equalized, presenting lower decreases in mechanical performance and lower perceptual effort responses.

Effects of concurrent training sequence on VO2max and lower limb strength performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this study is to compare the effects of concurrent strength and endurance training sequences on VO_2max and lower limb strength performance to provide scientific guidance for training practice. We searched PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science (WOS), Wanfang, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases up to December 2022. The included articles were randomized controlled trials that allowed us to compare the strength-endurance (S-E) sequence and endurance-strength (E-S) sequence on VO_2max, maximum knee extension strength, maximum knee flexion strength, and lower limb power. The Cochrane bias risk tool was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included literature, and Stata 12.0 was used for the heterogeneity test, subgroup analysis, draw forest map, sensitivity analysis, and publication bias evaluation. The results have been presented as standardized mean differences (SMDs) between treatments with 95% confidence intervals and calculations performed using random effects models. Significance was accepted when p < 0.05. The studies included 19 randomized controlled trials (285 males and 197 females), 242 subjects in S-E sequence, and 240 subjects in E-S sequence in the analyses. No difference changes between S-E and E-S sequences has been observed on VO_2max in the overall analysis (SMD = 0.02, 95% CI: -0.21-0.25, p = 0.859). The S-E sequence shows a greater increase in lower limb strength performance than does the E-S sequence (SMD = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.02-0.37, p = 0.032), which was manifested in the elderly (p = 0.039) and women (p = 0.017); in training periods >8 weeks (p = 0.002) and training frequencies twice a week (p = 0.003); and with maximum knee flexion (p = 0.040) and knee extension strength (p = 0.026), while no difference was found in lower limb power (p = 0.523). In conclusion, the effect of VO_2max will not change with different concurrent training sequences. The S-E sequence improves lower limb strength more significantly, mainly in the improvement of knee flexion and knee extension. This advantage is more related to factors such as age, gender, training period, and training frequency.

Effects of Concurrent, Within-Session, Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Training on Functional Capacity and Muscle Performance in Elderly Male Patients with Chronic Heart Failure

BACKGROUND

The best format of exercise training (ET) in the setting of cardiac rehabilitation in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF) is still to be defined. Current guidelines recommend aerobic exercises, such as running and cycling, including some sessions per week of resistance exercise.

AIM

The aim of this study was to address the effectiveness of a concurrent exercise training program utilizing a circuit of sequential endurance and resistance exercises on functional capacity and muscular strength in patients with CHF.

METHODS

Ninety-five consecutive male patients (age 63.1 ± 6 years) with CHF (EF < 40%) in NYHA functional class II/III, were randomly assigned on 1:1 basis to a 12-week aerobic continuous training (AT) or concurrent CT), aerobic + resistance, training (CT), three times a week, with each session lasting 80 min. We used high quality, specifically designed ergometers, connected with each other and governed by a central console, and managed by a single physiotherapist. Before and after training all patients performed a symptoms-limited exercise test on a treadmill and a 6-min walking test (6MWT). Patients in the CT group also performed resistance exercises of upper and lower body.

RESULTS

The 6MWT and exercise duration at ergometric test increased significantly in both AT and CT groups, with the increase being greater in CT group (p < 0.001; ES = 0.13; p < 0.01; ES = 0.07). Muscular strength increased significantly in the CT group, particularly in the lower body muscular districts (p < 0.001). Quality of life improved in both groups, with a significantly greater improvement in the CT group (p < 0.05). No side effects leading to discontinuation of training were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that concurrent, within-session training results in larger improvements in functional capacity, in addition to muscle performance, in patients with CHF, in comparison to single-mode aerobic training.

Effects of Concurrent Strength and HIIT-Based Endurance Training on Physical Fitness in Trained Team Sports Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Concurrent strength and HIIT-based endurance training (CT) has merit in time-saving in team sports. However, the effect of CT on physical fitness remained equivocal. This meta-analysis aimed to determine whether CT would produce an interference effect on the development of physical fitness when compared to strength training (ST) or HIIT-based endurance training (HET) alone in trained team sports players.

METHODS

A total of 2478 studies from three databases were screened. 52 full texts were reviewed. Seven studies were finally included and then subgroups were used for quantitative analysis.

RESULTS

Compared to ST alone, CT had a significant effect on the development of maximal lower-body strength in trained team sports players (MD 4.20 kg, 95% CI 0.71-7.68, p = 0.02, I² = 20%), but there was no significant difference between the groups on training adaptation in lower-body power (SMD 0.08, 95% CI -0.23-0.39, p = 0.62, I² = 26%). Furthermore, a sub-group analysis based on the internal organization order of CT revealed that there was no statistically significant subgroup effect between CT and ST alone in all parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Well-designed CT regimens did not interfere with the development of physical fitness of trained team sports players.

Sprint Interval Training Attenuates Neuromuscular Function and Vagal Reactivity Compared With High-Intensity Functional Training in Real-World Circumstances

ABSTRACT

Benítez-Flores, S, de S. Castro, FA, Lusa Cadore, E, and Astorino, TA. Sprint interval training attenuates neuromuscular function and vagal reactivity compared with high-intensity functional training in real-world circumstances. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-The aim of this study was to compare the acute cardiovascular and neuromuscular effects of 3 time-matched sessions of high-intensity training. Eighteen moderately active adults (9 women and 9 men [age: 23 ± 2.9 years; maximum oxygen consumption (V̇o2max): 47.6 ± 4.1 ml·kg-1·min-1]) performed three low-volume (∼9 minutes) sessions in a randomized order: sprint interval training (SIT), burpee interval training (BIT) (10 × 5 seconds efforts × 35 seconds recovery), and vigorous intensity continuous training (VICT) (6 minutes 5 seconds of running at ∼85% of peak heart rate [HRpeak]). Indices related to heart rate (HR), neuromuscular performance (counter movement jump height [CMJheight] and squat and bench press power), and autonomic balance (heart rate recovery and heart rate variability [HRR and HRV] )were monitored during exercise. Sprint interval training and VICT elicited a higher HRmean (171.3 ± 8.4 and 166.5 ± 7.5 vs. 150.5 ± 13.6 b·min-1, p < 0.001) and time of ≥90%HRpeak (133.3 ± 117.4 and 110 ± 128.9 vs. 10 ± 42.4 seconds, p < 0.01) than BIT. Sprint interval training exhibited a slower HRR and lower HRV than BIT and VICT (p < 0.05) postsession. Moreover, only SIT resulted in a significant decline (p < 0.01) in CMJheight (34.7 ± 7.2 to 33.5 ± 7.2 cm), relative squat mean power (25.5 ± 4.5 to 23.8 ± 4.9 W·kg-1), and relative bench press peak power (6.9 ± 2.4 to 6.2 ± 2.5 W·kg-1). Results revealed that SIT diminishes the sympathovagal reactivation and neuromuscular performance compared with work-matched BIT and VICT.

