The Effects of Regular Cold-Water Immersion Use on Training-Induced Changes in Strength and Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on performance and perceptive outcomes of competitive adolescent swimmers

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effects of repeated use of cold-water immersion (CWI) during a training week on performance and perceptive outcomes in competitive adolescent swimmers.

METHODS

This randomized-crossover study included 20 athletes, who received each intervention [CWI (14 ± 1 °C), thermoneutral water immersion (TWI) (27 ± 1 °C) as placebo, and passive recovery (PAS)] three times a week between the land-based resistance training and swim training. The interventions were performed in a randomized order with a 1-week wash-out period. We tested athletes before and after each intervention week regarding swim (100 m freestyle sprints) and functional performance (flexibility, upper and lower body power, and shoulder proprioception). We monitored athlete's perceptions (well-being, heaviness, tiredness, discomfort and pain) during testing sessions using a 5-item questionnaire. Athlete preferences regarding the interventions were assessed at the end of the study. We used generalized linear mixed models and generalized estimating equations for continuous and categorical variables, respectively (intervention x time).

RESULTS

We found a time effect for swim performance (p = .01) in which, regardless the intervention, all athletes improved sprint time at post-intervention compared to baseline. There was an intervention effect for pain (p = .04) and tiredness (p = .04), but with no significant post-hoc comparisons. We found no significant effects for other outcomes. All athletes reported a preference for CWI or TWI in relation to PAS.

CONCLUSION

The repeated use of CWI throughout a training week did not impact functional or swim performance outcomes of competitive adolescent swimmers. Perceptive outcomes were also similar across interventions; however, athletes indicated a preference for both CWI and TWI.

Effectiveness of Recovery Strategies After Training and Competition in Endurance Athletes: An Umbrella Review

BACKGROUND

Recovery strategies are used to enhance performance and reduce injury risk in athletes. In previous systematic reviews, individual recovery strategies were investigated to clarify their effectiveness for mixed groups of athletes. However, the current evidence is ambiguous, and a clear overview of (training) recovery for endurance athletes is still lacking.

METHODS

We conducted an umbrella review based on a literature search in PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Web of Science. Reviews published in English and before December 2022 were included. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were eligible if they investigated the effectiveness of one or more recovery strategies compared with a placebo or control group after a training session in endurance athletes.

RESULTS

Twenty-two reviews (nine systematic reviews, three meta-analyses, and ten systematic reviews with meta-analyses included) met the inclusion criteria. In total, sixty-three studies with 1100 endurance athletes were included in our umbrella review. Out of the sixty-three studies, eight provided information on training recovery time frame for data synthesis. Among them, cryotherapy and compression garments showed positive effects, while applying massage showed no effect. In general, none of the included recovery strategies showed consistent benefits for endurance athletes.

CONCLUSION

There is no particular recovery strategy that can be advised to enhance recovery between training sessions or competitions in endurance athletes. However, individual studies suggest that compression garments and cryotherapy are effective training recovery strategies. Further research should improve methodology and focus on the different time courses of the recovery process.

REGISTRATION

The review protocol was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews with the number CRD42021260509.

Fundamentals or Icing on Top of the Cake? A Narrative Review of Recovery Strategies and Devices for Athletes

The sport and athletic performance industry has seen a plethora of new recovery devices and technologies over recent years, and it has become somewhat difficult for athletes, coaches, and practitioners to navigate the efficacy of such devices or whether they are even required at all. With the increase in recovery devices and tools, it has also become commonplace for athletes to overlook more traditional, well-established recovery strategies. In this narrative review, we discuss recovery strategies in relation to the hierarchy of scientific evidence, classifying them based on the strength of the evidence, ranging from meta-analyses through to case studies and reports. We report that foam rolling, compression garments, cryotherapy, photobiomodulation, hydrotherapy, and active recovery have a high level of positive evidence for improved recovery outcomes, while sauna, recovery boots/sleeves, occlusion cuffs, and massage guns currently have a lower level of evidence and mixed results for their efficacy. Finally, we provide guidance for practitioners when deciding on recovery strategies to use with athletes during different phases of the season.

Repeated cold-water immersion improves autonomic cardiac modulation following five sessions of high-intensity interval exercise

PURPOSE

The study aimed to investigate the effect of repeated cold-water immersion (CWI) after high-intensity interval exercise sessions on cardiac-autonomic modulation, neuromuscular performance, muscle damage markers, and session internal load.

