Transcriptomic Segregation of Human Autoantigens Useful for the Diagnosis of Autoimmune Diseases

At-home blood collection and stabilization in high temperature climates using homeRNA

Expanding whole blood sample collection for transcriptome analysis beyond traditional phlebotomy clinics will open new frontiers for remote immune research and telemedicine. Determining the stability of RNA in blood samples exposed to high ambient temperatures (>30°C) is necessary for deploying home-sampling in settings with elevated temperatures (e.g., studying physiological response to natural disasters that occur in warm locations or in the summer). Recently, we have developed homeRNA, a technology that allows for self-blood sampling and RNA stabilization remotely. homeRNA consists of a lancet-based blood collection device, the Tasso-SST™ which collects up to 0.5 ml of blood from the upper arm, and a custom-built stabilization transfer tube containing RNAlater™. In this study, we investigated the robustness of our homeRNA kit in high temperature settings via two small pilot studies in Doha, Qatar (no. participants = 8), and the Western and South Central USA during the summer of 2021, which included a heatwave of unusually high temperatures in some locations (no. participants = 11). Samples collected from participants in Doha were subjected to rapid external temperature fluctuations from being moved to and from air-conditioned areas and extreme heat environments (up to 41°C external temperature during brief temperature spikes). In the USA pilot study, regions varied in outdoor temperature highs (between 25°C and 43.4°C). All samples that returned a RNA integrity number (RIN) value from the Doha, Qatar group had a RIN ≥7.0, a typical integrity threshold for downstream transcriptomics analysis. RIN values for the Western and South Central USA samples (n = 12 samples) ranged from 6.9–8.7 with 9 out of 12 samples reporting RINs ≥7.0. Overall, our pilot data suggest that homeRNA can be used in some regions that experience elevated temperatures, opening up new geographical frontiers in disseminated transcriptome analysis for applications critical to telemedicine, global health, and expanded clinical research. Further studies, including our ongoing work in Qatar, USA, and Thailand, will continue to test the robustness of homeRNA.

Enhanced Expression of Autoantigens During SARS-CoV-2 Viral Infection

Immune homeostasis is disturbed during severe viral infections, which can lead to loss of tolerance to self-peptides and result in short- or long-term autoimmunity. Using publicly available transcriptomic datasets, we conducted an in-silico analyses to evaluate the expression levels of 52 autoantigens, known to be associated with 24 autoimmune diseases, during SAR-CoV-2 infection. Seven autoantigens (MPO, PRTN3, PADI4, IFIH1, TRIM21, PTPRN2, and TSHR) were upregulated in whole blood samples. MPO and TSHR were overexpressed in both lung autopsies and whole blood tissue and were associated with more severe COVID-19. Neutrophil activation derived autoantigens (MPO, PRTN3, and PADI4) were prominently increased in blood of both SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 viral infections, while TSHR and PTPRN2 autoantigens were specifically increased in SARS-CoV-2. Using single-cell dataset from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), we observed an upregulation of MPO, PRTN3, and PADI4 autoantigens within the low-density neutrophil subset. To validate our in-silico analysis, we measured plasma protein levels of two autoantigens, MPO and PRTN3, in severe and asymptomatic COVID-19. The protein levels of these two autoantigens were significantly upregulated in more severe COVID-19 infections. In conclusion, the immunopathology and severity of COVID-19 could result in transient autoimmune activation. Longitudinal follow-up studies of confirmed cases of COVID-19 could determine the enduring effects of viral infection including development of autoimmune disease.

Autoantibodies Targeting Intracellular and Extracellular Proteins in Autoimmunity

Detecting autoantibodies provides foundational information for the diagnosis of most autoimmune diseases. An important pathophysiological distinction is whether autoantibodies are directed against extracellular or intracellular proteins. Autoantibodies targeting extracellular domains of proteins, such as membrane receptors, channels or secreted molecules are often directly pathogenic, whereby autoantibody binding to the autoantigen disrupts the normal function of a critical protein or pathway, and/or triggers antibody-dependent cell surface complement killing. By comparison, autoantibodies directed against intracellular proteins are recognized as useful diagnostic biomarkers of abnormal autoimmune activity, but the link between antigenicity and pathogenicity is less straightforward. Because intracellular autoantigens are generally inaccessible to autoantibody binding, for the most part, they do not directly contribute to pathogenesis. In a few diseases, autoantibodies to intracellular targets cause damage indirectly by immune complex formation, immune activation, and other processes. In this review, the general features of and differences between autoimmune diseases segregated on the basis of intracellular or extracellular autoantigens are explored using over twenty examples. Expression profiles of autoantigens in relation to the tissues targeted by autoimmune disease and the temporal appearance of autoantibodies before clinical diagnosis often correlate with whether the respective autoantibodies mostly recognize either intracellular or extracellular autoantigens. In addition, current therapeutic strategies are discussed from this vantage point. One drug, rituximab, depletes CD20+ B-cells and is highly effective for autoimmune disorders associated with autoantibodies against extracellular autoantigens. In contrast, diseases associated with autoantibodies directed predominately against intracellular autoantigens show much more complex immune cell involvement, such as T-cell mediated tissue damage, and require different strategies for optimal therapeutic benefit. Understanding the clinical ramifications of autoimmunity derived by autoantibodies against either intracellular or extracellular autoantigens, or a spectrum of both, has practical implications for guiding drug development, generating monitoring tools, stratification of patient interventions, and designing trials based on predictive autoantibody profiles for autoimmune diseases.