Repeated Bout Effect of Two Resistance Training Bouts on Bowling-Specific Performance in Male Cricketers

To examine the repeated bout effect (RBE) following two identical resistance bouts and its effect on bowling-specific performance in male cricketers. Male cricket pace bowlers (N = 10), who had not undertaken resistance exercises in the past six months, were invited to complete a familiarisation and resistance maximum testing, before participating in the study protocol. The study protocol involved the collection of muscle damage markers, a battery of anaerobic (jump and sprint), and a bowling-specific performance test at baseline, followed by a resistance training bout, and a retest of physical and bowling-specific performance at 24 h (T24) and 48 h (T48) post-training. The study protocol was repeated 7–10 days thereafter. Indirect markers of muscle damage were lower (creatine kinase: 318.7 ± 164.3 U·L⁻¹; muscle soreness: 3 ± 1), whilst drop jump was improved (~47.5 ± 8.1 cm) following the second resistance training bout when compared to the first resistance training bout (creatine kinase: 550.9 ± 242.3 U·L⁻¹; muscle soreness: 4 ± 2; drop jump: ~43.0 ± 9.7 cm). However, sport-specific performance via bowling speed declined (Bout 1: −2.55 ± 3.43%; Bout 2: 2.67 ± 2.41%) whilst run-up time increased (2.34 ± 3.61%; Bout 2: 3.84 ± 4.06%) after each bout of resistance training. Findings suggest that while an initial resistance training bout reduced muscle damage indicators and improved drop jump performance following a second resistance training bout, this RBE trend was not observed for bowling-specific performance. It was suggested that pace bowlers with limited exposure to resistance training should minimise bowling-specific practice for 1–2 days following the initial bouts of their resistance training program.

Effect of intra-session exercise sequence of an 8-week concurrent training program on the components of physical fitness in recreationally trained young adults

This study aimed to determine the effect of the intra-session exercise sequence of a concurrent training programme on the components of health-related physical fitness. Twenty-four healthy young adults were allocated into two different groups differing only in the exercise order to conduct an 8-week intra-session concurrent training programme consisting of three sessions of 60-90 minutes (180-270 min/week), with all-out running sprint intervals, back squat, and bench press endurance and resistance exercises (i.e., ET+RT and RT+ET). The 8-week intra-session concurrent training programme overall improved all the components of physical fitness regardless of the exercise sequence. However, ET + RT and RT + ET groups reported moderate and small improvements for squat jump (ET + RT: 3.82 cm [1.11 to 6.53 cm]; RT + ET: 0.31 cm [-1.72 to 2.33 cm]), countermovement jump (ET + RT: 3.76 cm [1.43 to 6.08 cm]; RT + ET: 2.07 cm [-0.03 to 4.17 cm]) and maximum oxygen uptake (ET + RT: 4.75 ml/kg/min [1.14 to 8.35 ml/kg/min]; RT + ET: 1.66 ml/kg/min [-0.89 to 4.21 ml/kg/min]), respectively. Therefore, greater lower-body power and cardiorespiratory fitness gains might be induced following the ET + RT sequence.

Impact of concurrent training versus aerobic or resistance training on cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular strength in middle-aged to older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The effects of aerobic training (AT) on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and resistance training (RT) on muscular strength, are well known in older adults. However, less is known about the potential additive benefits of concurrent training (CT) versus AT or RT alone in this population. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the effects of CT, versus AT or RT, on CRF and muscular strength in middle-aged to older adults. PubMed and Web of Science were searched through October 2021 to identify randomized trials evaluating CT versus AT and/or RT in middle-aged and older adults (>50 yrs). Studies were included that measured CRF, using maximal or peak oxygen uptake (VO_2max/peak); and/or lower- and upper-body muscular strength measured using 1-repetition maximum (1RM) to 10RM tests during isoinertial contractions, or peak torque during isometric dynamometry or isokinetic dynamometry at 30 to 60°/s. Standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were determined using random or fixed effects models. Forty-nine studies involving 2,587 middle-aged to older participants with mean ages ranging from 55 to 88 years, were included in the meta-analysis. Results indicated that CT effectively increased VO_2max/peak (SMD: 0.77, p = 0.005, 12 intervention arms) when compared to RT. In addition, CT effectively increased lower- (SMD: 0.60, p = 0.001, 43 intervention arms) and upper-body (SMD: 0.57, p = 0.001, 28 intervention arms) muscular strength when compared to AT. However, there were no differences in VO_2max/peak (SMD: 0.09, p = 0.09, 33 intervention arms) between CT and AT, or in lower-body (SMD: 0.07, p = 0.48, 21 intervention arms) and upper-body (SMD: -0.07, p = 0.38, 17 intervention arms) muscular strength between CT and RT. Overall, CT was shown to be effective for increasing CRF and muscular strength in middle-aged to older adults and there was no negative effect on the magnitude of changes in these outcomes compared to either AT or RT alone. These results suggested that CT should be considered a viable strategy to improvement of CRF and muscular strength with aging.

Acute Fatigue Responses to Occupational Training in Military Personnel: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Military personnel are required to undertake rigorous physical training to meet the unique demands of combat, often leading to high levels of physiological stress. Inappropriate recovery periods with these high levels of physical stress may result in sub-optimal training and increased risk of injury in military personnel. However, no reviews have attempted to examine the magnitude of training-induced stress following military training activities. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the magnitude of physiological stress (physical, hormonal, and immunological) following task-specific training activities in military personnel.

METHODS

An extensive literature search was conducted within CINAHL, PubMed, Scopus, SportDiscus, and Web of Science databases with 7,220 records extracted and a total of 14 studies eligible for inclusion and evaluation. Study appraisal was conducted using the Kmet scale. Meta-analysis was conducted via forest plots, with standard mean difference (SMD, effect size) and inter-trial heterogeneity (I2) calculated between before (preactivity) and after (12-96 hours postactivity) military-specific activities for biomarkers of physiological stress (muscle damage, inflammation, and hormonal) and physical performance (muscular strength and power).

RESULTS

Military training activities resulted in significant levels of muscle damage (SMD = -1.28; P = .003) and significant impairments in strength and power (SMD = 0.91; P = .008) and testosterone levels (SMD = 1.48; P = .05) up to 96 hours postactivity. There were no significant differences in inflammation (SMD = -0.70; P = .11), cortisol (SMD = -0.18; P = .81), or insulin-like growth factor 1 (SMD = 0.65; P = .07) when compared to preactivity measures.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that assessments of muscle damage, anabolic hormones like testosterone, strength, and power are effective for determining the level of acute stress following military-specific activities. With regular monitoring of these measures, appropriate recovery periods may be implemented to optimize training adaptations and occupational performance, with minimal adverse training responses in military personnel.

The Paradoxical Effect of Creatine Monohydrate on Muscle Damage Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Several studies have examined the effect of creatine monohydrate (CrM) on indirect muscle damage markers and muscle performance, although pooled data from several studies indicate that the benefits of CrM on recovery dynamics are limited.

Objective

This systematic review and meta-analysis determined whether the ergogenic effects of CrM ameliorated markers of muscle damage and performance following muscle-damaging exercises.

Methods

In total, 23 studies were included, consisting of 240 participants in the CrM group (age 23.9 ± 10.4 years, height 178 ± 5 cm, body mass 76.9 ± 7.6 kg, females 10.4%) and 229 participants in the placebo group (age 23.7 ± 8.5 years, height 177 ± 5 cm, body mass 77.0 ± 6.6 kg, females 10.0%). These studies were rated as fair to excellent following the PEDro scale. The outcome measures were compared between the CrM and placebo groups at 24–36 h and 48–90 h following muscle-damaging exercises, using standardised mean differences (SMDs) and associated p-values via forest plots. Furthermore, sub-group analyses were conducted by separating studies into those that examined the effects of CrM as an acute training response (i.e., after one muscle-damaging exercise bout) and those that examined the chronic training response (i.e., examining the acute response after the last training session following several weeks of training).