METHODS

Twenty-one participants underwent five sessions of high-intensity interval exercise (6-7 bouts of 2 min; pause of 2 min) over a two-week period. Participants were allocated randomly into either a group that underwent CWI (11-min; 11 °C) or a group that performed passive recovery after each exercise session. Before the exercise sessions were performed, countermovement jump (CMJ) and heart rate variability were recorded (i.e., rMSSD, low and high frequency power and its ratio, SD1 and SD2). Exercise heart rate was calculated by recording the area under the curve (AUC) response. Internal session load was evaluated 30 min after each session. Blood concentrations of creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase were analyzed before the first visit and 24 h after the last sessions.

RESULTS

The CWI group presented higher rMSSD than the control group at each time point (group-effect P = 0.037). The SD1 was higher in CWI group when compared to the control group following the last exercise session (interaction P = 0.038). SD2 was higher in CWI group compared to the control group at each time point (group-effect P = 0.030). Both groups presented equal CMJ performance (P > 0.05), internal load (group-effect P = 0.702; interaction P = 0.062), heart rate AUC (group-effect P = 0.169; interaction P = 0.663), and creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase blood concentrations (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Repeated post-exercise CWI improves cardiac-autonomic modulation. However, no differences in neuromuscular performance, muscle damage markers, or session internal load were demonstrated between the groups.

Phase-change material cooling blanket: A feasible cooling choice during transport after exercise-induced hyperthermia

BACKGROUND

Exercise-induced hyperthermia preceding the onset of exertional heatstroke requires a rapid reduction in the body core temperature (T_core) to ensure safety. In recent years, phase-change material (PCM) cooling devices have been increasingly used for rapid cooling after hyperthermia due to their superior capacity for heat absorption.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the cooling performance and effectiveness of a PCM cooling blanket on heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) recovery after exercise-induced hyperthermia.

DESIGN

Randomized cross-over.

METHODS

The study participants were 12 male volunteers who were engaged in professional training and completed an endurance exercise for approximately 30 min in a hot and humid environment (temperature ≈ 30 °C; relative humidity ≈ 66%). The participants underwent a 30-min cooling trial after exercise, receiving either treatment with a PCM cooling blanket (PCM group) or natural cooling (CON group). The T_core, HR, and HRV time-domain indices were used for analysis.

RESULTS

The T_core values were significantly lower in the PCM group during cooling. Reductions in the T_core from precooling to 20 min of cooling were significantly greater in the PCM group than in the CON group. The HR in the PCM group was lower than that recorded in the CON group at 10 and 20 min of cooling. The reduction in HR during cooling from precooling was also significantly greater in the PCM group. HRV time-domain indices during cooling in the PCM group were significantly lower compared with the CON group while elevations in some HRV time-domain indices from precooling to postcooling were significantly greater in the PCM group than in the CON group.

CONCLUSIONS

The PCM cooling blanket had good cooling performance and the ability to hasten recovery of both HR and HRV. It may serve as a feasible cooling choice during transport after exercise-induced hyperthermia.

Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on resistance training-induced gains in muscular strength: a meta-analysis

The aim of this review was to perform a meta-analysis examining the effects of cold-water immersion (CWI) coupled with resistance training on gains in muscular strength. Four databases were searched to find relevant studies. Their methodological quality and risk of bias were evaluated using the PEDro checklist. The effects of CWI vs. control on muscular strength were examined in a random-effects meta-analysis. Ten studies (n = 170; 92% males), with 11 comparisons across 22 groups, were included in the analysis. Studies were classified as of good or fair methodological quality. The main meta-analysis found that CWI attenuated muscular strength gains (effect size [ES]: -0.23; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.45, -0.01; p = 0.041). In the analysis of data from studies applying CWI only to the trained limbs, CWI attenuated muscular strength gains (ES: -0.31; 95% CI: -0.61, -0.01; p = 0.041). In the analysis of data from studies using whole-body CWI, there was no significant difference in muscular strength gains between CWI and control (ES: -0.08; 95% CI: -0.53, 0.38; p = 0.743). In summary, this meta-analysis found that the use of CWI following resistance exercise sessions attenuates muscular strength gains in males. However, when CWI was applied to the whole body, there was no significant difference between CWI and control for muscular strength. Due to the attenuated gains in muscular strength found with single limb CWI, the use and/or timing of CWI in resistance training should be carefully considered and individualized.

