The self-attention-induced feedback loop and social facilitation

How Bottom-Line Mentality Leads to Abusive Supervision? Investigating the Mediating Effects of Anxiety

Purpose

By integrating the theory of workplace anxiety with a self-regulatory theory, this study investigates the mediating role of workplace anxiety in the relationship between leader bottom-line mentality and abusive supervision targeting the follower, as well as the moderating effect of rules climate on leaders' emotion-behavior process.

Methods

A total of 393 employees and 91 supervising managers participated in the multi-source, two-wave survey. To test our hypotheses, we performed the regression analysis and conducted bootstrapping analyses using the Hayes PROCESS Model.

Results

Findings indicated that leader bottom-line mentality has a positive indirect relationship with abusive supervision via workplace anxiety. In addition, rules climate weakens abusive supervision for workplace anxiety, revealing a significant moderate effect.

Conclusion

Leaders with high BLM encapsulate apprehension and tension, which are deficient in fostering workplace anxiety as an important affect process that facilitates abusive supervision. During this process, we identify rules climate as an important boundary condition for our model and theorization.

Impression management in daily life: an experience sampling test for the expression of impression management as interpersonally oriented self-control

Impression management (IM) scales (often called lie or social desirability scales) have long been applied as validity scales in assessment processes. Recent developments have indicated that these scales measure a substantive personality predisposition and not response bias, but the nature of the disposition is disputable. According to the 'interpersonally oriented self-control' approach, IM is associated with high self-control exerted mainly in public social contexts to facilitate adaptation. Supported in laboratory settings, this approach has not been tested in real-life dynamics. In the present experience sampling study, participants reported 3 times a day (10 days) about their social condition (alone/'with others') and their level of self-control. Results revealed that IM was associated with stronger self-control when with other people than when alone. Comparable reactions to public social context were not found for self-deception enhancement, trait self-control, or agreeableness, marking this a unique aspect of IM. The findings further stress the need to reconsider the use of IM scales for validity purposes in assessment processes.

A neurocognitive model of early onset persistent and desistant antisocial behavior in early adulthood

It remains unclear which functional and neurobiological mechanisms are associated with persistent and desistant antisocial behavior in early adulthood. We reviewed the empirical literature and propose a neurocognitive social information processing model for early onset persistent and desistant antisocial behavior in early adulthood, focusing on how young adults evaluate, act upon, monitor, and learn about their goals and self traits. Based on the reviewed literature, we propose that persistent antisocial behavior is characterized by domain-general impairments in self-relevant and goal-related information processing, regulation, and learning, which is accompanied by altered activity in fronto-limbic brain areas. We propose that desistant antisocial development is associated with more effortful information processing, regulation and learning, that possibly balances self-relevant goals and specific situational characteristics. The proposed framework advances insights by considering individual differences such as psychopathic personality traits, and specific emotional characteristics (e.g., valence of social cues), to further illuminate functional and neural mechanisms underlying heterogenous developmental pathways. Finally, we address important open questions and offer suggestions for future research to improve scientific knowledge on general and context-specific expression and development of antisocial behavior in early adulthood.

Social facilitation effects in online coaction: the moderating role of social comparison direction

Online and face-to-face coactions are widely used work organization modes. This study aims to investigate the effect of social comparison direction on task performance when people coact online. A total of 40 individuals were recruited to participate in a 2 (coaction type: online and face to face) × 3 (social comparison direction: upward, downward and no comparison) × 2 (phase: pre-comparison and post-comparison) within-subject experiment. The participants performed visual search tasks while their response time and search accuracy rates were measured. Results showed that the participants were reported to perform faster when they coacted online than face to face. The upward comparison led to a stronger social facilitation effect than the downward and no comparison directions, either in online or face-to-face coaction. These findings provide practical implications in the design of coaction modes for groups and teams working remotely.