Results

According to the meta-analysis, the CrM group exhibited significantly lower indirect muscle damage markers (i.e., creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and/or myoglobin) at 48–90 h post-exercise for the acute training response (SMD − 1.09; p = 0.03). However, indirect muscle damage markers were significantly greater in the CrM group at 24 h post-exercise (SMD 0.95; p = 0.04) for the chronic training response. Although not significant, a large difference in indirect muscle damage markers was also found at 48 h post-exercise (SMD 1.24) for the chronic training response. The CrM group also showed lower inflammation for the acute training response at 24–36 h post-exercise and 48–90 h post-exercise with a large effect size (SMD − 1.38 ≤ d ≤  − 1.79). Similarly, the oxidative stress markers were lower for the acute training response in the CrM group at 24–36 h post-exercise and 90 h post-exercise, with a large effect size (SMD − 1.37 and − 1.36, respectively). For delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), the measures were lower for the CrM group at 24 h post-exercise with a moderate effect size (SMD − 0.66) as an acute training response. However, the inter-group differences for inflammation, oxidative stress, and DOMS were not statistically significant (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

Overall, our meta-analysis demonstrated a paradoxical effect of CrM supplementation post-exercise, where CrM appears to minimise exercise-induced muscle damage as an acute training response, although this trend is reversed as a chronic training response. Thus, CrM may be effective in reducing the level of exercise-induced muscle damage following a single bout of strenuous exercises, although training-induced stress could be exacerbated following long-term supplementation of CrM. Although long-term usage of CrM is known to enhance training adaptations, whether the increased level of exercise-induced muscle damage as a chronic training response may provide potential mechanisms to enhance chronic training adaptations with CrM supplementation remains to be confirmed.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-022-01640-z.

Effects of Knowledge of Results and Change-Oriented Feedback on Swimming Performance

PURPOSE

This study examined the effect of providing knowledge of results (KR) with, and without, promotion- and change-oriented feedback on repeated-sprint ability in swimmers.

METHODS

Twenty-nine male and female swimmers (age = 16 [1] y, height = 1.74 [0.07] m, body mass = 61.0 [8.4] kg) were randomly allocated into 2 different feedback conditions, or a condition without feedback (NoFb), as a crossover, repeated-measures design. In one feedback condition, the swimmers were provided with lap completion times as KR. The other feedback condition was athlete-driven, where the swimmers were asked to estimate their lap completion times, and the investigators responded on whether their actual sprint times were faster (promotion-oriented), slower (change-oriented), or the same.

RESULTS

The results showed significantly faster average completion times during the repeated-sprint swim protocol in the athlete-driven KR (P = .014) and KR condition (P = .023), when compared with the NoFb condition. However, significantly faster best completion time was only found in the KR condition (P = .012), when compared with the NoFb condition. Furthermore, the stroke rate was significantly greater during the athlete-driven KR (P = .009) and KR (P = .021) conditions, when compared with the NoFb condition.

CONCLUSIONS

The KR condition exhibited the greatest benefit for improving several swimming performance measures during a repeated-sprint protocol, and the increase in stroke rate may have contributed to this performance enhancement. Thus, it is recommended that swimmers receive lap completion times during repeated-sprint training sessions to optimize training quality.

Struggles and strategies in anaerobic and aerobic cycling tests: A mixed-method approach with a focus on tailored self-regulation strategies

Endurance sports pose a plethora of mental demands that exercisers have to deal with. Unfortunately, investigations of exercise-specific demands and strategies to deal with them are insufficiently researched, leading to a gap in knowledge about athletic requirements and strategies used to deal with them. Here, we investigated which obstacles exercisers experience during an anaerobic (Wingate test) and an aerobic cycling test (incremental exercise test), as well as the strategies they considered helpful for dealing with these obstacles (qualitative analysis). In addition, we examined whether thinking of these obstacles and strategies in terms of if-then plans (or implementation intentions; i.e., "If I encounter obstacle O, then I will apply strategy S!") improves performance over merely setting performance goals (i.e., goal intentions; quantitative analysis). N = 59 participants (age: M = 23.9 ± 6.5 years) performed both tests twice in a 2-within (Experimental session: 1 vs. 2) × 2-between (Condition: goal vs. implementation intention) design. Exercisers' obstacles and strategies were assessed using structured interviews in Session 1 and subjected to thematic analysis. In both tests, feelings of exertion were the most frequently stated obstacle. Motivation to do well, self-encouragement, and focus on the body and on cycling were frequently stated strategies in both tests. There were also test-specific obstacles, such as boredom reported in the aerobic test. For session 2, the obstacles and strategies elicited in Session 1 were used to specify if-then plans. Bayesian mixed-factor ANOVA suggests, however, that if-then plans did not help exercisers to improve their performance. These findings shed novel light into the mental processes accompanying endurance exercise and the limits they pose on performance.

The effect of branched-chain amino acid on muscle damage markers and performance following strenuous exercise: a systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis determined whether the ergogenic effects of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) ameliorated markers of muscle damage and performance following strenuous exercise. In total, 25 studies were included, consisting of 479 participants (age 24.3 ± 8.3 years, height 1.73 ± 0.06 m, body mass 70.8 ± 9.5 kg, females 26.3%). These studies were rated as fair to excellent following the PEDro scale. The outcome measures were compared between the BCAA and placebo conditions at 24 and 48 hours following muscle-damaging exercises, using standardised mean differences and associated p-values via forest plots. Our meta-analysis demonstrated significantly lower levels of indirect muscle damage markers (creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and myoglobin) at 48 hours post-exercise (standardised mean difference [SMD] = -0.41; p < 0.05) for the BCAA than placebo conditions, whilst muscle soreness was significant at 24 hours post-exercise (SMD = -0.28 ≤ d ≤ -0.61; p < 0.05) and 48 hours post-exercise (SMD = -0.41 ≤ d≤ -0.92; p < 0.01). However, no significant differences were identified between the BCAA and placebo conditions for muscle performance at 24 or 48 hours post-exercise (SMD = 0.08 ≤ d ≤ 0.21; p > 0.05). Overall, BCAA reduced the level of muscle damage biomarkers and muscle soreness following muscle-damaging exercises. However, the potential benefits of BCAA for muscle performance recovery is questionable and warrants further investigation to determine the practicality of BCAA for ameliorating muscle damage symptoms in diverse populations. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42020191248. Novelty: BCAA reduces the level of creatine kinase and muscle soreness following strenuous exercise with a dose-response relationship. BCAA does not accelerate recovery for muscle performance.

Decreased inhibition of exosomal miRNAs on SARS-CoV-2 replication underlies poor outcomes in elderly people and diabetic patients

Elderly people and patients with comorbidities are at higher risk of COVID-19 infection, resulting in severe complications and high mortality. However, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we investigate whether miRNAs in serum exosomes can exert antiviral functions and affect the response to COVID-19 in the elderly and people with diabetes. First, we identified four miRNAs (miR-7-5p, miR-24-3p, miR-145-5p and miR-223-3p) through high-throughput sequencing and quantitative real-time PCR analysis, that are remarkably decreased in the elderly and diabetic groups. We further demonstrated that these miRNAs, either in the exosome or in the free form, can directly inhibit S protein expression and SARS-CoV-2 replication. Serum exosomes from young people can inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication and S protein expression, while the inhibitory effect is markedly decreased in the elderly and diabetic patients. Moreover, three out of the four circulating miRNAs are significantly increased in the serum of healthy volunteers after 8-weeks’ continuous physical exercise. Serum exosomes isolated from these volunteers also showed stronger inhibitory effects on S protein expression and SARS-CoV-2 replication. Our study demonstrates for the first time that circulating exosomal miRNAs can directly inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication and may provide a possible explanation for the difference in response to COVID-19 between young people and the elderly or people with comorbidities.