CORRELATION BETWEEN AEROBIC TRAINING AND PHYSICAL ENDURANCE IN BASKETBALL PLAYERS

ABSTRACT Introduction: Endurance is a quality that has been lacking in Chinese athletes. In most endurance sports training in China, there is a problem with attaching importance to high-intensity anaerobic training and ignoring aerobic training. The close combination of aerobic, strength and technical training is endurance training. A significant development trend in training. Objective: This study analyzes the relationship between aerobic training and physical endurance in basketball players. Methods: Basketball players were selected and randomly divided into groups through the analysis method with a questionnaire, observation method, and experimental method to analyze the relationship between aerobic exercise and physical endurance in basketball players. In this paper, the changes in physiological indicators of basketball players were recorded after aerobic exercise. Results: The physical endurance of basketball players were positively correlated with aerobic training time. The physiological indicators of basketball players and basketball skills after aerobic training were significantly improved (P<0.05). Conclusion: Aerobic exercise can improve basketball players’ physical endurance and overall physical fitness, helping them achieve good results in competitions. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

The Influence of Ambient Temperature Changes on the Indicators of Inflammation and Oxidative Damage in Blood after Submaximal Exercise

Physical activity has a positive effect on human health and well-being, but intense exercise can cause adverse changes in the organism, leading to the development of oxidative stress and inflammation. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of short-term cold water immersion (CWI) and a sauna bath as methods of postexercise regeneration on the indicators of inflammation and oxidative damage in the blood of healthy recreational athletes. Forty-five male volunteers divided into two groups: 'winter swimmers' who regularly use winter baths (n = 22, average age 43.2 ± 5.9 years) and 'novices' who had not used winter baths regularly before (n = 23, mean age 25 ± 4.8 years) participated in the study. The research was divided into two experiments, differing in the method of postexercise regeneration used, CWI (Experiment I) and a sauna bath (Experiment II). During Experiment I, the volunteers were subjected to a 30-min aerobic exercise, combined with a 20-min rest at room temperature (RT-REST) or a 20-min rest at room temperature with an initial 3-min 8 °C water bath (CWI-REST). During the Experiment II, the volunteers were subjected to the same aerobic exercise, followed by a RT-REST or a sauna bath (SAUNA-REST). The blood samples were taken before physical exercise (control), immediately after exercise and 20 min after completion of regeneration. The concentrations of selected indicators of inflammation, including interleukin 1β (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 8 (IL-8), interleukin 8 (IL-8), interleukin 10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), as well as the activity of indicators of oxidative damage: α1-antitrypsin (AAT) and lysosomal enzymes, including arylsulfatase A (ASA), acid phosphatase (AcP) and cathepsin D (CTS D), were determined. CWI seems to be a more effective post-exercise regeneration method to reduce the inflammatory response compared to a sauna bath. A single sauna bath is associated with the risk of proteolytic tissue damage, but disturbances of cellular homeostasis are less pronounced in people who regularly use cold water baths than in those who are not adapted to thermal stress.

Functional Impact of Post-exercise Cooling and Heating on Recovery and Training Adaptations: Application to Resistance, Endurance, and Sprint Exercise

The application of post-exercise cooling (e.g., cold water immersion) and post-exercise heating has become a popular intervention which is assumed to increase functional recovery and may improve chronic training adaptations. However, the effectiveness of such post-exercise temperature manipulations remains uncertain. The aim of this comprehensive review was to analyze the effects of post-exercise cooling and post-exercise heating on neuromuscular function (maximal strength and power), fatigue resistance, exercise performance, and training adaptations. We focused on three exercise types (resistance, endurance and sprint exercises) and included studies investigating (1) the early recovery phase, (2) the late recovery phase, and (3) repeated application of the treatment. We identified that the primary benefit of cooling was in the early recovery phase (< 1 h post-exercise) in improving fatigue resistance in hot ambient conditions following endurance exercise and possibly enhancing the recovery of maximal strength following resistance exercise. The primary negative impact of cooling was with chronic exposure which impaired strength adaptations and decreased fatigue resistance following resistance training intervention (12 weeks and 4–12 weeks, respectively). In the early recovery phase, cooling could also impair sprint performance following sprint exercise and could possibly reduce neuromuscular function immediately after endurance exercise. Generally, no benefits of acute cooling were observed during the 24–72-h recovery period following resistance and endurance exercises, while it could have some benefits on the recovery of neuromuscular function during the 24–48-h recovery period following sprint exercise. Most studies indicated that chronic cooling does not affect endurance training adaptations following 4–6 week training intervention. We identified limited data employing heating as a recovery intervention, but some indications suggest promise in its application to endurance and sprint exercise.