Comparative Analysis of Dorsal Root, Nodose and Sympathetic Ganglia for the Development of New Analgesics

Interoceptive and exteroceptive signals, and the corresponding coordinated control of internal organs and sensory functions, including pain, are received and orchestrated by multiple neurons within the peripheral, central and autonomic nervous systems. A central aim of the present report is to obtain a molecularly informed basis for analgesic drug development aimed at peripheral rather than central targets. We compare three key peripheral ganglia: nodose, sympathetic (superior cervical), and dorsal root ganglia in the rat, and focus on their molecular composition using next-gen RNA-Seq, as well as their neuroanatomy using immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization. We obtained quantitative and anatomical assessments of transmitters, receptors, enzymes and signaling pathways mediating ganglion-specific functions. Distinct ganglionic patterns of expression were observed spanning ion channels, neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), transporters, and biosynthetic enzymes. The relationship between ganglionic transcript levels and the corresponding protein was examined using immunohistochemistry for select, highly expressed, ganglion-specific genes. Transcriptomic analyses of spinal dorsal horn and intermediolateral cell column (IML), which form the termination of primary afferent neurons and the origin of preganglionic innervation to the SCG, respectively, disclosed pre- and post-ganglionic molecular-level circuits. These multimodal investigations provide insight into autonomic regulation, nodose transcripts related to pain and satiety, and DRG-spinal cord and IML-SCG communication. Multiple neurobiological and pharmacological contexts can be addressed, such as discriminating drug targets and predicting potential side effects, in analgesic drug development efforts directed at the peripheral nervous system.

Haploinsufficiency of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene is associated with reduced pain sensitivity

Rare pain-insensitive individuals offer unique insights into how pain circuits function and have led to the development of new strategies for pain control. We investigated pain sensitivity in humans with WAGR (Wilms tumor, aniridia, genitourinary anomaly, and range of intellectual disabilities) syndrome, who have variably sized heterozygous deletion of the 11p13 region. The deletion region can be inclusive or exclusive of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene, a crucial trophic factor for nociceptive afferents. Nociceptive responses assessed by quantitative sensory testing demonstrated reduced pain sensitivity only in the WAGR subjects whose deletion boundaries included the BDNF gene. Corresponding behavioral assessments were made in heterozygous Bdnf knockout rats to examine the specific role of Bdnf. These analogous experiments revealed impairment of Aδ- and C-fiber-mediated heat nociception, determined by acute nociceptive thermal stimuli, and in aversive behaviors evoked when the rats were placed on a hot plate. Similar results were obtained for C-fiber-mediated cold responses and cold avoidance on a cold-plate device. Together, these results suggested a blunted responsiveness to aversive stimuli. Our parallel observations in humans and rats show that hemizygous deletion of the BDNF gene reduces pain sensitivity and establishes BDNF as a determinant of nociceptive sensitivity.

Profiling Autoantibodies against Salivary Proteins in Sicca Conditions

Salivary gland dysfunction occurs in several autoimmune and immune-related conditions, including Sjögren syndrome (SS); immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced sicca (ICIS) that develops in some cancer patients and is characterized by severe, sudden-onset dry mouth; and autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED). Although subjects with these conditions present with oral dryness and often exhibit inflammatory infiltration of the salivary gland, little is known about the B-cell humoral responses directed against salivary gland protein targets. In this study, autoantibodies were evaluated against Ro52, Ro60, and La, as well as against a panel of 22 proteins derived from the salivary proteome. The tested cohort included healthy volunteers and subjects with SS, ICIS, and APECED without and with sicca. As expected, a high percentage of autoantibody seropositivity was detected against Ro52, Ro60, and La in SS, but only a few ICIS patients were seropositive for these autoantigens. A few APECED subjects also harbored autoantibodies to Ro52 and La, but only Ro60 autoantibodies were weakly associated with a small subset of APECED patients with sicca. Additional testing of the salivary panel failed to detect seropositive autoantibodies against any of the salivary-enriched proteins in the SS and ICIS subjects. However, APECED subjects selectively demonstrated seropositivity against BPI fold containing family A member 1 (BPIFA1), BPI fold containing family A member 2 (BPIFA2)/parotid salivary protein (PSP), and lactoperoxidase, 3 salivary-enriched proteins. Moreover, high levels of serum autoantibodies against BPIFA1 and BPIFA2/PSP occurred in 30% and 67% of the APECED patients with sicca symptoms, respectively, and were associated with an earlier age onset of oral dryness (P = 0.001). These findings highlight the complexity of humoral responses in different sicca diseases and provide new insights and biomarkers for APECED-associated sicca (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00001196; NCT00001390; NCT01425892; NCT01386437).