The acute effect of a multi-modal plyometric training session on field-specific performance measures

BACKGROUND

Plyometric and resistance exercises are known to cause exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). Thus, this study examined the impact of EIMD on various field-specific performance measures following a training session that combined plyometric and resistance exercises.

METHODS

Nine competitive Ultimate Frisbee players undertook a training session consisting of several modes of plyometric and resistance exercises. Indirect markers of muscle damage (i.e., creatine kinase [CK] and delayed onset of muscle soreness [DOMS]) and field-specific performance measures (i.e., run-up vertical jump, standing broad jump, linear sprint and repeated agility) were measured prior to, 24 hours (T24) and 48 hours (T48) post training.

RESULTS

The combined plyometric and resistance training session significantly increased muscle damage markers at T24 (CK: 326.5±210.4% and DOMS: 343.3±181.6%) and T48 (CK: 969.2±1262.3% and DOMS: 371.1±179.3%). The jump performance measures were significantly reduced at T24 (run-up vertical jump -5.5±6.3% and standing broad jump -4.7±3.7%) and T48 (run-up vertical jump -4.2±5.1% and standing broad jump -5.0±4.4%). Furthermore, completion times for linear sprint performance was significantly increased at T24 (4.5±3.4%) and T48 (7.2±4.2%), whilst the average completion time for the repeated agility protocol was significantly increased at T24 (1.4±1.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Competitive team sport athletes may require at least 48 hours of recovery when implementing field-based conditioning sessions after a training session that combines plyometrics and resistance exercises, particular if unfamiliar with such training modalities.

Effect of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage on Bowling-Specific Motor Skills in Male Adolescent Cricketers

The current study examined the acute effects of a bout of resistance training on cricket bowling-specific motor performance. Eight sub-elite, resistance-untrained, adolescent male fast bowlers (age 15 ± 1.7 years; height 1.8 ± 0.1 m; weight 67.9 ± 7.9 kg) completed a bout of upper and lower body resistance exercises. Indirect markers of muscle damage (creatine kinase [CK] and delayed onset of muscle soreness [DOMS]), anaerobic performance (15-m sprint and vertical jump), and cricket-specific motor performance (ball speed, run-up time, and accuracy) were measured prior to and 24 (T24) and 48 (T48) hours following the resistance training bout. The resistance training bout significantly increased CK (~350%; effect size [ES] = 1.89-2.24), DOMS (~240%; ES = 1.46-3.77) and 15-m sprint times (~4.0%; ES = 1.33-1.47), whilst significantly reducing vertical jump height (~7.0%; ES = 0.76-0.96) for up to 48 h. The ball speed (~3.0%; ES = 0.50-0.61) and bowling accuracy (~79%; ES = 0.39-0.70) were significantly reduced, whilst run-up time was significantly increased (~3.5%; ES = 0.36-0.50) for up to 24 h. These findings demonstrate that a bout of resistance training evokes exercise-induced muscle damage amongst sub-elite, adolescent male cricketers, which impairs anaerobic performance and bowling-specific motor performance measures. Cricket coaches should be cautious of incorporating bowling sessions within 24-h following a bout of resistance training for sub-elite adolescent fast bowlers, particularly for those commencing a resistance training program.

The effect of HIIT vs. SIT on muscle oxygenation in trained sprint kayakers

PURPOSE

To assess the performance change and physiological adaptations following nine sessions of short high-intensity interval training (HIIT) or sprint-interval training (SIT) in sprint kayakers.

METHODS

Twelve trained kayakers performed an incremental test and 3 time trials (200 m, 500 m and 1000 m) on a kayak ergometer. Oxygen consumption (V̇O₂) and muscle oxygenation of the latissimus dorsi, biceps brachii, and vastus lateralis were measured. Athletes were then paired for sex and V̇O₂max and randomized into a HIIT or a SIT training group, and performed nine training sessions before repeating the tests.

RESULTS

Training improved performance in HIIT (200 m: + 3.8 ± 3.1%, p = 0.06; 500 m: + 2.1 ± 4.1%, p = 0.056; 1000 m: + 3.0 ± 4.6%, p = 0.13) but changes in performance remained within the smallest worthwhile change in SIT (200 m: + 0.8 ± 4.1%, p = 0.59; 500 m: + 0.5 ± 4.1%, p = 0.87; 1000 m: + 1.3 ± 4.6%, p = 0.57). In the 1000 m, training led to a greater deoxygenation in the biceps brachii and vastus lateralis in HIIT, and in the latissimus dorsi in SIT. In HIIT, the best predictors of improvements in 1000 m performance were increases in latissimus dorsi and vastus lateralis maximal deoxygenation.

CONCLUSION

In a group of trained sprint kayakers, greater improvements in performance can be obtained with HIIT compared with SIT, for any distance. Training did not change V̇O₂peak, but increased muscle maximal deoxygenation, suggesting both HIIT and SIT elicit peripheral adaptations. Performance improvement in the 1000 m was associated with increased maximal muscle deoxygenation, reinforcing the contribution of peripheral adaptations to performance in sprint kayaking.

Acute Effects of Training Loads on Muscle Damage Markers and Performance in Semi-elite and Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The relationship between exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) indicators and acute training loads (TL) is yet to be reviewed extensively in semi-elite and elite athlete populations.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this systematic review and meta-analysis were threefold: (1) to evaluate studies of EIMD following the initial period of the preseason in semi-elite and elite athletes: (2) to examine acute physiological and performance responses across two periods of the season with similar TL; and (3) to examine acute physiological and performance responses to acute changes in TL during the season.

METHODS

The CINAHL, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science databases were systematically searched for studies that investigated: (1) semi-elite or elite athletes in team or individual sports following a periodised training programme; and (2) measured acute responses to training. Studies were excluded if: (1) conducted in animals; (2) non-English language; or (3) a conference abstract, review or case report. The Kmet Quality Scoring of Quantitative Studies tool was used for study appraisal.

SYNTHESIS METHODS

Data were quantitatively analysed by generating forest plots to report test statistics for statistical significance and inter-trial heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Of the included studies (n = 32), athletes experienced greater creatine kinase (CK) concentrations (Z = 4.99, p < 0.00001, I² = 74%), inflammatory factors and other indirect measures of muscle damage in the initial phase of the preseason period compared to the off-season; there were no changes in CK (Z = 1.43, p = 0.15, I² = 74%) across two time points of similar TL; and there were concurrent increases in CK with increases in TL (Z = 4.26, p < 0.0001, I² = 36%) and vice versa (Z = 4.33, p < 0.0001, I² = 79%).The qualitative analysis identified that the response of inflammatory factors and other indirect measures of muscle damage to changes in load were inconclusive.

LIMITATIONS

This review included varying age, sex, sports and competition levels. The group level meta-analysis failed to identify within-athlete or position-specific differences across time.

CONCLUSION

Blood biomarkers of EIMD may not differ across periods of similar TL, however can be considered a sensitive monitoring tool for assessing responses following acute TL changes in semi-elite and elite athletes.

