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De Marchi F, Venkatesan S, Saraceno M, Mazzini L, Grossini E. Acetyl-L-carnitine and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Current Evidence and Potential use. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS DRUG TARGETS 2024; 23:588-601. [PMID: 36998125 DOI: 10.2174/1871527322666230330083757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The management of neurodegenerative diseases can be frustrating for clinicians, given the limited progress of conventional medicine in this context. AIM For this reason, a more comprehensive, integrative approach is urgently needed. Among various emerging focuses for intervention, the modulation of central nervous system energetics, oxidative stress, and inflammation is becoming more and more promising. METHODS In particular, electrons leakage involved in the mitochondrial energetics can generate reactive oxygen-free radical-related mitochondrial dysfunction that would contribute to the etiopathology of many disorders, such as Alzheimer's and other dementias, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, stroke, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). RESULTS In this context, using agents, like acetyl L-carnitine (ALCAR), provides mitochondrial support, reduces oxidative stress, and improves synaptic transmission. CONCLUSION This narrative review aims to update the existing literature on ALCAR molecular profile, tolerability, and translational clinical potential use in neurodegeneration, focusing on ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiola De Marchi
- ALS Center, Neurology Unit, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Sakthipriyan Venkatesan
- Laboratory of Physiology, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale 28100, Novara, Italy
| | - Massimo Saraceno
- ALS Center, Neurology Unit, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Letizia Mazzini
- ALS Center, Neurology Unit, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Elena Grossini
- Laboratory of Physiology, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale 28100, Novara, Italy
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Distinct roles for motor neuron autophagy early and late in the SOD1 G93A mouse model of ALS. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E8294-E8303. [PMID: 28904095 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1704294114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in autophagy genes can cause familial and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the role of autophagy in ALS pathogenesis is poorly understood, in part due to the lack of cell type-specific manipulations of this pathway in animal models. Using a mouse model of ALS expressing mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1G93A), we show that motor neurons form large autophagosomes containing ubiquitinated aggregates early in disease progression. To investigate whether this response is protective or detrimental, we generated mice in which the critical autophagy gene Atg7 was specifically disrupted in motor neurons (Atg7 cKO). Atg7 cKO mice were viable but exhibited structural and functional defects at a subset of vulnerable neuromuscular junctions. By crossing Atg7 cKO mice to the SOD1G93A mouse model, we found that autophagy inhibition accelerated early neuromuscular denervation of the tibialis anterior muscle and the onset of hindlimb tremor. Surprisingly, however, lifespan was extended in Atg7 cKO; SOD1G93A double-mutant mice. Autophagy inhibition did not prevent motor neuron cell death, but it reduced glial inflammation and blocked activation of the stress-related transcription factor c-Jun in spinal interneurons. We conclude that motor neuron autophagy is required to maintain neuromuscular innervation early in disease but eventually acts in a non-cell-autonomous manner to promote disease progression.
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Bhinge A, Namboori SC, Zhang X, VanDongen AMJ, Stanton LW. Genetic Correction of SOD1 Mutant iPSCs Reveals ERK and JNK Activated AP1 as a Driver of Neurodegeneration in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Stem Cell Reports 2017; 8:856-869. [PMID: 28366453 PMCID: PMC5390134 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2017.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2016] [Revised: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Although mutations in several genes with diverse functions have been known to cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), it is unknown to what extent causal mutations impinge on common pathways that drive motor neuron (MN)-specific neurodegeneration. In this study, we combined induced pluripotent stem cells-based disease modeling with genome engineering and deep RNA sequencing to identify pathways dysregulated by mutant SOD1 in human MNs. Gene expression profiling and pathway analysis followed by pharmacological screening identified activated ERK and JNK signaling as key drivers of neurodegeneration in mutant SOD1 MNs. The AP1 complex member JUN, an ERK/JNK downstream target, was observed to be highly expressed in MNs compared with non-MNs, providing a mechanistic insight into the specific degeneration of MNs. Importantly, investigations of mutant FUS MNs identified activated p38 and ERK, indicating that network perturbations induced by ALS-causing mutations converge partly on a few specific pathways that are drug responsive and provide immense therapeutic potential. Genome correction of SOD1 E100G mutation corrects ALS phenotypes in MNs Activation of MAPK, AP1, WNT, cell-cycle, and p53 signaling in ALS MNs Pharmacological screening uncovers ERK and JNK signaling as therapeutic targets Susceptibility of MNs to degeneration may be due to heightened JUN activity in MNs
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Bhinge
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore 138672, Singapore.
| | - Seema C Namboori
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore 138672, Singapore
| | - Xiaoyu Zhang
- Program for Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore; NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
| | - Antonius M J VanDongen
- Program for Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Lawrence W Stanton
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore 138672, Singapore; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
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Abstract
The ability to use induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) to model brain diseases is a powerful tool for unraveling mechanistic alterations in these disorders. Rodent models of brain diseases have spurred understanding of pathology but the concern arises that they may not recapitulate the full spectrum of neuron disruptions associated with human neuropathology. iPSC derived neurons, or other neural cell types, provide the ability to access pathology in cells derived directly from a patient's blood sample or skin biopsy where availability of brain tissue is limiting. Thus, utilization of iPSC to study brain diseases provides an unlimited resource for disease modelling but may also be used for drug screening for effective therapies and may potentially be used to regenerate aged or damaged cells in the future. Many brain diseases across the spectrum of neurodevelopment, neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric are being approached by iPSC models. The goal of an iPSC based disease model is to identify a cellular phenotype that discriminates the disease-bearing cells from the control cells. In this mini-review, the importance of iPSC cell models validated for pluripotency, germline competency and function assessments is discussed. Selected examples for the variety of brain diseases that are being approached by iPSC technology to discover or establish the molecular basis of the neuropathology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy E McKinney
- iPSC Lab/Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine and The Gibbs Research Institute, Spartanburg, SC, USA
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Herdegen T. REVIEW ■ : Jun, Fos, and CREB/ATF Transcription Factors in the Brain: Control of Gene Expression under Normal and Pathophysiological Conditions. Neuroscientist 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/107385849600200310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The expression and activation of transcription factors and the control of gene transcription in the nervous system is a recent and rapidly expanding field in neurosciences. This research area may provide insights concerning the information transfer that arises from postsynaptic potentials or ligand-coupling of membrane receptors and terminates in gene expression. Visualization of both de novo synthesis of inducible transcription factors (ITFs) and phosphorylation of preexisting transcription factors have been used to mark neurons, pathways, and networks excited by various stimuli. This article summarizes basics of the transcription process and the complex functions of Jun, Fos, and CREB/ATF proteins, as well as the use of ITFs as experimental instruments in neurophysiology and neurobiology. The major focus is on the alterations in ITF expression following acute or chronic pathophysiological stimuli as mirrors of alterations in neuronal programs underlying adaptation, dysfunctions, or the development of diseases affecting the nervous system. NEUROSCIENTIST 2:153-161, 1996