Teach Me Fishing or Give Me the Fish: Differential Effects of Receiving Autonomous and Dependent Help on Task Performance

Research on workplace helping behavior highlights the need for a more balanced perspective that acknowledges both the positive and negative consequences of receiving help. The purpose of this study is to investigate how the mechanisms through which we receive autonomous and dependent help differentially impact recipient task performance, as well as the boundary condition for such effects. Drawing on social information theory, we examined the mediating role of task- and self-focused processes, and the moderating role of perceived prosocial motivation. Through a two-wave and two-source field survey, we collected matched data from 350 employees and their direct supervisors. We examined our hypothesized model with path analysis using Mplus 7.4. Results indicated that receiving autonomous help improved task performance by leading recipients into task-focused processes, and perceived prosocial motivation further strengthened this positive indirect relationship. In contrast, receiving dependent help reduced task performance by eliciting recipients to engage in self-focused processes, and perceived prosocial motivation further augmented this negative indirect relationship. Overall, we spotlight the differential consequences of receiving autonomous and dependent help on recipients and encourage further inquiry about the role of social information processing in the helping literature.

The Feelings of Goals Hypothesis: Emotional Feelings are Non-Conceptual, Non-Motoric Representations of Goals

This paper proposes and develops the feelings of goals hypothesis (FGH). It has two aims: first, to describe the evolutionary function of emotional feelings (EFs), and second, to describe the content and the format of EFs. According to FGH, the evolutionary function of EFs is to enable motoric flexibility. Specifically, EFs are a component of a psychological mechanism that permits differential motoric reactions to the same stimulus. Further, according to FGH, EF is a special type of mental representation with the content of an action goal, and with a non-motoric, non-conceptual format. This paper thoroughly clarifies the assumptions underlying FGH and discusses its theoretical implications and empirical predictions.

Predicting Physical Activity Behavior by Automatic and Reflective Self-Regulatory Processes

In this study, we examined the interaction of automatic (i.e., automatic affective evaluations) and reflective [i.e., reflective intention and executive functions (EFs)] processes on physical activity (PA) behavior based on dual-process theories. We expected main effects as well as significant interaction effects between automatic associations, intention, and EFs on behavior. In particular, a well-controlled implicit-association-test (IAT) was applied to assess automatic affective evaluation. A prospective study with two points of measurement (N=212 students) was conducted. At t1, age, sex, PA behavior (control variables), automatic associations, EFs (shifting, updating, inhibition), and PA intention (predictors and moderators) were assessed with standardized questionnaires and tests. At t2 (4weeks later), PA behavior (dependent variable) was measured with a standardized questionnaire. A hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis including two- and three-way interactions between IAT results, intention, and EFs on PA behavior was conducted. Results showed that the interactions Intention x Shifting and IAT x Intention x Inhibition were significant. Moderation analyses revealed that participants with higher intentions and lower inhibition values (improved inhibition abilities) showed a negative association between IAT and PA, while those with lower intentions and lower inhibition values showed a positive association between IAT and PA, which was documented in a significant slope difference test between these two groups. Thus, both automatic and reflective processes contribute and interact in predicting PA. As well as fostering more positive affective evaluations towards PA, interventions to strengthen PA intentions and to improve EFs could help to increase PA behavior.

Psychological Balance Scale: Validation Studies of an Integrative Measure of Well-Being

Studies infer Psychological Balance from the absence of psychopathology. In this article, we investigated this construct as an antecedent of well-being. We present empirical evidence toward the validation of a new theoretical model regarding Psychological Balance, a dynamic state with relatively constant characteristics, comprising Consistency and Flexibility and influenced by a Self/Others Ratio. A battery of 31 items, as indicators of Consistency, Flexibility, and Self/Others Ratio, aided this empirical investigation. In an online study (N = 933), we collected cross-sectional data from the United Kingdom. Results of cross-validation analyses provided evidence toward the validity of the proposed model and the psychometric properties of its instrument. There were statistically significant associations between Consistency (i.e., degree of integration of a universal value structure as self-related characteristics that motivate personal goals and behavior), Flexibility (i.e., degree of ability to re-define meaningful and important goals in response to situational challenge), and five well-being variables (e.g., Meaning in Life). Self/Others Ratio (i.e., ratio of motivation to serve self-interest and the interest of others), operationalized as a binary variable (e.g., close and away from 1), moderated some of these associations. Altogether, this work may contribute toward a nuanced understanding of well-being and form the basis of interventions that aim to decrease emotional discomfort and increase meaning, happiness, and life satisfaction.