Myofibre Hypertrophy in the Absence of Changes to Satellite Cell Content Following Concurrent Exercise Training in Young Healthy Men

Concurrent exercise training has been suggested to create an ‘interference effect,’ attenuating resistance training-based skeletal muscle adaptations, including myofibre hypertrophy. Satellite cells support myofibre hypertrophy and are influenced by exercise mode. To determine whether satellite cells contribute to the ‘interference effect’ changes in satellite cell and myonuclear content were assessed following a period of training in 32 recreationally active males (age: 25 ± 5 year; body mass index: 24 ± 3 kg⋅m^–2; mean ± SD) who undertook 12-week of either isolated (3 d⋅w^–1) resistance (RES; n = 10), endurance (END; n = 10), or alternate day (6 d⋅w^–1) concurrent (CET, n = 12) training. Skeletal muscle biopsies were obtained pre-intervention and after 2, 8, and 12 weeks of training to determine fibre type-specific cross-sectional area (CSA), satellite cell content (Pax7⁺DAPI⁺), and myonuclei (DAPI⁺) using immunofluorescence microscopy. After 12 weeks, myofibre CSA increased in all training conditions in type II (P = 0.0149) and mixed fibres (P = 0.0102), with no difference between conditions. Satellite cell content remained unchanged after training in both type I and type II fibres. Significant correlations were observed between increases in fibre type-specific myonuclear content and CSA of Type I (r = 0.63, P < 0.0001), Type II (r = 0.69, P < 0.0001), and mixed fibres (r = 0.72, P < 0.0001). Resistance, endurance, and concurrent training induce similar myofibre hypertrophy in the absence of satellite cell and myonuclear pool expansion. These findings suggest that myonuclear accretion via satellite cell fusion is positively correlated with hypertrophy after 12 weeks of concurrent training, and that individuals with more myonuclear content displayed greater myofibre hypertrophy.

Effects of Kinesio Tape on Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background

Kinesio tape (KT) may be useful for the treatment of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), but there has been no systematic review assessing their efficacy.

Objectives

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy of KT on DOMS.

Methods

We searched seven databases for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and crossover randomized trials of KT in DOMS, from the earliest date available to December 31, 2019. The primary outcome was muscle soreness. The secondary outcome was muscle strength and serum creatine kinase (CK) level. The risk of bias was evaluated based on the Cochrane criteria. Data were analyzed using RevMan version 5.3.0 software. P values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Systematic review registration number is CRD42020157052.

Results

Eight trials (six RCTs and two crossover randomized trials) with 289 participants were included. KT use significantly reduced muscle soreness at 48 h (mean difference (MD): -0.67, 95% confidence interval (CI): -1.10 to 0.24, P = 0.002) and 72 h postexercise (MD: -0.81, 95% CI: -1.45 to -0.17, P = 0.01) but not at 24 h. KT use improved muscle strength at 72 h postexercise (standardized mean difference: 0.35, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.69, P = 0.04) but not at 24 or 48 h. However, the serum CK level at 24, 48, and 72 h postexercise was not better in the KT group relative to the control group.

Conclusions

Current evidence suggests that KT might help to alleviate DOMS after strenuous exercise to improve muscle strength. Thus, using KT on the skin for more than 48 hours postexercise, but not for 24 h, appears more effective at relieving pain and improving muscle strength.

Resistance Training Affects Neuromuscular Fatigue But Not Efficiency in Elite Rowers

PURPOSE

To investigate how resistance training (RT) in a regular training program affects neuromuscular fatigue (NMF) and gross efficiency (EGROSS) in elite rowers.

METHODS

Twenty-six elite male rowers performed 4 RT sessions within 10 days. At baseline and after the first and fourth RT, EGROSS and NMF were established. From breathing gas, EGROSS was determined during submaximal rowing tests. Using a countermovement jump test, NMF was assessed by jump height, flight time, flight-to-contraction-time ratio, peak power, and time to peak power. Muscle soreness was assessed using a 10-cm-long visual analog scale.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found for EGROSS (P = .565, ω2 = .032). Muscle soreness (P = .00, ω2 = .500) and time to peak power (P = .08, ω2 = 0.238) were higher compared with baseline at all test moments. Flight-to-contraction-time ratio, jump height, and peak power after the fourth RT differed from baseline (P < .05, ω2 = .36, ω2 = .38, and ω2 = .31) and from results obtained after the first RT (P < .05, ω2 = .36, ω2 = .47, and ω2 = .22).

CONCLUSIONS

RT in general does not influence EGROSS, but large individual differences (4.1%-14.8%) were observed. NMF is affected by RT, particularly after multiple sessions. During periods of intensified RT, imposed external load for low-intensity endurance training need not be altered, but rowers are recommended to abstain from intensive endurance training. Individual monitoring is strongly recommended.

Traditional Versus Velocity-Based Resistance Training in Competitive Female Cyclists: A Randomized Controlled Trial

We assessed the effects of a short-term velocity-based resistance training (VBRT, where exercise intensity is individualized based on the loads and repetitions that maximize power output) program compared with traditional resistance training (TRT, where the same number of repetitions and relative load are used for every individual) on body composition, muscle strength/power, and endurance performance in competitive female cyclists. Seventeen participants were randomly assigned to 6 weeks (two sessions/week) of TRT (n = 8) or VBRT (n = 9), during which they maintained their usual endurance program. Both interventions included squat, hip thrust, and split squat exercises. Training loads were continuously registered, and outcomes were measures of muscle strength/power, body composition, and endurance performance (incremental test and 8-min time trial). No differences between TRT and VBRT groups were found for overall internal training loads during resistance training or cycling sessions (p > 0.05). Both interventions led to significant improvements in all strength/power-related outcomes, but VBRT induced greater improvements than TRT in maximum muscle strength and power as assessed with the hip thrust exercise (p < 0.05 for the group by time interaction effect). However, no significant group by time interaction effect was found for body composition or endurance performance-related outcomes. In conclusion, the addition of a short-term intervention of VBRT or TRT to the usual training regimen of competitive female cyclists improves muscle strength/power, albeit VBRT might induce superior gains on maximum strength/power for the hip thrust exercise.

Effects of Velocity Loss Threshold Within Resistance Training During Concurrent Training on Endurance and Strength Performance

PURPOSE

This study analyzed the effects of 3 training interventions: 1 isolated endurance training (ET) and 2 concurrent training (CT), which differed in the velocity loss (VL) magnitude allowed during the resistance training (RT) set: 15% (VL15) versus 45%, on strength and endurance running performance.

METHODS

A total of 33 resistance- and endurance-trained men were randomly allocated into 3 groups: VL15, VL 45%, and ET. ET was similar across all groups. The CT groups differed in the VL allowed during the RT set. Before and after the 8-week training program the following tests were performed: (1) running sprints, (2) vertical jump, (3) progressive loading test in the squat exercise, and (4) incremental treadmill running test up to maximal oxygen uptake.

RESULTS

Significant differences (P < .001) in RT volume (approximately 401 vs 177 total repetitions for VL 45% and VL15, respectively) were observed. Significant "group" × "time" interactions were observed for vertical jump and all strength-related variables: the CT groups attained significantly greater gains than ET. Moreover, a significant "group" × "time" interaction (P = .03) was noted for velocity at maximal oxygen uptake. Although all groups showed increases in velocity at maximal oxygen uptake, the VL15 group achieved greater gains than the ET group.

CONCLUSIONS

CT interventions experienced greater strength gains than the ET group. Although all groups improved their endurance performance, the VL15 intervention resulted in greater gains than the ET approach. Therefore, moderate VL thresholds in RT performed during CT could be a good strategy for concurrently maximizing strength and endurance development.