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King AE, Woodhouse A, Kirkcaldie MT, Vickers JC. Excitotoxicity in ALS: Overstimulation, or overreaction? Exp Neurol 2016; 275 Pt 1:162-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 08/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Huang L, Xian Q, Shen N, Shi L, Qu Y, Zhou L. Congenital absence of corticospinal tract does not severely affect plastic changes of the developing postnatal spinal cord. Neuroscience 2015; 301:338-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2015] [Revised: 06/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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8
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Cheng X, Fu R, Gao M, Liu S, Li YQ, Song FH, Bruce I, Zhou LH, Wu W. Intrathecal application of short interfering RNA knocks down c-jun expression and augments spinal motoneuron death after root avulsion in adult rats. Neuroscience 2013; 241:268-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Wei SH, Weng WC, Lee NC, Hwu WL, Lee WT. Unusual spinal cord lesions in late-onset non-ketotic hyperglycinemia. J Child Neurol 2011; 26:900-3. [PMID: 21471552 DOI: 10.1177/0883073810393965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Non-ketotic hyperglycinemia is a disorder of glycine metabolism with severe neurologic regression in the infantile stage, while late-onset non-ketotic hyperglycinemia is a rare form characterized by variable clinical, biochemical, and imaging features. This report describes a boy of late-onset non-ketotic hyperglycinemia presenting with an unusual long tract-like lesion of the spinal cord aside by magnetic resonance imaging. This is the first reported child of non-ketotic hyperglycinemia with abnormal imaging features of spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Hao Wei
- Department of Pediatrics, E-DA Hospital and I-Shou University, Kaohsiung County, Taiwan
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10
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Iaccarino C, Mura ME, Esposito S, Carta F, Sanna G, Turrini F, Carrì MT, Crosio C. Bcl2-A1 interacts with pro-caspase-3: implications for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurobiol Dis 2011; 43:642-50. [PMID: 21624464 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Revised: 04/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of mutant SOD1 typical of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) induces the expression of Bcl2-A1, a member of the Bcl2 family of proteins, specifically in motor neurons of transgenic mice. In this work, we have used immortalized motor neurons (NSC-34) and transgenic mice expressing mutant SOD1 to unravel the molecular mechanisms and the biological meaning of this up-regulation. We report that up-regulation of Bcl2-A1 by mutant SOD1 is mediated by activation of the redox sensitive transcription factor AP1 and that Bcl2-A1 interacts with pro-caspase-3 via its C-terminal helix α9. Furthermore, Bcl2-A1 inhibits pro-caspase-3 activation in immortalized motor neurons expressing mutant SOD1 and thus induction of Bcl2-A1 in ALS mice represents a pro-survival strategy aimed at counteracting the toxic effects of mutant SOD1. These data provide significant new insights on how molecular signaling, driven by expression of the ALS-causative gene SOD1, affects regulation of apoptosis in motor neurons and thus may have implications for ALS therapy, where prevention of motor neuronal cell death is one of the major aims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciro Iaccarino
- Dept of Physiological, Biochemical and Cell Science, University of Sassari, Via Muroni 25, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
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D'Arrigo A, Colavito D, Peña-Altamira E, Fabris M, Dam M, Contestabile A, Leon A. Transcriptional profiling in the lumbar spinal cord of a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a role for wild-type superoxide dismutase 1 in sporadic disease? J Mol Neurosci 2010; 41:404-15. [PMID: 20177826 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-010-9332-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mice bearing mutations of copper-zinc-superoxide dismutase recapitulate spinal cord motor neuron degeneration and disease progression occurring in human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. We have investigated the relationship between disease progression and altered gene expression by comparing the transcriptional profiles in lumbar spinal cord, fronto-parietal cortex and hippocampus of mutant G93A-SOD1, wild-type SOD1 transgenic and non-transgenic mice. Gene expression was evaluated at 55 and 110 days of age, representing pre-symptomatic and advanced disease stages of G93A mice, respectively. Whereas no significant variations were detectable in cortical and hippocampal areas, several mutation-related changes were detected in the lumbar spinal cord at the symptomatic stage, consistent with a condition of neuronal distress. Also, at both ages, we found a number of transgene-related changes, i.e. variations occurring in both transgenic groups independently of the G93A mutation, with wild-type SOD1- and G93A-SOD1-overexpressing mice displaying global transcriptional similarity at 110 days of age. Some of the changes in common between the two transgenic groups involve genes implicated in oxidative stress, inflammation, spinocerebellar degeneration and other neurodegenerative disorders. The finding that gene expressional alterations potentially associated to cellular distress are shared by wild-type and mutant human SOD1-overexpressing mice raises the possibility that mutated (in familial ALS) or otherwise dysregulated (in sporadic ALS) SOD1 expression is a common pathogenetic substrate of the disease.
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12
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Han SR, Shin C, Park S, Rhyu S, Park J, Kim YI. Differential expression of activating transcription factor-2 and c-Jun in the immature and adult rat hippocampus following lithium-pilocarpine induced status epilepticus. Yonsei Med J 2009; 50:200-5. [PMID: 19430551 PMCID: PMC2678693 DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2009.50.2.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2007] [Revised: 08/23/2008] [Accepted: 08/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Lithium-pilocarpine induced status epilepticus (LPSE) causes selective and age-dependent neuronal death, although the mechanism of maturation-related injury has not yet been clarified. The activating transcription factor-2 (ATF-2) protein is essential for the normal development of mammalian brain and is activated by c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). It induces the expression of the c-jun gene and modulates the function of the c-Jun protein, a mediator of neuronal death and survival. Therefore, we investigated the expression of c-Jun and ATF-2 protein in the immature and adult rat hippocampus to understand their roles in LPSE-induced neuronal death. MATERIALS AND METHODS Lithium chloride was administrated to P10 and adult rats followed by pilocarpine. Neuronal injury was assessed by silver and cresyl violet staining, performed 72 hours after status epilepticus. For evaluation of the expression of ATF-2 and c-Jun by immunohistochemical method and Western blot, animals were sacrificed at 0, 4, 24, and 72 hours after the initiation of seizure. RESULTS Neuronal injury and expression of c-Jun were maturation-dependently increased by LPSE, whereas ATF-2 immunoreactivity decreased in the mature brain. Since both c-Jun and ATF-2 are activated by JNK, and targets and competitors in the same signal transduction cascade, we could speculate that ATF-2 may compete with c-Jun for JNK phosphorylation. CONCLUSION The results suggested a neuroprotective role of ATF-2 in this maturation-related evolution of neuronal cell death from status epilepticus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Ryung Han
- Department of Neurology, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Cheolsu Shin
- Department of Pharmacology and Neurology, Mayo Clinic, MN, USA
| | - Seongkyung Park
- Department of Neurology, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seonyoung Rhyu
- Department of Neurology, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jeongwook Park
- Department of Neurology, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yeong In Kim
- Department of Neurology, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
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14