Deriving Mental Energy From Task Completion

Many tasks in everyday life (e.g., making an accurate decision, completing job tasks, and searching for product information) are extrinsically motivated (i.e., the task is performed to gain a benefit) and require mental effort. Prior research shows that the cognitive resources needed to perform an extrinsically motivated task are allocated pre-task. The pre-task allocation of mental resources tends to be conservative, because mental effort is costly. Consequently, there are mental energy deficits when the use of mental resources exceeds the allocated amount. This research provides evidence for post-task mental energy replenishment. The amount of resource replenishment is a function of the size of the mental energy deficit and the favorability of the cost-benefit trade-off experienced at the completion of the task (i.e., the value of the reward given the energy investment). The findings have implications for how cognitive resources management influences the availability of mental energy on a moment-to-moment basis.

Theory of Motivated Cue-Integration and COVID-19: Between Interoception, Somatization, and Radicalization

The global dissemination of COVID-19 creates confusion and ambiguity in nearly every aspect of life, including fear of contagion, heightened awareness of the mortality of self and family members, lack of power, and distrust of experts and decision-makers. In this stressful situation, the question arises as to what mechanisms distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive self-regulation. The theory of Motivated Cue-Integration (MCI) is a novel theory of self-regulation that provides a new perspective on the effect of COVID-19 on self-regulation deficiency as an example of psychological distress. Inspired by predictive coding, social cognition, embodied cognition, and experiential approach, MCI suggests that self-regulation is based on interaction between (1) high-level values and goals, (2) low-level interoceptive and exteroceptive signals, and (3) trust in epistemic authority or a significant other. Motivated Cue-Integration posits that individuals create meaning by making moment-to-moment predictions that affect their interpretation of the experience of ambiguity influenced by their relationship with epistemic authority. According to MCI, deficiency in self-regulation during COVID-19 could result either from over-sensitivity or under-sensitivity to low-level interoceptive and exteroceptive cues; rigidity or ambiguity of high-level goals, poor integration between the two levels of processing as well as distrust in epistemic authority. According to MCI, variations of these deficiencies may occur in various clinical phenomena such as alexithymia and somatization, as well as in social phenomena such as goal radicalization. Based on this reasoning, MCI claims that the mentalization of the relationship between interoceptive cues, exteroceptive cues, goals, and psychological needs of the person, as well as the improvement of confidence in epistemic authority, can promote adaptive self-regulation. Psychological intervention can foster trust in epistemic authority, increase the mentalization of interoceptive and exteroceptive cues, and their association with adaptive goals. As such, the integration of these elements in a way that facilitates incentives pathways and insight fosters a more integrated subjective experience, higher clarity of emotion, and positive internal dialogue which promotes action tendency.

Effects of a Collective Family-Based Mobile Health Intervention Called "SMARTFAMILY" on Promoting Physical Activity and Healthy Eating: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Numerous smartphone apps are targeting physical activity and healthy eating, but empirical evidence on their effectiveness for initialization and maintenance of behavior change, especially in children and adolescents, is still limited.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to conceptualize a theory-based and evidence-based mHealth intervention called SMARTFAMILY (SF) that targets physical activity and healthy eating in a collective family-based setting. Subsequently, the app will be refined and re-evaluated to analyze additional effects of just-in-time adaptive interventions (JITAIs) and gamification features.

METHODS

A smartphone app based on behavior change theories and behavior change techniques was developed and implemented and will be evaluated with family members individually and cooperatively (SF trial). Existing evidence and gained results were used to refine and will be used to re-evaluate the app (SF2.0 trial). Both trials are cluster randomized controlled trials with 3 measurement occasions. The intervention group uses the app for 3 consecutive weeks, whereas the control group receives no treatment. Baseline measurements (T₀) and postintervention measurements (T₁) include physical activity (ie, self-reported and accelerometry) and healthy eating measurements (ie, self-reported fruit and vegetable intake) as the primary outcomes. The secondary outcomes (ie, self-reported) are intrinsic motivation, behavior-specific self-efficacy, and the family health climate, complemented by an intentional measure in SF2.0. Four weeks following T₁, a follow-up assessment (T₂) is completed by the participants, consisting of all questionnaire items to assess the stability of the intervention effects. Mixed-method analysis of covariance will be used to calculate the primary intervention effects (ie, physical activity, fruit and vegetable intake) while controlling for covariates, including family health climate, behavior-specific self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation.