The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Markers of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Intervention Trials

This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of creatine supplementation on recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage, and is reported according to the PRISMA guidelines. MEDLINE and SPORTDiscus were searched for articles from inception until April 2020. Inclusion criteria were adult participants (≥18 years); creatine provided before and/or after exercise versus a noncreatine comparator; measurement of muscle function recovery, muscle soreness, inflammation, myocellular protein efflux, oxidative stress; range of motion; randomized controlled trials in humans. Thirteen studies (totaling 278 participants; 235 males and 43 females; age range 20-60 years) were deemed eligible for analysis. Data extraction was performed independently by both authors. The Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias Tool was used to critically appraise the studies; forest plots were generated with random-effects model and standardized mean differences. Creatine supplementation did not alter muscle strength, muscle soreness, range of motion, or inflammation at each of the five follow-up times after exercise (<30 min, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hr; p > .05). Creatine attenuated creatine kinase activity at 48-hr postexercise (standardized mean difference: -1.06; 95% confidence interval [-1.97, -0.14]; p = .02) but at no other time points. High (I2; >75%) and significant (Chi2; p < .01) heterogeneity was identified for all outcome measures at various follow-up times. In conclusion, creatine supplementation does not accelerate recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage; however, well-controlled studies with higher sample sizes are warranted to verify these conclusions. Systematic review registration (PROSPERO CRD42020178735).

On- Versus Off-Bike Power Training in Professional Cyclists: A Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

To compare the effectiveness of resistance power training (RPT, training with the individualized load and repetitions that maximize power output) and cycling power training (CPT, short sprint training) in professional cyclists.

METHODS

The participants (20 [2] y, peak oxygen uptake 78.0 [4.4] mL·kg-1·min-1) were randomly assigned to perform CPT (n = 8) or RPT (n = 10) in addition to their usual training regime for 7 weeks (2 sessions/wk). The training loads were continuously registered using the session rating of perceived exertion. The outcomes included endurance performance (8-min time trial and incremental test), as well as measures of muscle strength/power (1-repetition maximum and mean maximum propulsive power on the squat, hip thrust, and lunge exercises) and body composition (assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry).

RESULTS

No between-group differences were found for training loads or for any outcome (P > .05). Both interventions resulted in increased time-trial performance, as well as in improvements in other endurance-related outcomes (ie, ventilatory threshold, respiratory compensation point; P < .05). A significant or quasi-significant increase (P = .068 and .047 for CPT and RPT, respectively) in bone mineral content was observed after both interventions. A significant reduction in fat mass (P = .017), along with a trend (P = .059) toward a reduced body mass, was observed after RPT, but not CPT (P = .076 for the group × time interaction effect). Significant benefits (P < .05) were also observed for most strength-related outcomes after RPT, but not CPT.

CONCLUSION

CPT and RPT are both effective strategies for the improvement of endurance performance and bone health in professional cyclists, although the latter tends to result in greater improvements in body composition and muscle strength/power.

Effects of Exercise Sequence and Velocity Loss Threshold During Resistance Training on Following Endurance and Strength Performance During Concurrent Training

PURPOSE

This study aimed to analyze the response to 4 concurrent training interventions differing in the training sequence and in the velocity loss (VL) threshold during strength training (20% vs 40%) on following endurance and strength performance.

METHODS

A randomized crossover research design was used. Sixteen trained men performed 4 training interventions consisting of endurance training (ET) followed by resistance training (RT), with 20% and 40% VL, respectively (ET + RT20 and ET + RT40), and RT with 20% and 40% VL, respectively, followed by ET (RT20 + ET and RT40 + ET). The ET consisted of running for 10 minutes at 90% of maximal aerobic velocity. The RT consisted of 3 squat sets with 60% of 1-repetition maximum. A 5-minute rest was given between exercises. The oxygen uptake throughout the ET and repetition velocity during RT were recorded. The blood lactate concentration, vertical jump, and squat velocity were measured at preexercise and after the endurance and strength exercises.

RESULTS

The RT40 + ET protocol showed an impaired running time along with higher ventilatory equivalents compared with those protocols that performed the ET without previous fatigue. No significant differences were observed in the repetitions per set performed for a given VL threshold, regardless of the exercise sequence. The protocols consisting of 40%VL induced greater reductions in jump height and squat velocity, along with elevated blood lactate concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

A high VL magnitude (40%VL) induced higher metabolic and mechanical stress, as well as greater residual fatigue, on the following ET performance.

Chronic Effects of Altering Resistance Training Set Configurations Using Cluster Sets: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The acute responses to cluster set resistance training (RT) have been demonstrated. However, as compared to traditional sets, the effect of cluster sets on muscular and neuromuscular adaptations remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effects of RT programs implementing cluster and traditional set configurations on muscular and neuromuscular adaptations.

METHODS

Systematic searches of Embase, Scopus, Medline and SPORTDiscus were conducted. Inclusion criteria were: (1) randomized or non-randomized comparative studies; (2) publication in English; (3) participants of all age groups; (4) participants free of any medical condition or injury; (5) cluster set intervention; (6) comparison intervention utilizing a traditional set configuration; (7) intervention length ≥ three weeks and (8) at least one measure of changes in strength/force/torque, power, velocity, hypertrophy or muscular endurance. Raw data (mean ± SD or range) were extracted from included studies. Hedges' g effect sizes (ES) ± standard error of the mean (SEM) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies were included in the meta-analysis. No differences between cluster and traditional set configurations were found for strength (ES = - 0.05 ± 0.10, 95% CI - 0.21 to 0.11, p = 0.56), power output (ES = 0.02 ± 0.10, 95% CI - 0.17 to 0.20, p = 0.86), velocity (ES = 0.15 ± 0.13, 95% CI - 0.10 to 0.41, p = 0.24), hypertrophy (ES = - 0.05 ± 0.14, 95% CI - 0.32 to 0.23, p = 0.73) or endurance (ES = - 0.07 ± 0.18, 95% CI - 0.43 to 0.29, p = 0.70) adaptations. Moreover, no differences were observed when training volume, cluster set model, training status, body parts trained or exercise type were considered.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, both cluster and traditional set configurations demonstrate equal effectiveness to positively induce muscular and neuromuscular adaptation(s). However, cluster set configurations may achieve such adaptations with less fatigue development during RT which may be an important consideration across various exercise settings and stages of periodized RT programs.

Traditional Versus Optimum Power Load Training in Professional Cyclists: A Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

To compare the effectiveness of optimum power load training (OPT, training with an individualized load and repetitions that maximize power output) and traditional resistance training (TRT, same number of repetitions and relative load for all individuals) in professional cyclists.

METHODS

Participants (19 [1] y, peak oxygen uptake 75.5 [6] mL/kg/min) were randomly assigned to 8 weeks (2 sessions per week) of TRT (n = 11) or OPT (n = 9), during which they maintained their usual cycle training schedule. Training loads were continuously registered, and measures of muscle strength/power (1-repetition maximum and maximum mean propulsive power on the squat, hip thrust, and lunge exercises), body composition (assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), and endurance performance (assessed on both an incremental test and an 8-min time trial) were collected before and at the end of the intervention.

RESULTS

OPT resulted in a lower average intensity (percentage of 1-repetition maximum) during resistance training sessions for all exercises (P < .01), but no differences were found for overall training loads during resistance or cycling sessions (P > .05). Both programs led to significant improvements in all strength/power-related parameters, muscle mass (with no changes in total body mass but a decreased fat mass), and time-trial performance (all Ps < .05). A trend toward increased power output at the respiratory compensation point was also found (P = .056 and .066 for TRT and OPT, respectively). No between-groups differences were noted for any outcome (P > .05).

CONCLUSION

The addition of either TRT or OPT to an endurance training regimen of elite cyclists results in similar improvements of body composition, muscle strength/power, and endurance performance.