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Malaspina A, Kaushik N, De Belleroche J. Differential expression of 14 genes in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis spinal cord detected using gridded cDNA arrays. J Neurochem 2008. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00231.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Dewil M, dela Cruz VF, Van Den Bosch L, Robberecht W. Inhibition of p38 mitogen activated protein kinase activation and mutant SOD1G93A-induced motor neuron death. Neurobiol Dis 2007; 26:332-41. [PMID: 17346981 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2006] [Revised: 12/08/2006] [Accepted: 12/31/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the selective loss of motor neurons. Stress activated protein kinases (SAPK) have been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of ALS. We studied the relevance of p38 MAPK for motor neuron degeneration in the mutant SOD1 mouse. Increased levels of phospho-p38 MAPK were present in the motor neurons and microglia of the ventral spinal cord. The p38 MAPK-inhibitor, SB203580, completely inhibited mutant SOD1-induced apoptosis of motor neurons and blocked LPS-induced activation of microglia. Semapimod, a p38 MAPK inhibitor suitable for clinical use, prolonged survival of mutant SOD1 mice to a limited extent, but largely protected motor neurons and proximal axons from mutant SOD1-induced degeneration. Our data confirm the abnormal activation of p38 MAPK in mutant SOD1 mice and the involvement of p38 MAPK in mutant SOD1-induced motor neuron death. We demonstrate the effect of p38 MAPK inhibition on survival of mutant SOD1 mice and reveal a dissociation between the effect on survival of motor neurons and that on survival of the animal, the latter likely depending on the integrity of the entire motor axon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Dewil
- Laboratory for Neurobiology, Experimental Neurology, University of Leuven, Campus Gasthuisberg, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Ribera J, Ayala V, Casas C. Involvement of c-Jun-JNK pathways in the regulation of programmed cell death of developing chick embryo spinal cord motoneurons. Dev Neurosci 2006; 29:438-51. [PMID: 17119319 DOI: 10.1159/000097318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2006] [Accepted: 08/03/2006] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Key features of developmentally regulated programmed cell death (PCD) have been described for the first time in the chick nervous system. JNK/c-Jun pathway was involved in early events determining normal and pathological neuronal death as shown in experimental models. In the chick embryo, PCD of motoneurons (MNs) in ovo occurs within a well-defined temporal window and can be subjected to experimental manipulation. Taking advantage of this in vivo system, we explored the role of c-Jun and JNK pathway in the regulation of PCD in MNs. By using specific antibodies against phospho-c-Jun (Ser 63, 73) and JNK we demonstrated that before MNs acquire apoptotic phenotype there is an increase in c-Jun. Blockage of neuromuscular activity by the GABA agonist muscimol reduces PCD and diminishes c-Jun immunoreactivity in MNs. Extensive induction of PCD, either due to injection of beta-bungarotoxin or limb bud removal, is also preceded by an increase in c-Jun immunoreactivity that is also associated with upregulation of phospho-c-Jun and JNK. Translocation of JNK from cytoplasm to MN nuclei was also detected. After acute application of beta-bungarotoxin, which is a strong apoptotic stimulus for MNs, c-Jun phosphorylation occurs on serine 73, whereas serine 63 is the main site for c-Jun phosphorylation after limb bud removal. These results demonstrated that the JNK/c-Jun pathway is involved in the decision phase of normal and induced apoptosis in MNs. Pharmacological interventions involving this pathway should be explored as a potential therapeutic target for promoting MN survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Ribera
- Universitat de Lleida, Facultat de Medicina, Departament de Ciències Mèdiques Bàsiques, Lleida, Spain.
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Williams SM, Diaz CM, Macnab LT, Sullivan RKP, Pow DV. Immunocytochemical analysis of D-serine distribution in the mammalian brain reveals novel anatomical compartmentalizations in glia and neurons. Glia 2006; 53:401-11. [PMID: 16342169 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
D-Serine is a co-agonist at the NMDA receptor glycine-binding site. Early studies have emphasized a glial localization for D-serine. However the nature of the glial cells has not been fully resolved, because previous D-serine antibodies needed glutaraldehyde-fixation, precluding co-localization with fixation-sensitive antigens. We have raised a new D-serine antibody optimized for formaldehyde-fixation. Light and electron microscopic observations indicated that D-serine was concentrated into vesicle-like compartments in astrocytes and radial glial cells, rather than being distributed uniformly in the cytoplasm. In aged animals, patches of cortex and hippocampus were devoid of immunolabeling for D-serine, suggesting that impaired glial modulation of forebrain glutamatergic signaling might occur. Dual immunofluorescence labeling for glutamate and D-serine revealed D-serine in a subset of glutamatergic neurons, particularly in brainstem regions and in the olfactory bulbs. Microglia also contain D-serine. We suggest that some D-serine may be derived from the periphery. Collectively, our data suggest that the cellular compartmentation and distribution of D-serine may be more complex and extensive than previously thought and may have significant implications for our understanding of the role of D-serine in disease states including hypoxia and schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Williams
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales 2308, Australia
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Parsadanian A, Pan Y, Li W, Myckatyn TM, Brakefield D. Astrocyte-derived transgene GDNF promotes complete and long-term survival of adult facial motoneurons following avulsion and differentially regulates the expression of transcription factors of AP-1 and ATF/CREB families. Exp Neurol 2006; 200:26-37. [PMID: 16497298 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2005] [Revised: 01/08/2006] [Accepted: 01/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Glial-cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a potent survival factor for motoneurons (MNs). We have previously demonstrated that overexpression of GDNF in astrocytes of GFAP-GDNF mice promotes long-term survival of neonatal MNs after facial nerve axotomy. In the present study, we investigated whether astrocyte-derived GDNF could also have a neuroprotective effect on adult MNs following facial nerve avulsion. We also examined avulsion- and GDNF-induced changes in the expression pattern of several members of the AP-1 and ATF/CREB families of transcription factors, which are involved in the fate determination of neurons following injury. We demonstrated that GDNF promotes complete rescue of avulsed MNs for at least 4 months post-injury. Transgene GDNF significantly upregulates c-Jun expression in naive MNs, further upregulates injury-induced c-Jun expression in facial MNs, and results in its activation in most surviving MNs. No significant changes were found in c-Fos expression. We found that GDNF has an opposing effect on ATF2 and ATF3 expression. It dramatically downregulates increased levels of ATF3 in response to injury, whereas the expression of ATF2, which is normally reduced after injury, is completely preserved in GFAP-GDNF mice. Our data suggest that maintenance of high levels of ATF2 in injured MNs could be crucial in modulating c-Jun function, and c-Jun/ATF2 signaling could be involved in GDNF-mediated survival of mature MNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Parsadanian
- Department of Neurology and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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Vlug AS, Teuling E, Haasdijk ED, French P, Hoogenraad CC, Jaarsma D. ATF3 expression precedes death of spinal motoneurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-SOD1 transgenic mice and correlates with c-Jun phosphorylation, CHOP expression, somato-dendritic ubiquitination and Golgi fragmentation. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 22:1881-94. [PMID: 16262628 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04389.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To obtain insight into the morphological and molecular correlates of motoneuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) mice that express G93A mutant superoxide dismutase (SOD)1 (G93A mice), we have mapped and characterized 'sick' motoneurons labelled by the 'stress transcription factors' ATF3 and phospho-c-Jun. Immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization showed that a subset of motoneurons express ATF3 from a relatively early phase of disease before the onset of active caspase 3 expression and motoneuron loss. The highest number of ATF3-expressing motoneurons occurred at symptom onset. The onset of ATF3 expression correlated with the appearance of ubiquitinated neurites. Confocal double-labelling immunofluorescence showed that all ATF3-positive motoneurons were immunoreactive for phosphorylated c-Jun. Furthermore, the majority of ATF3 and phospho-c-Jun-positive motoneurons were also immunoreactive for CHOP (GADD153) and showed Golgi fragmentation. A subset of ATF3 and phosphorylated c-Jun-immunoreactive motoneurons showed an abnormal appearance characterized by a number of distinctive features, including an eccentric flattened nucleus, perikaryal accumulation of ubiquitin immunoreactivity, juxta-nuclear accumulation of the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum, and intense Hsp70 immunoreactivity. These abnormal cells were not immunoreactive for active caspase 3. We conclude that motoneurons in ALS-SOD1 mice prior to their death and disappearance experience a prolonged sick phase, characterized by the gradual accumulation of ubiquitinated material first in the neurites and subsequently the cell body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela S Vlug