Long-term pain relief in canine osteoarthritis by a single intra-articular injection of resiniferatoxin, a potent TRPV1 agonist

The translational potential of analgesic approaches emerging from basic research can be augmented by client-owned dog trials. We report on a peripheral interventional approach that uses intra-articular injection of the ultrapotent TRPV1 agonist resiniferatoxin (RTX) to produce a selective long-term chemoinactivation of nociceptive primary afferent nerve endings for pain control in naturally occurring canine osteoarthritis. A single injection of 10 µg of RTX, produced suppression of pain, improvement in gait, weight bearing, and improvement in the dog's activities of daily living lasting 4 months or longer. Two to 3 years after the injection, there are no alterations to suggest that removal of inflammatory pain caused accelerated joint degeneration (Charcot joint) in any of the dogs. To amplify the effective use of canine subjects in translational analgesia research, we report a high-quality canine dorsal root ganglion transcriptome. Some targets for analgesia are highly conserved both in protein sequence and level of expression within a target tissue while others diverge substantially from the human. This knowledge is especially important for development of analgesics aimed at peripheral molecular targets and provides a template for informed translational research. The peripheral site of action, long duration of analgesia, apparent safety, and retention of coordination, all resulting from a single dose suggest that intra-articular RTX may be an effective intervention for osteoarthritis pain with few or no side effects and lead to an improved quality of life.

Development of CYP21A2 Genotyping Assay for the Diagnosis of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

Steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency due to CYP21A2 gene mutations represents more than 90% of all congenital adrenal hyperplasia cases. This deficiency is screened by measuring levels of 17-hydroxyprogesterone, which may vary, causing false positive or false negative results. In order to assist the diagnosis, molecular methodologies have been employed. This work aimed to perform genotyping assays to detect mutations in the CYP21A2 gene and compare the findings with other population studies.

METHODS

The SNaPshot assay was developed to simultaneously detect 12 frequent point mutations in the CYP21A2 gene (p.Arg409Cys, p.Gln319Ter, p.Arg357Trp, p.Leu308PhefsTer6, p.Val237Glu, IVS2-13A/C > G, p.Ile173Asn, p.Pro31Leu, p.Pro454Ser, p.Val282Leu, p.Gly111ValfsTer21 and p.His63Leu). The direct sequencing and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification assays were used to confirm point mutations present in the developed method. The latter was also used to search large deletions and gene conversion, complementing the investigation. A total of 166 cases were studied.

RESULTS

The SNaPshot assay was successfully developed to detect the 12 mutations. The results of mutation analysis indicated 84 pathogenic alleles in 48 cases, with p.Val282Leu (27.1%) and IVS2-13A/C > G (20.8%) being the most frequently found mutations. Between the findings of this study and those of other South American studies, there were significant differences in frequency for p.Pro31Leu and p.Val282Leu (p < 0.001). A new variant T in IVS2-13A/C > G was identified in two patients via the SNaPshot assay.

CONCLUSION

The molecular strategy developed for CYP21A2 gene mutation screening allowed us to detect the principle mutations described around the world. Furthermore, the first Southern Brazilian mutation frequencies concerning the CYP21A2 gene were obtained.

Autoantibodies against the Immunoglobulin-Binding Region of Ro52 Link its Autoantigenicity with Pathogen Neutralization

Ro52/TRIM21 plays a key role in antibody-dependent pathogen neutralization and is a major autoantigen in systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome (SS), and other autoimmune diseases. Here we evaluated immunoreactivity against Ro52-related molecules in SS and healthy volunteers. Although most proteins examined were not antigenic, several TRIM paralogs, including TRIM22, and TRIM38, showed sporadic immunoreactivity in SS. In contrast, the murine Ro52 ortholog with limited linear homology demonstrated high levels of autoantibodies implicating the importance of shared conformational epitopes. To further explore the autoantigencity of Ro52, deletion and point mutant analyses were employed revealing previously hidden, robust autoantibodies directed against its C-terminal immunoglobulin-binding domain. Another autoantibody, rheumatoid factor, targeting the Fc region of IgG, strongly overlapped with Ro52 seropositivity (odds ratio 14; P < 0.0001). These convergent mechanistic findings support a model whereby intracellular Ro52-bound antibody-coated pathogen complexes, released or misprocessed from infected cells, drive autoantigenicity against Ro52 and the Fc region of IgG.