A combination of cherry juice and cold water immersion does not enhance marathon recovery compared to either treatment in isolation: A randomized placebo-controlled trial

Purpose

Cherry juice (CJ) and cold water immersion (CWI) are both effective recovery strategies following strenuous endurance exercise. However, athletes routinely combine recovery interventions and less is known about the impact of a combined CJ and CWI protocol. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of combining CWI and CJ (a “cocktail” (CT)) on inflammation and muscle damage following a marathon.

Methods

A total 39 endurance trained males were randomly assigned to a placebo (PL), CWI, CJ, or CT group before completing a trail marathon run. Muscle damage (creatine kinase (CK)), muscle function (maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC)), and inflammation (interleukin-6 (IL-6); C-reactive protein (CRP)) were measured at baseline, immediately after marathon (only IL-6), 24 h, and 48 h after marathon.

Results

There were no statistically significant differences between groups and no group × time interaction effects for any of the dependent variables. Confidence intervals (CI) illustrated that CT had unclear effects on inflammation (IL-6; CRP) and MVIC, but may have increased CK to a greater extent than PL and CJ conditions.

Conclusion

There is no evidence of an additive effect of CJ and CWI when the treatments are used in conjunction with each other. On the contrary, combining CJ and CWI may result in slightly increased circulating CK.

Analysis of Recovery Methods' Efficacy Applied up to 72 Hours Postmatch in Professional Football: A Systematic Review With Graded Recommendations

BACKGROUND

Sleep, nutrition, active recovery, cold-water immersion, and massage were recently reported as the most used postmatch recovery methods in professional football. However, the recommendations concerning the effect of these methods remain unclear.

PURPOSE

To systematically review the literature regarding the effectiveness of the most common recovery methods applied to male and female football players (or other team sports) 72 hours postmatches and to provide graded recommendations for their use.

METHODS

A systematic search of the literature was performed, and the level of evidence of randomized and nonrandomized studies was classified as 1 or 2, respectively, with additional ++, +, and - classification according to the quality of the study and risk of bias. Graded recommendations were provided regarding the effectiveness of recovery methods for physical, physiological, and perceptive variables.

RESULTS

From the 3472 articles identified, 39 met the inclusion criteria for analysis. The studies' levels of evidence varied among methods (sleep: 2+ to 1++; nutrition: 2- to 1+; cold-water immersion: 2- to 1++; active recovery: 2- to 1+; and massage: 1- to 1+). Different graded recommendations were attributed, and none of them favored the effective use of recovery methods for physiological and physical parameters, whereas massage and cold-water immersion were recommended as beneficial for perceptive variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Cold-water immersion and massage can be recommended to recover up to 72 hours postmatch at a perceptive level. However, there is a current need for high-quality research that identifies effective recovery strategies that enhance recovery at the physical and physiological levels.

Efficacy of Different Cold-Water Immersion Temperatures on Neuromotor Performance in Young Athletes