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus University Rotterdam, PO Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, Netherlands
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Malaspina A, de Belleroche J. Spinal cord molecular profiling provides a better understanding of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis pathogenesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 45:213-29. [PMID: 15210305 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2004] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Research efforts in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) have not yet provided a comprehensive explanation of the disease pathogenesis, which is emerging as a complex interaction between multiple factors. Gene expression studies traditionally based on single mRNA specie analysis have recently progressed to allow entire transcriptional profiles of affected tissues to be obtained through array-based methods. This experimental approach has significantly improved our understanding of the molecular changes occurring in ALS, although its limitations in the detection of low-abundance transcripts in tissues with a high level of complexity are becoming increasingly recognized. In this paper, experimental findings based on an expression study in post-mortem spinal cord from sporadic ALS individuals will be discussed in light of recently published data using array analysis in an animal model of the disease. Previous expression data obtained using conventional techniques are also compared. Through the analysis of the information arising from ALS post-mortem and animal model tissues studies, we have identified a pattern of molecular events in which factors implicated in the immune response, cytoprotection and growth-differentiation are differentially regulated in a time-dependent way from early to advanced stages of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Malaspina
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, Division of Neuroscience and Psychological Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Charing Cross Hospital, London W14 8RF, UK.
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21
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Copray JCVM, Jaarsma D, Küst BM, Bruggeman RWG, Mantingh I, Brouwer N, Boddeke HWGM. Expression of the low affinity neurotrophin receptor p75 in spinal motoneurons in a transgenic mouse model for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuroscience 2003; 116:685-94. [PMID: 12573711 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(02)00755-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a lethal neurodegenerative disorder involving motoneuron loss in the cortex, brainstem and spinal cord, resulting in progressive paralysis. Aberrant neurotrophin signalling via the low affinity neurotrophin receptor p75 has been suggested to be involved in the motoneuron death by the activation of apoptotic pathways. In order to investigate the involvement of neurotrophin receptor p75 in the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis related motoneuron degeneration process, we have studied the expression of this receptor in the spinal cord of transgenic mice carrying a mutated human Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase gene. Mutations in the superoxide dismutase gene are one of the genetic causes for familiar amyotrophic lateras sclerosis and human superoxide dismutase-1 transgenic mice develop symptoms and pathology similar to those in human amyotrophic lateras sclerosis. Our study shows that in these mice, spinal motoneurons, which normally do not contain the neurotrophin receptor p75 receptor, express this receptor during the progress of the disease. Expression of the neurotrophin receptor p75 receptor coincides with the expression of activating transcription factor 3, a member of the activating transcription factor/cyclic AMP family of stress transcription factors. Only a minority of these spinal motoneurons actually showed co-expression of neurotrophin receptor p75 with caspase-3 activity, suggesting that expression of the neurotrophin receptor p75 receptor is not directly related to the execution phase of the apoptosis process.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C V M Copray
- Department of Anatomy, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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22
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Hu JH, Krieger C. Protein phosphorylation networks in motor neuron death. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 2003; 59:71-109. [PMID: 12458964 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-8171-5_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
The disorder amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by the death of specific groups of neurons, especially motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscle, and neurons connecting the cerebral cortex with motor neurons, such as corticospinal tract neurons. There have been numerous attempts to elucidate why there is selective involvement of motor neurons in ALS. Recent observations have demonstrated altered activities and protein levels of diverse kinases in the brain and spinal cord of transgenic mice that overexpress a mutant superoxide dismutase (mSOD) gene that is found in patients with the familial form of ALS, as well as in patients who have died with ALS. These results suggest that the alteration of protein phosphorylation may be involved in the pathogenesis of ALS. The changes in protein kinase and phosphatase expression and activity can affect the activation of important neuronal neurotransmitter receptors such as NMDA receptors or other signaling proteins and can trigger, or modify, the process producing neuronal loss in ALS. These various kinases, phosphatases and signaling proteins are involved in many signaling pathways; however, they have close interactions with each other. Therefore, an understanding of the role of protein kinases and protein phosphatases and the molecular organization of protein phosphorylation networks are useful to determine the mechanisms of selective motor neuron death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Hong Hu
- School of Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
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23
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Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a late onset, rapidly progressive and ultimately fatal neurological disorder, caused by the loss of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. Familial aggregation of ALS, with an age-dependent but high penetrance, is a major risk factor for ALS. Familial ALS (FALS) is clinically and genetically heterogeneous. Three genes and linkage to four additional gene loci have been identified so far and may either predominantly lead to ALS (ALSI-ALS6) or cause multisystem neurodegeneration with ALS as an occasional symptom (tauopathies, ALS-dementia complex). This review presents a tentative classification of the "major" ALS genes and ALS "susceptibility" genes, that may act as susceptibility factors for neurodegeneration in interaction with other genetic or environmental risk factors. Considering that mutations in ALS genes explain approximately 10% of familial as well as sporadic ALS, and most remaining cases of the discase are thought to result form the interaction of several genes and environmental factors, ALS is a paradigm for multifactorial discases.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Majoor-Krakauer
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
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Heath PR, Shaw PJ. Update on the glutamatergic neurotransmitter system and the role of excitotoxicity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Muscle Nerve 2002; 26:438-58. [PMID: 12362409 DOI: 10.1002/mus.10186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Excitotoxicity may play a role in certain disorders of the motor system thought to be caused by environmentally acquired toxins, including lathyrism and domoic acid poisoning. Motor neurons appear to be particularly susceptible to toxicity mediated via alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA)-kainate receptors. There is a body of evidence implicating glutamatergic toxicity as a contributory factor in the selective neuronal injury occurring in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Interference with glutamate-mediated toxicity is so far the only neuroprotective therapeutic strategy that has shown benefit in terms of slowing disease progression in ALS patients. Biochemical studies have shown decreased glutamate levels in central nervous system (CNS) tissue and increased levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of ALS patients. CSF from ALS patients is toxic to neurons in culture, apparently via a mechanism involving AMPA receptor activation. There is evidence for altered expression and function of glial glutamate transporters in ALS, particularly excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2). Abnormal splice variants of EAAT2 have been detected in human CNS. Mitochondrial dysfunction may contribute to excitotoxicity in ALS. Induction of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase 2 in ALS may also lead to significant interactions with regulation of the glutamate transmitter system. Certain features of motor neurons may predispose them to the neurodegenerative process in ALS, such as the cell size, mitochondrial activity, neurofilament content, and relative lack of certain calcium-binding proteins and molecular chaperones. Motor neurons appear vulnerable to toxicity mediated by calcium-permeable AMPA receptors. The relatively low expression of the glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2) AMPA receptor subunit and the high current density caused by the large number and density of cell surface AMPA receptors are potentially important factors that may predispose to such toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R Heath