Coagulation cascade and complement system in systemic lupus erythematosus

This study was conducted to (1) characterize coagulation cascade and complement system in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE); (2) evaluate the associations between coagulation cascade, complement system, inflammatory response and SLE disease severity; (3) test the diagnostic value of a combination of D-dimer and C4 for lupus activity. Transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics were performed in 24 SLE patients and 24 healthy controls. The levels of ten coagulations, seven complements and three cytokines were measured in 112 SLE patients. Clinical data were collected from 2025 SLE patients. The analysis of multi-omics data revealed the common links for the components of coagulation cascade and complement system. The results of ELISA showed coagulation cascade and complement system had an interaction effect on SLE disease severity, this effect was pronounced among patients with excess inflammation. The analysis of clinical data revealed a combination of D-dimer and C4 provided good diagnostic performance for lupus activity. This study suggested that coagulation cascade and complement system become 'partners in crime', contributing to SLE disease severity and identified the diagnostic value of D-dimer combined with C4for lupus activity.

Autoantibody Repertoire in APECED Patients Targets Two Distinct Subgroups of Proteins

High titer autoantibodies produced by B lymphocytes are clinically important features of many common autoimmune diseases. APECED patients with deficient autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene collectively display a broad repertoire of high titer autoantibodies, including some which are pathognomonic for major autoimmune diseases. AIRE deficiency severely reduces thymic expression of gene-products ordinarily restricted to discrete peripheral tissues, and developing T cells reactive to those gene-products are not inactivated during their development. However, the extent of the autoantibody repertoire in APECED and its relation to thymic expression of self-antigens are unclear. We here undertook a broad protein array approach to assess autoantibody repertoire in APECED patients. Our results show that in addition to shared autoantigen reactivities, APECED patients display high inter-individual variation in their autoantigen profiles, which collectively are enriched in evolutionarily conserved, cytosolic and nuclear phosphoproteins. The APECED autoantigens have two major origins; proteins expressed in thymic medullary epithelial cells and proteins expressed in lymphoid cells. These findings support the hypothesis that specific protein properties strongly contribute to the etiology of B cell autoimmunity.

RNA-Seq investigations of human post-mortem trigeminal ganglia

Background The trigeminal ganglion contains neurons that relay sensations of pain, touch, pressure, and many other somatosensory modalities to the central nervous system. The ganglion is also a reservoir for latent herpes virus 1 infection. To gain a better understanding of molecular factors contributing to migraine and headache, transcriptome analyses were performed on postmortem human trigeminal ganglia. Methods RNA-Seq measurements of gene expression were conducted on small sub-regions of 16 human trigeminal ganglia. The samples were also characterized for transcripts derived from viral and microbial genomes. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) antibodies in blood were measured using the luciferase immunoprecipitation assay. Results Observed molecular heterogeneity could be explained by sampling of anatomically distinct sub-regions of the excised ganglia consistent with neurally-enriched and non-neural, i.e. Schwann cell, enriched subregions. The levels of HSV-1 transcripts detected in trigeminal ganglia correlated with blood levels of HSV-1 antibodies. Multiple migraine susceptibility genes were strongly expressed in neurally-enriched trigeminal samples, while others were expressed in blood vessels. Conclusions These data provide a comprehensive human trigeminal transcriptome and a framework for evaluation of inhomogeneous post-mortem tissues through extensive quality control and refined downstream analyses for RNA-Seq methodologies. Expression profiling of migraine susceptibility genes identified by genetic association appears to emphasize the blood vessel component of the trigeminovascular system. Other genes displayed enriched expression in the trigeminal compared to dorsal root ganglion, and in-depth transcriptomic analysis of the KCNK18 gene underlying familial migraine shows selective neural expression within two specific populations of ganglionic neurons. These data suggest that expression profiling of migraine-associated genes can extend and amplify the underlying neurobiological insights obtained from genetic association studies.

Ultrarapid Measurement of Diagnostic Antibodies by Magnetic Capture of Immune Complexes

Rapid point-of-care, antibody-based testing is not currently available for the diagnosis of most autoimmune and infectious diseases. Here we report a simple, robust and ultrafast fluid-phase immunocapture method for clinical measurements of antibody levels. This method employs neodymium magnetic sticks that capture protein A/G-coated paramagnetic beads bound to antibody-luciferase-labeled antigen complexes. We demonstrate the ability to effectively measure specific antibody levels in serum samples from patients with varied infectious or autoimmune disorders, and in the case of Sjögren’s syndrome directly in saliva, requiring about a minute per assay. We also show the feasibility of coupling this method with a hand-held luminometer for portable testing. Our method offers the potential to quickly diagnose a multitude of autoimmune and infectious diseases in point-of-care settings.