Cold-Water-Immersion (CWI) has been frequently used to accelerate muscle recovery and to improve performance after fatigue onset. In the present study, the aim was to investigate the effects of different CWI temperatures on neuromuscular activity on quadriceps after acute fatigue protocol. Thirty-six young athletes (16.9 ± 1.4 years-old; 72.1 ± 13.8 kg; 178.4 ± 7.2 cm) were divided into three groups: passive recovery group (PRG); CWI at 5 °C group (5G); and CWI at 10 °C group (10G). All participants performed a fatigue exercise protocol; afterwards, PRG performed a passive recovery (rest), while 5G and 10G were submitted to CWI by means of 5 °C and 10 °C temperatures during 10 min, respectively. Fatigue protocol was performed by knee extension at 40% of isometric peak force from maximal isometric voluntary contraction. Electromyography was used to evaluate neuromuscular performance. The passive recovery and CWI at 5 °C were associated with normalized isometric force and quadriceps activation amplitude from 15 until 120 min after exercise-induced fatigue (F = 7.169, p < 0.001). CWI at 5 °C and 10 °C showed higher muscle activation (F = 6.850, p < 0.001) and lower median frequency (MF) than passive recovery after 15 and 30 min of fatigue (F = 5.386, p < 0.001). For neuromuscular efficiency (NME) recovery, while PRG normalized NME values after 15 min, 5G and 10G exhibited these responses after 60 and 30 min (F = 4.330, p < 0.01), respectively. Passive recovery and CWI at 5 °C and 10 °C revealed similar effects in terms of recovery of muscle strength and NME, but ice interventions resulted in higher quadriceps activation recovery.

Evidence‐Based Recovery in Soccer – Low‐Effort Approaches for Practitioners

Strategies to improve recovery are widely used among soccer players at both amateur and professional levels. Sometimes, however, recovery strategies are ineffective, improperly timed or even harmful to players. This highlights the need to educate practitioners and athletes about the scientific evidence of recovery strategies as well as to provide practical approaches to address this issue. Therefore, recent surveys among soccer athletes and practitioners were reviewed to identify the recovery modalities currently in use. Each strategy was then outlined with its rationale, its physiological mechanisms and the scientific evidence followed by practical approaches to implement the modality. For each intervention, practical and particularly low-effort strategies are provided to ensure that practitioners at all levels are able to implement them. We identified numerous interventions regularly used in soccer, i.e., sleep, rehydration, nutrition, psychological recovery, active recovery, foam-rolling/massage, stretching, cold-water immersion, and compression garments. Nutrition and rehydration were classified with the best evidence, while cold-water immersion, compression garments, foam-rolling/massage and sleep were rated with moderate evidence to enhance recovery. The remaining strategies (active recovery, psychological recovery, stretching) should be applied on an individual basis due to weak evidence observed. Finally, a guide is provided, helping practitioners to decide which intervention to implement. Here, practitioners should rely on the evidence, but also on their own experience and preference of the players.

Postmatch Recovery Practices Carried Out in Professional Football: A Survey of 56 Portuguese Professional Football Teams

BACKGROUND

In football (ie, soccer), the effectiveness of recovery practices is critical to maintain high levels of performance, prevent residual fatigue, and reduce injury risk. However, the recovery methods that professional football teams put in place up to 72 hours postmatch are widely unknown.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to characterize the postmatch recovery practices in Portuguese football teams in different postmatch periods and match locations.

METHODS

Portuguese football teams (total, N = 56; male: first league [n = 17], second league [n = 16], under-23 league [n = 12]; female: first league, n = 11) participated in the study. The practitioners in charge of recovery strategies in each team filled out the online questionnaire in the middle of the 2019-20 season. The questions focused on the type of recovery methods to be used at different times after home and away matches.

RESULTS

After home matches, stretching, electrostimulation, active recovery, and massage were used with higher frequency (P < .017) in later postmatch periods (ie, 12-24, and 24-72 h) compared with immediately postmatch. After away matches, several differences were found (P < .017) for the stretching, electrostimulation, active recovery, cold-water immersion, massage, nutrition, and sleep between postmatch periods. Regarding match location, stretching (r = .19), active recovery (r = .39), cold-water immersion (r = .46), and massage (r = .29) showed a higher frequency of use immediately after home matches. Conversely, the use of compression garments (r = .27) was higher immediately after away matches.

CONCLUSIONS

It was concluded that in professional football, recovery methods are not applied uniformly along postmatch periods and differ depending on the match location.