- Academic Neurology Unit, E Floor, Medical School, University of Sheffield, Beech Hill Road, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom
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25
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Gadea A, López-Colomé AM. Glial transporters for glutamate, glycine, and GABA III. Glycine transporters. J Neurosci Res 2001; 64:218-22. [PMID: 11319765 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.1069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Glial cells possess transport systems for the three major amino acid neurotransmitters glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine, involved in the arrest of neurotransmission mediated by these compounds. Two glycine transporters have been cloned: GLYT1, mainly expressed by glial cells and shown to colocalize with NMDA receptors, and GLYT2, exclusively expressed by neurons and colocalized with the inhibitory glycine receptors. The way in which the regulation of extracellular glycine concentration by glial glycine transporters affects physiological and pathological conditions is discussed. The presence, differential pharmacology and specific regulation of glycine transporters in glial cells strongly support an important role for glia in the modulation of both, excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Gadea
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Departamento de Neurociencias, UNAM, México
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26
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Malaspina A, Kaushik N, de Belleroche J. A 14-3-3 mRNA is up-regulated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis spinal cord. J Neurochem 2000; 75:2511-20. [PMID: 11080204 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2000.0752511.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have recently isolated a 2.2-kb cDNA clone (1C5) from a human spinal cord cDNA library with partial identity to the 14-3-3 protein mRNA encoding the theta protein (YWHAQ). 14-3-3 protein transcripts are highly expressed in large projection neurones of the hippocampus, cerebellum, and spinal cord and have been found to be significantly up-regulated in rat motor neurones following hypoglossal nerve axotomy. In this study we investigated whether the 1C5 transcript (YWHAQ) isolated from spinal cord was involved in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We found a significant up-regulation of 1C5 (YWHAQ) in lumbar spinal cord from patients with sporadic ALS compared with controls, with the highest levels of expression being found in individuals with predominant lower motor neurone involvement. A 6-bp tandem repeat in the 5'-untranslated region of the gene was found to be polymorphic, but no significant association with disease was found following genomic analysis of this region. The localisation of 1C5 (YWHAQ) to chromosome 2 was determined and coincides with that reported for clone HS1 (EMBL accession no. X57347). These results show the marked up-regulation of the 14-3-3 isoform (YWHAQ) in ALS spinal cord and indicate the involvement of a potential 14-3-3-mediated survival pathway in the pathogenesis of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Malaspina
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, Division of Neuroscience and Psychological Medicine, Imperial College School of Medicine, London, England
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27
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Lovas G, Palkovits M, Komoly S. Increased c-Jun expression in neurons affected by lysolecithin-induced demyelination in rats. Neurosci Lett 2000; 292:71-4. [PMID: 10998551 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(00)01469-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate whether the expression of c-Jun is involved in the neuronal response to experimental demyelination. Lysolecithin-induced demyelination was generated in two distinct neural systems in rats: in the pontocerebellar and the septohippocampal pathways. Six days after the stereotaxic injections of lysolecithin, expression of the immediate early gene c-Jun was visualized by immunohistochemistry. Lesion-specific expression of the Jun protein was observed in neurons whose axons transverse the demyelinated area. Unlike the neural response to axotomy, lysolecithin treatment did not alter the expression of the neuropeptide galanin in the septohippocampal pathway. These results suggest that c-Jun protein expression might represent one step in the neuronal response to demyelination and that this response might be distinct in its downstream events from axotomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Lovas
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurogenetics, NINDS, NIH, Building 36, Room 5D-09, 36 Convent Drive, MSC 4160, Bethesda, MD 20892-4160, USA.
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28
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Virgo L, Dekkers J, Mentis GZ, Navarrete R, de Belleroche J. Changes in expression of NMDA receptor subunits in the rat lumbar spinal cord following neonatal nerve injury. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2000; 26:258-72. [PMID: 10886684 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2990.2000.00244.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The vulnerability of motoneurones to glutamate has been implicated in neurological disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis but it is not known whether specific receptor subtypes mediate this effect. In order to investigate this further, the expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunits was studied during the first three post-natal weeks when motoneurones are differentially vulnerable to injury following neonatal nerve crush compared to the adult. Unilateral nerve crush was carried out at day 2 after birth (P2) which causes a decrease of 66% in motoneurone number by 14 days (P14). To study receptor expression in identified motoneurones, serial section analysis was carried out on retrogradely labelled common peroneal (CP) motoneurones by combined immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization (ISH). mRNA levels were also quantified in homogenates from lumbar spinal cords in which the side ipsilateral to the crush was separated from the contralateral side. The NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor was widely distributed in the spinal cord being expressed most strongly in motoneurone somata particularly during the neonatal period (P3-P7). The NR2 subunits were also expressed at higher levels in the somata and dendrites of neonatal motoneurones compared to older animals. NR2B mRNA was expressed at low to moderate levels throughout the studied period whereas NR2A mRNA levels were low until P21. Following unilateral nerve crush, an initial decrease in NR1 mRNA occurred at one day after nerve crush (P3) in labelled CP motoneurones ipsilateral to the crush which was followed by a significant increase in NR1 subunit expression at 5 days post-injury. This increase was bilateral although reaching greater significance ipsilateral to the crush compared with sham-operated animals. A significant increase in NR1 and NR2B mRNA post injury was also detected in spinal cord homogenates. In addition, the changes in levels of NR1 and NR2B mRNA were reflected by comparable bilateral changes at P7 in receptor protein determined by quantitative immunocytochemical analysis of NR1 and NR2 subunit expression in identified CP motoneurones indicating a co-ordinated regulation of receptor subunits in response to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Virgo
- Division of Neuroscience & Psychological Medicine, Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, Imperial College School of Medicine, Charing Cross Hospital, London, UK
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29
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Trieu VN, Liu R, Liu XP, Uckun FM. A specific inhibitor of janus kinase-3 increases survival in a transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000; 267:22-5. [PMID: 10623568 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1999.1905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, fatal neurodegenerative disorder involving the motor neurons of cortex, brain stem, and spinal cord. About 10% of all ALS patients are familial cases (FALS), of which 20% have mutations in the Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene. The murine model for FALS, which overexpresses a FALS variant of the SOD1 gene, exhibits progressive limbic paralysis followed by death. Treatment of FALS mice with WHI-P131, a specific inhibitor of Janus kinase 3 (JAK3), increased survival by more than two months, suggesting that specific inhibitors of JAK3 may be useful in the treatment of human ALS. These results uniquely establish JAK3 as a novel molecular target for the treatment of FALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- V N Trieu