Selected root plant supplementation reduces indices of exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of selected root plants (curcumin, ginseng, ginger and garlic) on markers of muscle damage and muscular performance measures following muscle-damaging protocols. We included 25 studies (parallel and crossover design) with 353 participants and used the PEDro scale to appraise each study. Forest plots were generated to report on standardised mean differences (SMD) and p-values at 24 and 48 hours following the muscle-damaging protocols. The meta-analysis showed that the supplemental (SUPP) condition showed significantly lower levels of indirect muscle damage markers (creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and myoglobin) and muscle soreness at 24 hours and 48 hours (p < 0.01) than the placebo (PLA) condition. The inflammatory markers were significantly lower for the SUPP condition than the PLA condition at 24 hours (p = 0.02), although no differences were identified at 48 hours (p = 0.40). There were no significant differences in muscular performance measures between the SUPP and PLA conditions at 24 hours and 48 hours (p > 0.05) post-exercise. According to our qualitative data, a number of studies reported a reduction in oxidative stress (e.g., malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase) with a concomitant upregulation of anti-oxidant status, although other studies showed no effects. Accordingly, selected root plants minimised the level of several biomarkers of muscle damage, inflammation and muscle soreness during periods of exercise-induced muscle damage. However, the benefits of these supplements in ameliorating oxidative stress, increasing anti-oxidant status and accelerating recovery of muscular performance appears equivocal, warranting further research in these outcome measures.

Resistance Training Acutely Impairs Agility and Spike-Specific Performance Measures in Collegiate Female Volleyball Players Returning from the Off-Season

This study examined the acute effects of resistance training (RT) on volleyball-specific performance. Sixteen female volleyball players undertook their initial, pre-season RT bout. Countermovement jump (CMJ), delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS), and sport-specific performances (i.e., run-up jump, agility, and spiking speed and accuracy) were measured before, 24 (T24), and 48 (T48) hours after RT. A significant increase in DOMS was observed at T24 and T48 (~207.6% ± 119.3%; p < 0.05; ES = 1.8 (95% CI: 0.94–2.57)), whilst agility was significantly impaired at T48 (1.7% ± 2.5%; p < 0.05; ES = 0.30 (95% CI: −0.99–0.40)). However, there were no differences in CMJ (~−2.21% ± 7.6%; p > 0.05; ES = −0.11 (95% CI: −0.80–0.58)) and run-up jump (~−1.4% ± 4.7%; p > 0.05; ES = −0.07 (95% CI: −0.76–0.63)). Spiking speed was significantly reduced (−3.5% ± 4.4%; p < 0.05; ES = −0.28 (95% CI: −0.43–0.97)), although accuracy was improved (38.3% ± 81.4%: p < 0.05) at T48. Thus, the initial, preseason RT bout compromised agility and spiking speed for several days post-exercise. Conversely, spiking accuracy improved, suggesting a speed–accuracy trade-off. Nonetheless, at least a 48-h recovery may be necessary after the initial RT bout for athletes returning from the off-season or injury.

Fruit supplementation reduces indices of exercise-induced muscle damage: a systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of fruit supplements on indices of muscle damage and physical performance measures following muscle-damaging exercise protocols. The PEDro scale and Cochrane's risk of bias tool was used to critically appraise each study, whilst forest plots were generated to report on standardised mean differences (SMD) and p-values. The studies employed a crossover-randomised design, or a randomised controlled placebo design, with measures compared between the supplement (SUPP) and placebo (PLA) conditions at 24 and 48 h following the muscle-damaging exercise protocols. Compared to the PLA condition, the SUPP condition exhibited significantly lower levels of indirect muscle damage markers (p = 0.02; I² = 44%), inflammatory markers (p = 0.03; I² = 45%) and oxidative stress (p < 0.001; I² = 58%), whilst antioxidant capacity was significantly increased (p = 0.04; I² = 82%) at 24 h post-exercise. The maximal isometric voluntary contraction was significantly greater for the SUPP condition than the PLA at 24 h (p < 0.001; I² = 81%) and 48 h (p < 0.001; 84%) post-exercise. Only a few studies reported on functional outcome measures (i.e. countermovement jump, cycling, sprint and running maximal oxygen uptake), and the findings appeared conflicting according to qualitative analyses. Fruit supplementation minimised the level of several biomarkers of muscle damage, inflammation and oxidative stress, whilst improved muscular contractility during periods of EIMD. These findings demonstrate that fruit supplements could be used as recovery strategies from strenuous exercise sessions.

Order of same-day concurrent training influences some indices of power development, but not strength, lean mass, or aerobic fitness in healthy, moderately-active men after 9 weeks of training

Background

The importance of concurrent exercise order for improving endurance and resistance adaptations remains unclear, particularly when sessions are performed a few hours apart. We investigated the effects of concurrent training (in alternate orders, separated by ~3 hours) on endurance and resistance training adaptations, compared to resistance-only training.

Materials and methods

Twenty-nine healthy, moderately-active men (mean ± SD; age 24.5 ± 4.7 y; body mass 74.9 ± 10.8 kg; height 179.7 ± 6.5 cm) performed either resistance-only training (RT, n = 9), or same-day concurrent training whereby high-intensity interval training was performed either 3 hours before (HIIT+RT, n = 10) or after resistance training (RT+HIIT, n = 10), for 3 d^.wk^-1 over 9 weeks. Training-induced changes in leg press 1-repetition maximal (1-RM) strength, countermovement jump (CMJ) performance, body composition, peak oxygen uptake (V˙O2peak), aerobic power (W˙peak), and lactate threshold (W˙LT) were assessed before, and after both 5 and 9 weeks of training.

Results

After 9 weeks, all training groups increased leg press 1-RM (~24–28%) and total lean mass (~3-4%), with no clear differences between groups. Both concurrent groups elicited similar small-to-moderate improvements in all markers of aerobic fitness (V˙O2peak ~8–9%; W˙LT ~16-20%; W˙peak ~14-15%). RT improved CMJ displacement (mean ± SD, 5.3 ± 6.3%), velocity (2.2 ± 2.7%), force (absolute: 10.1 ± 10.1%), and power (absolute: 9.8 ± 7.6%; relative: 6.0 ± 6.6%). HIIT+RT elicited comparable improvements in CMJ velocity only (2.2 ± 2.7%). Compared to RT, RT+HIIT attenuated CMJ displacement (mean difference ± 90%CI, -5.1 ± 4.3%), force (absolute: -8.2 ± 7.1%) and power (absolute: -6.0 ± 4.7%). Only RT+HIIT reduced absolute fat mass (mean ± SD, -11.0 ± 11.7%).

Conclusions

In moderately-active males, concurrent training, regardless of the exercise order, presents a viable strategy to improve lower-body maximal strength and total lean mass comparably to resistance-only training, whilst also improving indices of aerobic fitness. However, improvements in CMJ displacement, force, and power were attenuated when RT was performed before HIIT, and as such, exercise order may be an important consideration when designing training programs in which the goal is to improve lower-body power.

Effect of a 3-Weeks Training Camp on Muscle Oxygenation, V ˙ O2 and Performance in Elite Sprint Kayakers

Purpose: Peripheral adaptations, as assessed via near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) derived changes in muscle oxygenation (SmO2), are good predictors of sprint kayak performance. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to assess changes in SmO2 andV ˙ O2 following a training camp in elite sprint kayakers to evaluate if the training prescribed elicits peripheral adaptations, and to assess associations between training-induced changes in physiological responses and performance. Methods: Eight male elite sprint kayakers, members of the Canadian National Team, performed a 200-m and 1,000-m on-water time trial (TT) before and after a 3-weeks winter training camp. Change in performance,V ˙ O2 and SmO2 of the biceps brachii were assessed in relation to training load. Results: Training load and intensity were increased by ~20% over the course of the training camp, which resulted in a 3.7 ± 1.7% (ES 1.2) and 2.8 ± 2.4% (ES 1.3) improvement in 200-m and 1,000-m performance, respectively. Performance improvement in the 200-m was concomitant to a reduced SmO2, an increasedV ˙ O2 peak and an increased reoxygenation rate after the TT. The 1,000-m TT performance improvement was concurrent with a reduced SmO2 in the last half of the TT and an increasedV ˙ O2 in the first minute of the TT. Conclusion: Our results strongly suggest that peripheral skeletal muscle adaptations occurred in these athletes with the proposed training plan. This further attests the benefit of using portable NIRS as a monitoring tool to track training-induced adaptations in muscle oxygen extraction in elite athletes.