RESULTS

This study is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and ethically approved by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. For both trials, it is hypothesized that the apps will positively influence physical activity and healthy eating in the whole family. Furthermore, SF2.0 is expected to produce stronger effects (ie, higher effect sizes) compared to SF. SF app development and piloting are completed. Data acquisition for the SF trial is terminated and discontinued due to the COVID-19 pandemic. SF2.0 app development and piloting are completed, while data acquisition is ongoing. Participant recruitment for the SF 2.0 trial started in February 2020. The results for SF are expected to be published in mid-2021, and the results of SF2.0 are expected to be published in mid-2022.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, it is hypothesized that targeting the whole family will facilitate behavior change at the individual level and the family level, as the implemented strategies address changes in daily family life. Furthermore, subsequent app development (SF2.0) with supplementary addition of motivation-enhancing features and a JITAI approach is expected to enhance positive intervention effects.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

German Clinical Trials Register DRKS00010415; https://tinyurl.com/yyo87yyu.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/20534.

The Role of Socio-demographics in Adoption of Religious-Spiritual and Other Coping Strategies Among Muslim Chronic Patients with Hepatitis C in Pakistan

Coping has emerged as a vital indicator among patients in the chronic conditions. The current study examined the role of demographic characteristics (such as age, education, gender, marital status, residential background, family type and number of children) in adoption of coping (emotion-focused, problem-solving, religious-spiritual) strategies for nursing among hepatitis patients. A sample of 500 patients (of hepatitis C) was drawn from five most populous districts (Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala and Multan) of Punjab, Pakistan, by using Epi Info software with an alpha level of 0.03. The data were collected using a well-structured multi-sectional interview schedule through multistage proportionate sampling technique. Descriptive analysis, regression analysis and reliability analysis were computed using SPSS (version 21.0). In the overall adoption of coping strategies, lower monthly household income, lower education, rural residences, nuclear family setting and married status were contributing to the adoption of higher coping strategies among Muslim chronic patients with hepatitis C. The results of socio-demographics are also discussed with other coping strategies (such as religious-spiritual coping strategies, problem-solving coping strategies, emotion-focused coping strategies and constructive coping strategies). It was the first quantitative study of adoption of coping strategies among Muslim hepatitis patients in Pakistan. The study highlighted the importance of socio-demographic resources to cope with chronic illness. The empirical findings would start a new discussion from hepatic, counseling and nursing perspective. For terminal patients, these socio-demographic characteristics can serve as a guideline to provide community sources of social support. Medical social workers and healthcare experts need to facilitate the efforts of patients to cope with chronic illness through revision of nursing policy according to the socio-demographic and spiritual-religious needs of the patients.

The effectiveness of app-based mobile interventions on nutrition behaviours and nutrition-related health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to assess the effectiveness of app-based mobile interventions for improving nutrition behaviours and nutrition-related health outcomes, including obesity indices (eg, body mass index [BMI]) and clinical parameters (eg, blood lipids). Seven databases were searched for studies published between 2006 and 2017. Forty-one of 10 132 identified records were included, comprising 6348 participants and 373 outcomes with sample sizes ranging from 10 to 833, including 27 randomized controlled trials (RCTs). A beneficial effect of app-based mobile interventions was identified for improving nutrition behaviours (g = 0.19; CI, 0.06-0.32, P = .004) and nutrition-related health outcomes (g = 0.23; CI, 0.11-0.36, P < .001), including positive effects on obesity indices (g = 0.30; CI, 0.15-0.45, P < .001), blood pressure (g = 0.21; CI, 0.01-0.42, P = .043), and blood lipids (g = 0.15; CI, 0.03-0.28, P = .018). Most interventions were composed of four behaviour change technique (BCT) clusters, namely, "goals/planning," "feedback/monitoring," "shaping knowledge," and "social support." Moderating effects including study design, type of app (commercial/research app), sample characteristics (clinical/non-clinical sample), and intervention characteristics were not statistically significant. The inclusion of additional treatment components besides the app or the number or type of BCTs implemented did not moderate the observed effectiveness, which underscores the potential of app-based mobile interventions for implementing effective and feasible interventions operating at scale for fighting the obesity epidemic in a broad spectrum of the population.