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Neurosciences, Hughes Institute, 2665 Long Lake Road, Roseville, Minnesota, 55113, USA
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30
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Abstract
The care of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), which has classically focused on treatment of symptomatology, has now entered an encouraging new era of therapy targeted at the pathophysiology of the disease. However, an objective measure of disease progression and therapeutic response is sorely needed. Quantitative neuromuscular examinations, measurement of pulmonary function, disability scales, and even survival, are limited by variability due to a number of poorly controlled factors. Quantitative electromyography, positron emission tomography scanning, and magnetic cortical stimulation, provide potential objective indicators of disease progression, but require a large number of patients and a long observation period for adequate statistical power. We have examined the role of magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging in detecting acute changes in motor cortical metabolism in response to riluzole therapy. N-acetylaspartate (NAA), the most prominent signal in proton spectra of normal brain, is a neuron-specific molecule. ALS patients were found to experience a significant increase in the NAA/creatine ratio within 3 weeks of initiation of riluzole therapy. As glutamate can trigger the generation of reactive oxygen species in neurons, we speculate that acute changes in NAA levels may reflect oxidative injury to mitochondria where NAA is synthesised. The advent of a useful test for upper motor neuron metabolic compromise may provide an objective, non-invasive, short duration measure with which to screen the efficacy of potential therapeutic agents for ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kalra
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Canada
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31
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Fujita H, Sato K, Wen TC, Peng Y, Sakanaka M. Differential expressions of glycine transporter 1 and three glutamate transporter mRNA in the hippocampus of gerbils with transient forebrain ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1999; 19:604-15. [PMID: 10366190 DOI: 10.1097/00004647-199906000-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular concentrations of glutamate and its co-agonist for the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, glycine, may be under the control of amino acid transporters in the ischemic brain. However, there is little information on changes in glycine and glutamate transporters in the hippocampal CA1 field of gerbils with transient forebrain ischemia. This study investigated the spatial and temporal expressions of glycine transporter 1 (GLYT1) and three glutamate transporter (excitatory amino acid carrier 1, EAAC1; glutamate/aspartate transporter, GLAST; glutamate transporter 1, GLT1) mRNA in the gerbil hippocampus after 3 minutes of ischemia. The GLYT1 mRNA was transiently upregulated by the second day after ischemia in astrocytelike cells in close vicinity to hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons, possibly to reduce glycine concentration in the local extracellular spaces. The EAAC1 mRNA was abundantly expressed in almost all pyramidal neurons and dentate granule cells in the control gerbil hippocampus, whereas the expression level in CA1 pyramidal neurons started to decrease by the fourth day after ischemia in synchrony with degeneration of the CA1 neurons. The GLAST and GLT1 mRNA were rather intensely expressed in the dentate gyrus and CA3 field of the control hippocampus, respectively, but they were weakly expressed in the CA1 field before and after ischemia. As GLAST and GLT1 play a major role in the control of extracellular glutamate concentration, the paucity of these transporters in the CA1 field may account for the vulnerability of CA1 neurons to ischemia, provided that the functional GLAST and GLT1 proteins are also less in the CA1 field than in the CA3 field. This study suggests that the amino acid transporters play pivotal roles in the process of delayed neuronal death in the hippocampal CA1 field.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Fujita
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Ehime University School of Medicine, Shigenobu, Japan
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32
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Schmitt AB, Breuer S, Voell M, Schwaiger FW, Spitzer C, Pech K, Brook GA, Noth J, Kreutzberg GW, Nacimiento W. GAP-43 (B-50) and C-Jun are up-regulated in axotomized neurons of Clarke's nucleus after spinal cord injury in the adult rat. Neurobiol Dis 1999; 6:122-30. [PMID: 10343327 DOI: 10.1006/nbdi.1998.0231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The growth-associated protein GAP-43 (B-50) and the transcription factor C-Jun are involved in regeneration of the injured nervous system. In this study, we investigated the possibility of the induction of GAP-43 and C-Jun in axotomized neurons of Clarke's nucleus (CN) in adult rats, of which a large population undergoes degeneration several weeks after a low thoracic lateral funiculotomy of the spinal cord. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed a transient up-regulation of GAP-43 mRNA, C-Jun protein, and its activated, phosphorylated form, peaking around 7 days after injury in preferentially large diameter CN-neurons ipsilateral and caudal to the lesion. Our results document that some populations of axotomized central nervous system neurons, similar to axotomized regenerating neurons of the peripheral nervous system, can up-regulate GAP-43 and C-Jun, even if they are destined to degenerate. This might reflect a transient regenerative capacity, which fails over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Schmitt
- Department of Neurology, Aachen University Medical School, Germany.
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Parsons CG, Danysz W, Hesselink M, Hartmann S, Lorenz B, Wollenburg C, Quack G. Modulation of NMDA receptors by glycine--introduction to some basic aspects and recent developments. Amino Acids 1999; 14:207-16. [PMID: 9871463 DOI: 10.1007/bf01345264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Glycine is a co-agonist at NMDA receptors and it's presence is a prerequisite for channel activation by glutamate or NMDA. Physiological concentrations reduce one form of NMDA receptor-desensitization. Interactions between the glycineB site and other domains of the NMDA receptor are complex and include the glutamate, Mg2+ and polyamines sites. Glycine shows different affinities at various NMDA receptor subtypes probably via to allosteric interactions between NMDA2 subunits and the glycine recognition site on the NMDAR1 subunit. There is still some debate whether the glycineB site is saturated in vivo but it seems likely that this depends on regional differences in receptor subtype expression, local glycine or D-serine concentrations and the expression of specific glycine transporters. GlycineB antagonists and partial agonists have been reported to have good therapeutic indices as neuroprotective agents against focal ischaemia and trauma, anti-epileptics, anxiolytics, anti-psychotomimetics and in models of chronic pain. They clearly lack two potentially serious side effects classically associated with NMDA receptor blockade, namely neurodegenerative changes in the cingulate/retrosplenial cortex and psychotomimetic-like effects. This improved therapeutic profile may be partially due to the ability of full glycineB antagonists to reveal glycine-sensitive desensitization and possibly also via functional and/or regional NMDA receptor subtype selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Parsons
- Department of Pharmacology, Merz + Co., Frankfurt am Main, Federal Republic of Germany
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Herdegen T, Leah JD. Inducible and constitutive transcription factors in the mammalian nervous system: control of gene expression by Jun, Fos and Krox, and CREB/ATF proteins. BRAIN RESEARCH. BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 1998; 28:370-490. [PMID: 9858769 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0173(98)00018-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1056] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This article reviews findings up to the end of 1997 about the inducible transcription factors (ITFs) c-Jun, JunB, JunD, c-Fos, FosB, Fra-1, Fra-2, Krox-20 (Egr-2) and Krox-24 (NGFI-A, Egr-1, Zif268); and the constitutive transcription factors (CTFs) CREB, CREM, ATF-2 and SRF as they pertain to gene expression in the mammalian nervous system. In the first part we consider basic facts about the expression and activity of these transcription factors: the organization of the encoding genes and their promoters, the second messenger cascades converging on their regulatory promoter sites, the control of their transcription, the binding to dimeric partners and to specific DNA sequences, their trans-activation potential, and their posttranslational modifications. In the second part we describe the expression and possible roles of these transcription factors in neural tissue: in the quiescent brain, during pre- and postnatal development, following sensory stimulation, nerve transection (axotomy), neurodegeneration and apoptosis, hypoxia-ischemia, generalized and limbic seizures, long-term potentiation and learning, drug dependence and withdrawal, and following stimulation by neurotransmitters, hormones and neurotrophins. We also describe their expression and possible roles in glial cells. Finally, we discuss the relevance of their expression for nervous system functioning under normal and patho-physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Herdegen