Recovery Strategies in Endurance Athletes

In order to achieve optimal performance, endurance athletes need to implement a variety of recovery strategies that are specific to their training and competition. Recovery is a multidimensional process involving physiological, psychological, emotional, social, and behavioral aspects. The purpose of the study was to examine current implementation, beliefs, and sources of information associated with recovery strategies in endurance athletes. Participants included 264 self-identified endurance athletes (male = 122, female = 139) across 11 different sports including placing top three overall in competition (n = 55) and placing in the top three in their age group or division (n = 113) during the past year. Endurance athletes in the current study preferred hydration, nutrition, sleep, and rest in terms of use, belief, and effectiveness of the recovery strategy. Female endurance athletes use more recovery strategies for training than males (p = 0.043, d = 0.25), but not in competition (p = 0.137, d = 0.19). For training, top three finishers overall (p &lt; 0.001, d = 0.61) and by division (p &lt; 0.001, d = 0.57), used more recovery strategies than those placing outside the top three. Similar findings were reported for competition in top three finishers overall (p = 0.008, d = 0.41) and by division (p &lt; 0.001, d = 0.45). These athletes are relying on the people around them such as coaches (48.3%) and fellow athletes (47.5%) along with websites (32.7%) for information and recommendations. Endurance athletes should be educated on other strategies to address the multidimensionality of recovery. These findings will be useful for healthcare professionals, practitioners, and coaches in understanding recovery strategies with endurance athletes.

Cryostimulation for Post-exercise Recovery in Athletes: A Consensus and Position Paper

Recovery after exercise is a crucial key in preventing muscle injuries and in speeding up the processes to return to homeostasis level. There are several ways of developing a recovery strategy with the use of different kinds of traditional and up-to-date techniques. The use of cold has traditionally been used after physical exercise for recovery purposes. In recent years, the use of whole-body cryotherapy/cryostimulation (WBC; an extreme cold stimulation lasting 1-4 min and given in a cold room at a temperature comprised from -60 to -195°C) has been tremendously increased for such purposes. However, there are controversies about the benefits that the use of this technique may provide. Therefore, the main objectives of this paper are to describe what is whole body cryotherapy/cryostimulation, review and debate the benefits that its use may provide, present practical considerations and applications, and emphasize the need of customization depending on the context, the purpose, and the subject's characteristics. This review is written by international experts from the working group on WBC from the International Institute of Refrigeration.

Post-exercise Warm or Cold Water Immersion to Augment the Cardiometabolic Benefits of Exercise Training: A Proof of Concept Trial

We investigated whether substituting the final half within 60-min bouts of exercise with passive warm or cold water immersion would provide similar or greater benefits for cardiometabolic health. Thirty healthy participants were randomized to two of three short-term training interventions in a partial crossover (12 sessions over 14–16 days, 4 week washout): (i) EXS: 60 min cycling 70% maximum heart rate (HRmax), (ii) WWI: 30 min cycling then 30 min warm water (38–40°C) immersion, and/or (iii) CWI: 30 min cycling then 30 min cold water (10–12°C) immersion. Before and after, participants completed a 20 min cycle work trial, V.O₂max test, and an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test during which indirect calorimetry was used to measure substrate oxidation and metabolic flexibility (slope of fasting to post-prandial carbohydrate oxidation). Data from twenty two participants (25 ± 5 year, BMI 23 ± 3 kg/m², Female = 11) were analyzed using a fixed-effects linear mixed model. V.O₂max increased more in EXS (interaction p = 0.004) than CWI (95% CI: 1.1, 5.3 mL/kg/min, Cohen’s d = 1.35), but not WWI (CI: −0.4, 3.9 mL/kg/min, d = 0.72). Work trial distance and power increased 383 ± 223 m and 20 ± 6 W, respectively, without differences between interventions (interaction both p > 0.68). WWI lowered post-prandial glucose ∼9% (CI −1.9, −0.5 mmol/L; d = 0.63), with no difference between interventions (interaction p = 0.469). Substituting the second half of exercise with WWI provides similar cardiometabolic health benefits to time matched exercise, however, substituting with CWI does not.

Adaptations to Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion: Friend, Foe, or Futile?