Trust motivation: The self-regulatory processes underlying trust decisions

Theorizing about trust has focused predominantly on cognitive trust cues such as trustworthiness, portraying the trustor as a relatively passive observer reacting to the attributes of the other party. Using self-determination and control theories of motivation, we propose a model of trust motivation that explores the intraindividual processes involved in the volitional aspects of trust decision-making implied by the definition of trust as a willingness to be vulnerable. We distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of trust and propose a two-phase model of trust goal setting and trust regulation. Our model offers a dynamic view of the trusting process and a framework for understanding how trust cognition, affect and behavior interact over time. Furthermore, we discuss how trust goals may be altered or abandoned via a feedback loop during the trust regulation process. We conclude with a discussion of potential implications for existing theory and future research.

The 'Operational' Definition of Self-Control

Self-control is a hot topic across disciplines. As such, consensus on defining self-control is critical for advancing both scientific progress as well as societal impact of research findings. Specifically, the emergence of initiation as a self-control component, and the notion of effortless and strategic self-control, give rise to the question whether and how to distinguish self-control from self-regulation. In this paper, I propose an operational definition of self-control, based on converging definitions from the literature as well as on the emergence of new perspectives on self-control. The TOTE-model (Test-Operate-Test-Exit) of self-regulation will serve as a basis for this definition as it gives clear guidance for the inclusion of self-control as a component of, but not synonymous to self-regulation. Ultimately, an ‘operational’ definition is proposed in which self-regulation entails scaffolding for goal pursuit, including setting standards, and monitoring discrepancies, whereas self-control entails everything that one does in the ‘operate’ phase. This perspective allows for inclusion of traditional as well as contemporary research on self-control, and can provide direction for future studies.

Self-control in Online Discussions: Disinhibited Online Behavior as a Failure to Recognize Social Cues

In an online experiment we examined the role of self-control in recognizing social cues in the context of disinhibited online behavior (e.g., flaming and trolling). We temporarily lowered participants' self-control capacity with an ego depletion paradigm (i.e., color Stroop task). Next, we measured participants' sensitivity to social cues with an emotional Stroop task containing neutral, negative, and taboo words. Sensitivity to social cues is represented by the increase in reaction time to negative and especially taboo words compared to neutral words. As expected, undepleted participants were slower to process the color of negative and taboo words. By contrast, depleted participants (i.e., those with lowered self-control capacity) did not react differently to taboo or negative words than they did to neutral words. The experiment illustrates that self-control failure may manifest itself in a failure to recognize social cues. The finding underlines the importance of self-control in understanding disinhibited online behavior: Many instances of disinhibited online behavior may occur not because people are unable to control themselves, but because they do not realize that a situation calls for self-control in the first place.

Third party observer effect: Application to autistic traits in the normal population

This study examined how autistic traits relate to third-party observation during neuropsychological testing. Using a counterbalanced within-subjects design (N = 61), we manipulated the absence and presence of third-party observation when administering alternate forms of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test to individuals with variable autistic traits. Bayesian linear mixed effects modeling was used to examine the interaction between autistic traits and third-party observation on test performance. With more autistic traits, susceptibility to a third-party observer decreased on the dependent variables. The third-party observer effect may therefore depend on the social awareness exhibited by the examinee.