Training Considerations for Optimising Endurance Development: An Alternate Concurrent Training Perspective

Whilst the "acute hypothesis" was originally coined to describe the detrimental effects of concurrent training on strength development, similar physiological processes may occur when endurance training adaptations are compromised. There is a growing body of research indicating that typical resistance exercises impair neuromuscular function and endurance performance during periods of resistance training-induced muscle damage. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that the attenuating effects of resistance training-induced muscle damage on endurance performance are influenced by exercise intensity, exercise mode, exercise sequence, recovery and contraction velocity of resistance training. By understanding the influence that training variables have on the level of resistance training-induced muscle damage and its subsequent attenuating effects on endurance performance, concurrent training programs could be prescribed in such a way that minimises fatigue between modes of training and optimises the quality of endurance training sessions. Therefore, this review will provide considerations for concurrent training prescription for endurance development based on scientific evidence. Furthermore, recommendations will be provided for future research by identifying training variables that may impact on endurance development as a result of concurrent training.

Use of Loaded Conditioning Activities to Potentiate Middle- and Long-Distance Performance: A Narrative Review and Practical Applications

Blagrove, RC, Howatson, G, and Hayes, PR. Use of loaded conditioning activities to potentiate middle- and long-distance performance: a narrative review and practical applications. J Strength Cond Res 33(8): 2288-2297, 2019-The warm-up is an integral component of a middle- and long-distance athlete's preperformance routine. The use of a loaded conditioning activity (LCA), which elicits a postactivation potentiation (PAP) response to acutely enhance explosive power performance, is well researched. A similar approach incorporated into the warm-up of a middle- or long-distance athlete potentially provides a novel strategy to augment performance. Mechanisms that underpin a PAP response, relating to acute adjustments within the neuromuscular system, should theoretically improve middle- and long-distance performance through improvements in submaximal force-generating ability. Attempts to enhance middle- and long-distance-related outcomes using an LCA have been used in several recent studies. Results suggest that benefits to performance may exist in well-trained middle- and long-distance athletes by including high-intensity resistance training (1-5 repetition maximum) or adding load to the sport skill itself during the latter part of warm-ups. Early stages of performance seem to benefit most, and it is likely that recovery (5-10 minutes) also plays an important role after an LCA. Future research should consider how priming activity, designed to enhance the VO2 kinetic response, and an LCA may interact to affect performance, and how different LCAs might benefit various modes and durations of middle- and long-distance exercises.

The Effect of a Resistance Training Session on Physiological and Thermoregulatory Measures of Sub-maximal Running Performance in the Heat in Heat-Acclimatized Men

BACKGROUND

The current study examined the acute effects of a lower body resistance training (RT) session on physiological and thermoregulatory measures during a sub-maximal running protocol in the heat in heat-acclimatized men. Ten resistance-untrained men (age 27.4 ± 4.1 years; height 1.78 ± 0.06 m; body mass 76.8 ± 9.9 kg; peak oxygen uptake 48.2 ± 7.0 mL kg^-1 min^-1) undertook a high-intensity RT session at six-repetition maximum. Indirect muscle damage markers (i.e., creatine kinase [CK], delayed-onset muscle soreness [DOMS], and countermovement jump [CMJ]) were collected prior to, immediately post and 24 and 48 h after the RT session. The sub-maximal running protocol was performed at 70% of the ventilatory threshold, which was conducted prior to and 24 and 48 h following the RT session to obtain physiological and thermoregulatory measures.

RESULTS

The RT session exhibited significant increases in DOMS (p < 0.05; effect size [ES]: 1.41-10.53), whilst reduced CMJ (p < 0.05; ES: - 0.79-1.41) for 48 h post-exercise. There were no differences in CK (p > 0.05), although increased with moderate to large ES (0.71-1.12) for 48 h post-exercise. The physiological cost of running was increased for up to 48 h post-exercise (p < 0.05) with moderate to large ES (0.50-0.84), although no differences were shown in thermoregulatory measures (p > 0.05) with small ES (0.33).

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that a RT session impairs sub-maximal running performance for several days post-exercise, although thermoregulatory measures are unperturbed despite elevated muscle damage indicators in heat-acclimatized, resistance untrained men. Accordingly, whilst a RT session may not increase susceptibility to heat-related injuries in heat-acclimatized men during sub-maximal running in the heat, endurance sessions should be undertaken with caution for at least 48 h post-exercise following the initial RT session in resistance untrained men.

Celebrating 40 Years of Ironman: How the Champions Perform

We aimed to determine which discipline had the greater performance improvements in the history of Ironman triathlon in Hawaii and also which discipline had the greater influence in overall race time. Data from 1983 to 2018 of the top three women and men of each year who competed in the Ironman World Championship were included. In addition to exploratory data analyses, linear regressions between split times and years of achievement were performed. Further, a stepwise multiple linear regression was applied using total race time as the dependent variable and split times as the independent variables. Both women and men significantly improved their performances from 1983 to 2018 in the Ironman World Championship. Swimming had the largest difference in improvements between men and women (3.0% versus 12.1%, respectively). A negative and significant decrease in each discipline was identified for both women and men, with cycling being the discipline with the greatest reduction. The results from the stepwise multiple regression indicated that cycling was the discipline with the highest influence on overall race time for both sexes. Based on the findings of this study, cycling seems to be the Ironman triathlon discipline that most improved overall race times and is also the discipline with the greatest influence on the overall race time of elite men and women in the Ironman World Championship.

Combined effects of very short "all out" efforts during sprint and resistance training on physical and physiological adaptations after 2 weeks of training

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to compare the combined effects of resistance and sprint training, with very short efforts (5 s), on aerobic and anaerobic performances, and cardiometabolic health-related parameters in young healthy adults.

METHODS

Thirty young physically active individuals were randomly allocated into four groups: resistance training (RTG), sprint interval training (SITG), concurrent training (CTG), and control (CONG). Participants trained 3 days/week for 2 weeks in the high-intensity interventions that consisted of 6-12 "all out" efforts of 5 s separated by 24 s of recovery, totalizing ~ 13 min per session, with 48-72 h of recovery between sessions. Body composition, vertical jump, lower body strength, aerobic and anaerobic performances, heart rate variability (HRV), and redox status were evaluated before and after training. Total work (TW), rating of perceived exertion (CR-10 RPE) and mean HR (HR_mean) were monitored during sessions. Incidental physical activity (PA), dietary intake and perceived stress were also controlled.

RESULTS

Maximum oxygen consumption (VO_2max) significantly increased in SITG and CTG (P < 0.05). Lower body strength improved in RTG and CTG (P < 0.05), while countermovement jump (CMJ) was improved in RTG (P = 0.04) only. Redox status improved after all interventions (P < 0.05). No differences were found in TW, PA, dietary intake, and psychological stress between groups (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

RT and SIT protocols with very short "all out" efforts, either performed in isolation, or combined, demonstrated improvement in several physical fitness- and health-related parameters. However, CT was the most efficient exercise intervention with improvement observed in the majority of the parameters.