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Kiel, Hospitalstrasse 4, 24105, Kiel,
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35
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Urushitani M, Shimohama S, Kihara T, Sawada H, Akaike A, Ibi M, Inoue R, Kitamura Y, Taniguchi T, Kimura J. Mechanism of selective motor neuronal death after exposure of spinal cord to glutamate: involvement of glutamate-induced nitric oxide in motor neuron toxicity and nonmotor neuron protection. Ann Neurol 1998; 44:796-807. [PMID: 9818936 DOI: 10.1002/ana.410440514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we analyzed the mechanism of selective motor neuronal death, a characteristic of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, using embryonic rat spinal cord culture. When dissociated cultures were exposed to low-level glutamate (Glu) coadministered with the Glu transporter inhibitor L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-decarboxylate (PDC) for 24 hours, motor neurons were selectively injured through N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA)/kainate receptors. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors attenuated this toxicity, and long-acting nitric oxide (NO) donors damaged motor neurons selectively. Nonmotor neurons survived after exposure to low-dose Glu/PDC, but Glu-induced toxicity was potentiated by coadministration of an NO-dependent guanylyl cyclase inhibitor. In addition, 8-bromo-cyclic GMP, a soluble cyclic GMP analogue, rescued nonmotor neurons, but not motor neurons, exposed to high-dose Glu/PDC. Twenty-four hours' incubation with PDC elevated the number of neuronal NOS-immunoreactive neurons by about twofold compared with controls, and a double-staining study, using the motor neuron marker SMI32, revealed that most of them were nonmotor neurons. These findings suggest that selective motor neuronal death caused by chronic low-level exposure to Glu is mediated by the formation of NO in nonmotor neurons, which inversely protects nonmotor neurons through the guanylyl cyclase-cyclic GMP cascade. Induction of neuronal NOS in nonmotor neurons might enhance both the toxicity of motor neurons and the protection of nonmotor neurons, which could explain the pathology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Urushitani
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kyoto University, Japan
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36
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Lane RJ, Virgo L, Lantos PL, de Belleroche J. A case of multiple system atrophy with hyperglycinaemia due to a selective deficiency of glycine transporter mRNA. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1998; 24:353-8. [PMID: 9821165 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2990.1998.00136.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A patient presented with features of olivopontocerebellar atrophy and was found to have marked hyperglycinaemia. Severe atrophy of the cerebellum and brain stem was found at post-mortem, with numerous glial cytoplasmic inclusions (GCIs) in atrophic areas, characteristic of multiple system atrophy. In situ hybridization studies of the spinal cord demonstrated a selective reduction in expression of glycine transporter mRNA. We suggest that the resulting impairment of regulation of glycine concentrations at synaptic level resulted in excitotoxic damage to neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Lane
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience and Psychological Medicine, Imperial College School of Medicine, London, UK
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Kostic V, Jackson-Lewis V, de Bilbao F, Dubois-Dauphin M, Przedborski S. Bcl-2: prolonging life in a transgenic mouse model of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Science 1997; 277:559-62. [PMID: 9228005 DOI: 10.1126/science.277.5325.559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 377] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding copper/zinc superoxide dismutase enzyme produce an animal model of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FALS), a fatal disorder characterized by paralysis. Overexpression of the proto-oncogene bcl-2 delayed onset of motor neuron disease and prolonged survival in transgenic mice expressing the FALS-linked mutation in which glycine is substituted by alanine at position 93. It did not, however, alter the duration of the disease. Overexpression of bcl-2 also attenuated the magnitude of spinal cord motor neuron degeneration in the FALS-transgenic mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Kostic
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, 650 West 168 Street, BB-307, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Dragunow M, MacGibbon GA, Lawlor P, Butterworth N, Connor B, Henderson C, Walton M, Woodgate A, Hughes P, Faull RL. Apoptosis, neurotrophic factors and neurodegeneration. Rev Neurosci 1997; 8:223-65. [PMID: 9548234 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro.1997.8.3-4.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is an active process of cell death characterized by distinct morphological features, and is often the end result of a genetic programme of events, i.e. programmed cell death (PCD). There is growing evidence supporting a role for apoptosis in some neurodegenerative diseases. This conclusion is based on DNA fragmentation studies and findings of increased levels of pro-apoptotic genes in human brain and in in vivo and in vitro model systems. Additionally, there is some evidence for a loss of neurotrophin support in neurodegenerative diseases. In Alzheimer's disease, in particular, there is strong evidence from human brain studies, transgenic models and in vitro models to suggest that the mode of nerve cell death is apoptotic. In this review we describe the evidence implicating apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases with a particular emphasis on Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Dragunow
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Medicine and Health Sciences Campus, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
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Coggeshall RE, Carlton SM. Receptor localization in the mammalian dorsal horn and primary afferent neurons. BRAIN RESEARCH. BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 1997; 24:28-66. [PMID: 9233541 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0173(97)00010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The dorsal horn of the spinal cord is a primary receiving area for somatosensory input and contains high concentrations of a large variety of receptors. These receptors tend to congregate in lamina II, which is a major receiving center for fine, presumably nociceptive, somatosensory input. There are rapid reorganizations of many of these receptors in response to various stimuli or pathological situations. These receptor localizations in the normal and their changes after various pertubations modify present concepts about the wiring diagram of the nervous system. Accordingly, the present work reviews the receptor localizations and relates them to classic organizational patterns in the mammalian dorsal horn.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Coggeshall
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston 77555-1069, USA
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40
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Herdegen T, Skene P, Bähr M. The c-Jun transcription factor--bipotential mediator of neuronal death, survival and regeneration. Trends Neurosci 1997; 20:227-31. [PMID: 9141200 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-2236(96)01000-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 401] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Axon interruption elicits a complex neuronal response that leaves neurons poised precariously between death and regeneration. The signals underlying this dichotomy are not fully understood. The transcription factor c-Jun is one of the earliest and most consistent markers for neurons that respond to nerve-fiber transection, and its expression can be related to both degeneration and survival including target re-innervation. In vitro experiments have demonstrated that expression of c-Jun can kill neonatal neurons but, in the adult nervous system, c-Jun might also be involved in neuroprotection and regeneration. The functional characteristics of c-Jun offer a model for the ability of a single molecule to serve as pivotal regulator for death or survival, not only in the response of the cell body to axonal lesions but also following neurodegenerative disorders. In this model, the fate of neurons is determined by a novel transcriptional network comprising c-Jun, ATF-2 (activating transcription factor-2) and JNKs (c-Jun N-terminal kinases).