In the last decade, cold water immersion (CWI) has emerged as one of the most popular post-exercise recovery strategies utilized amongst athletes during training and competition. Following earlier research on the effects of CWI on the recovery of exercise performance and associated mechanisms, the recent focus has been on how CWI might influence adaptations to exercise. This line of enquiry stems from classical work demonstrating improved endurance and mitochondrial development in rodents exposed to repeated cold exposures. Moreover, there was strong rationale that CWI might enhance adaptations to exercise, given the discovery, and central role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) in both cold- and exercise-induced oxidative adaptations. Research on adaptations to post-exercise CWI have generally indicated a mode-dependant effect, where resistance training adaptations were diminished, whilst aerobic exercise performance seems unaffected but demonstrates premise for enhancement. However, the general suitability of CWI as a recovery modality has been the focus of considerable debate, primarily given the dampening effect on hypertrophy gains. In this mini-review, we highlight the key mechanisms surrounding CWI and endurance exercise adaptations, reiterating the potential for CWI to enhance endurance performance, with support from classical and contemporary works. This review also discusses the implications and insights (with regards to endurance and strength adaptations) gathered from recent studies examining the longer-term effects of CWI on training performance and recovery. Lastly, a periodized approach to recovery is proposed, where the use of CWI may be incorporated during competition or intensified training, whilst strategically avoiding periods following training focused on improving muscle strength or hypertrophy.

Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion Effects on Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training and the Underlying Mechanisms in Skeletal Muscle: A Narrative Review

Post-exercise cold-water immersion (CWI) is a popular recovery modality aimed at minimizing fatigue and hastening recovery following exercise. In this regard, CWI has been shown to be beneficial for accelerating post-exercise recovery of various parameters including muscle strength, muscle soreness, inflammation, muscle damage, and perceptions of fatigue. Improved recovery following an exercise session facilitated by CWI is thought to enhance the quality and training load of subsequent training sessions, thereby providing a greater training stimulus for long-term physiological adaptations. However, studies investigating the long-term effects of repeated post-exercise CWI instead suggest CWI may attenuate physiological adaptations to exercise training in a mode-specific manner. Specifically, there is evidence post-exercise CWI can attenuate improvements in physiological adaptations to resistance training, including aspects of maximal strength, power, and skeletal muscle hypertrophy, without negatively influencing endurance training adaptations. Several studies have investigated the effects of CWI on the molecular responses to resistance exercise in an attempt to identify the mechanisms by which CWI attenuates physiological adaptations to resistance training. Although evidence is limited, it appears that CWI attenuates the activation of anabolic signaling pathways and the increase in muscle protein synthesis following acute and chronic resistance exercise, which may mediate the negative effects of CWI on long-term resistance training adaptations. There are, however, a number of methodological factors that must be considered when interpreting evidence for the effects of post-exercise CWI on physiological adaptations to resistance training and the potential underlying mechanisms. This review outlines and critiques the available evidence on the effects of CWI on long-term resistance training adaptations and the underlying molecular mechanisms in skeletal muscle, and suggests potential directions for future research to further elucidate the effects of CWI on resistance training adaptations.

The Specific Judo Training Program Combined With the Whole Body Cryostimulation Induced an Increase of Serum Concentrations of Growth Factors and Changes in Amino Acid Profile in Professional Judokas

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a specific training program, supported by 10 sessions of whole body cryostimulation, on growth factors concentrations, amino acids profile and motor abilities in professional judokas. Ultimately, twelve athletes took part in the study. They were randomly assigned to the cryostimulation group (CRY, n = 6) or the control group (CON, n = 6). During 2 weeks of the judo training program, the CRY group performed 10 cryo-sessions (3-min, at a temperature of -110°C) and the CON group rested passively. Anthropometric measurements, a strength test, the Special Judo Efficiency Test (SJET) were assessed 2 days before and after the judo training program. Blood samples were collected at rest, 1 h after the first and the second SJET and 1 h after the first and the last cryo-session to establish growth factors and amino acid concentrations. Lactate level was measured before, immediately after and 1 h after the first and the second SJET. The applied intervention resulted in a significant increase of resting concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (from 10.23 ± 1.61 to 15.13 ± 2.93 ng⋅ml^-1; p = 0.01) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1; from 174.29 ± 49.34 to 300.50 ± 43.80 pg⋅ml^-1; p = 0.00) in the CRY group. A different response was registered 1 h directly post SJET in the CRY group (a significant increase of IGF-1, interleukin 15 and irisin: p = 0.01; p = 0.00; p = 0.03). Additionally, the significant drop of proline and leucine concentrations in the CRY group was obtained. Athletes' performance remained unchanged in both groups. However, subjects perceived positive changes induced by the intervention - not directly after cryostimulation but in response to the specific training workload. The increase of growth factors concentrations and the improvement of amino acid profile (proline and leucine) contributed to maintaining a high level of muscle function.