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Affiliation(s)
- T Herdegen
- Dept of Pharmacology, University of Kiel, Germany
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Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a fatal neurodegenerative disease in which upper and lower motoneurons progressively deteriorate and die. Neuronal damage is most evident in the lower central nervous system, and death generally occurs following central respiratory failure. Proposed and demonstrated mechanisms for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are diverse, and include altered superoxide dismutase and neurofilament proteins, autoimmune attack, and hyperglutamatergic activity. However, they do not account for the late onset of the disease, its earlier onset in males, and the differential vulnerability of neurons located in the brainstem and spinal cord. It is proposed here that, within the context of a specific defect such as altered superoxide dismutase, age-dependent decline in ascorbate availability triggers the disease. A role for ascorbate, which is found in millimolar levels in neurons, is suggested by a number of consistencies: 1) superoxide radicals being a common substrate for superoxide dismutase and ascorbate; 2) a close association between central nervous system ascorbate levels and injury tolerance; 3) a steady decline in ascorbate plasma levels and cellular availability with age; 4) plasma ascorbate levels being lower in males; 5) an association of ascorbate release with motor activity in central nervous system regions, in vivo; 6) the coupling of brain-cell ascorbate release with glutamate uptake; 7) possible roles for ascorbate modulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activity; 9) the ability of ascorbate to prevent peroxynitrite anion formation; and 10) evidence supporting the scorbutic guinea pig as a model for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Emphasis is placed on the probable competition between superoxide dismutase and ascorbate within the context of a primary defect of metal-binding or metal access in high-concentration proteins such as superoxide dismutase and human heavy neurofilaments. Finally, distinct features of alpha-motoneuronal physiology suggest that cell physiological characteristics such as high metabolic activity and extensive calcium dynamics may render neurons differentially vulnerable in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Kok
- Science Applications International Corporation, Joppa, Maryland 21085, USA.
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Jaarsma D, Holstege JC, Troost D, Davis M, Kennis J, Haasdijk ED, de Jong VJ. Induction of c-Jun immunoreactivity in spinal cord and brainstem neurons in a transgenic mouse model for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurosci Lett 1996; 219:179-82. [PMID: 8971809 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(96)13202-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic mice carrying amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-linked superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) mutations develop a motoneuron disease resembling human ALS. c-Jun is a transcription factor frequently induced in injured neurons. In this study we have examined the distribution of c-Jun-immunoreactivity in the brainstem and spinal cord of transgenic SOD1 mice with a glycine 93 alanine (G93A) mutation. In non-transgenic littermates c-Jun immunostaining was predominantly situated in motoneurons. The number of c-Jun immunoreactive motoneuron was reduced in SOD1(G93A) mice due to pronounced loss of motoneurons. In SOD1(G93A) mice, however, c-Jun-immunoreactivity was strongly induced in neurons in the intermediate zone (Rexed's laminae V-VIII and X) of the spinal cord and throughout the brainstem reticular formation. These findings are of interest since increased levels of c-jun also have been found in the intermediate zone of the spinal cord of ALS patients. This c-Jun may be involved in the neurodegenerative processes both in ALS and in motoneuron disease in SOD1(G93A) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Jaarsma
- Department of Anatomy, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Samarasinghe S, Virgo L, de Belleroche J. Distribution of the N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor subunit NR2A in control and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis spinal cord. Brain Res 1996; 727:233-7. [PMID: 8842405 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(96)00506-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of the different glutamate receptor subunits in human spinal cord has yet to be fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to examine the distribution of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor modulatory subunit NR2A, in control human spinal cord and to examine in parallel the expression of the mRNA in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The aetiology of ALS is poorly understood, although abnormalities in glutamate and glycine transport have been reported as well as alterations in NMDA receptors including the NR1 subunit; suggesting a role for glutamate in the disease process. We have used the technique of in situ hybridisation to localise this receptor subunit to the laminae of human spinal cord and have found that it shows a widespread distribution similar to that previously reported for the universal NMDA receptor subunit NR1. Quantitation of mRNA expression in control and ALS cases showed a significant widespread loss of NR2A from both dorsal and ventral horns with losses of 55% and 78%, respectively, in ALS as compared to control. These results were substantiated by analysis of spinal cord homogenates, which showed a significant total decrease of 50% in ALS spinal cord as compared to control.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Samarasinghe
- Department of Biochemistry, Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School, London, UK
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Martín G, Seguí J, Díaz-Villoslada P, Montalbán X, Planas AM, Ferrer I. Jun expression is found in neurons located in the vicinity of subacute plaques in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurosci Lett 1996; 212:95-8. [PMID: 8832647 DOI: 10.1016/0304-3940(96)12776-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The expression of members of the Fos and Jun families is examined by immunohistochemistry in the brains of two patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Strong c-Jun immunoreactivity is observed in the cytoplasm of neurons located in the vicinity of subacute plaques, but not in neurons of brain compartments not compromised by MS and in the neighborhood of chronic plaques. Strong c-Jun immunoreactivity also contrast with weak c-Jun immunoreactivity of corresponding neurons in control brains. In addition, punctate Jun D immunoreactivity is observed in the neuropil of the same areas that express c-Jun. No immunoreaction is found to c-Fos, Fos-related antigens and Jun B in these areas. The present results suggest that selective Jun neuronal expression in the vicinity of subacute plaques is a consistent reaction to demyelination and axonal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Martín
- Unitat de Neuropatología, Hospital Prínceps d'Espanya, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
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Hay C, Virgo L, Mentis G, Navarrete R, de Belleroche J. Changes in expression of NR-1 and c-jun mRNA in rat lumbar spinal cord after neonatal common peroneal nerve crush. Brain Res 1995; 704:145-50. [PMID: 8750977 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(95)01286-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We have examined the expression of the NR-1 subunit of the glutamate NMDA receptor and the immediate early gene c-jun in lumbar spinal cord following neonatal common peroneal nerve crush. The expression of these two genes was studied up to 12 days post-injury (crush occurring at neonatal day P2). The levels of both NR-1 and c-jun mRNA were increased in spinal cord ipsilateral to the site of crush, the induction of mRNA was shown to occur in a time-dependent manner, peaking at 5 days post-injury. The level of NR-1 mRNA showed the most substantial change following nerve crush, increasing 5 times from 4 h to 5 days post-crush. An increase in expression of NR-1 was also observed in spinal cord contralateral to the injury, although quantitatively this was a smaller effect. These results indicate that early postnatal injury causes a significant increase in the expression of NR-1 mRNA which is most marked at 5 days after injury. This period coincides with that of maximum cell death and indicates that the selective induction of NR-1 could underlie the mechanism of this cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Hay
- Department of Biochemistry, Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School, London, UK
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Gass P, Herdegen T. Neuronal expression of AP-1 proteins in excitotoxic-neurodegenerative disorders and following nerve fiber lesions. Prog Neurobiol 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0301-0082(95)80004-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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