Gender composition mediates social facilitation effect in co-action condition

Working with co-actors is a common work-organization mode. Whether the presence of opposite-sex co-actors (OCs) can induce social facilitation effect and how an actor's performance is influenced by the gender composition of co-actors remain unknown. The present study aims to examine the influence of the gender composition of co-actors on the intensity of the social facilitation effect. In Experiment 1, participants performed visual search tasks alone and in six co-action conditions with varying gender compositions. In Experiment 2, the participants performed modular arithmetic tasks in three conditions with electroencephalogram activity recorded and salivary cortisol measured: alone, with a same-sex co-actor (SC), and with an OC. Results indicated that the social facilitation effect was stronger in the presence of OCs than in the presence of only SCs. The intensities of social facilitation effect resulting from the varying gender composition of co-actors were obtained and compared. A participant's power of alpha band was lower, whereas power of beta band and normalised cortisol level were higher in the presence of an OC than in the presence of an SC. These findings provide insights into the influencing mechanisms of gender composition on the intensity of the social facilitation effect in the co-action condition.

ewrapper: Operationalizing engagement strategies in mHealth

The advancement of digital technologies particularly in the domain of mobile health (mHealth) holds great promise in the promotion of health behavior. However, keeping users engaged remains a central challenge. This paper proposes a novel approach to address this issue by supplementing existing and future mHealth applications with an engagement wrapper - a collection of engagement strategies integrated into a single, coherent model. The engagement wrapper is operationalized within the format of an ambient display on the lock screen of mobile devices.

The relationship between time perspective and self-regulatory processes, abilities and outcomes: a protocol for a meta-analytical review

INTRODUCTION

Both theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that time perspective is likely to influence self-regulatory processes and outcomes. Despite the theoretical and practical significance of such relations, the relationship between time perspective and self-regulatory processes and outcomes across different measures, samples and life domains, including health, has yet to be explored.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The proposed review will develop a taxonomy for classifying measures according to the self-regulatory process, ability or outcome that they are likely to reflect. Electronic scientific databases will be searched, along with relevant conference abstract booklets and citation lists. Additionally, a call for unpublished data will be submitted to relevant bodies. To be eligible for inclusion, studies must include a measure of time perspective and a measure of at least one self-regulatory process, ability and/ or outcome. Eligibility will not be restricted by publication date, language, type of sample or setting. The bivariate correlations will be extracted (or calculated) and submitted to a random-effects meta-analysis. The sample-weighted average effect size, heterogeneity, risk of bias and publication bias will be calculated, and the effects of categorical and continuous moderator variables on the effect sizes will be determined.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The proposed meta-analysis will synthesise previously conducted research; thus, ethical approval is not required. The findings will be submitted for publication in an international peer-reviewed journal and reported as part of the first author’s PhD thesis. The findings will also be disseminated to the research community and, where appropriate, to other interested parties through presentations at relevant academic and non-academic conferences.

The effect of self-compassion on the self-regulation of health behaviors: A systematic review

The purpose of this review was to systematically review the published research on the effect of self-compassion interventions on health behaviors. A self-regulation intervention was defined as participants engaged in goal-setting behavior, goal-directed behavior, monitoring, and/or adjusting health behavior. Seven studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in this review. Self-compassion interventions were just as effective as other behavior change techniques at improving self-regulation of health behavior. The review discusses sample characteristics, study design, health behavior measures, self-compassion intervention implementation, and the theoretical frameworks of the studies, along with limitations of the research and suggestions for future researchers.

Passion, Trait Self-Control, and Wellbeing: Comparing Two Mediation Models Predicting Wellbeing

Research has found that passion and trait self-control represented key determinants of wellbeing. Yet, no study to date has attempted to investigate the mediating influences of trait self-control and passion for accounting for the relationships between passion, trait self-control, and wellbeing (dependent variable). Using different frameworks, such as the dualistic model of passion and the neo-socioanalytic theory, the present study proposed two mediation models, considering either trait self-control (model 1) or passion (model 2) as the mediating variable. Five hundred nine volunteers from the United States (326 females and 183 males; Mage = 31.74, SDage = 11.05, from 18 to 70 years old), who reported being passionate about a specific activity (e.g., fishing, swimming, blogging; Mpassion = 5.94, SDpassion = 0.89), answered questionnaires assessing harmonious and obsessive passion, trait self-control, and wellbeing (measured through hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing scales). Preliminary analyses revealed that both models were significant (model 1: absolute GoF = 0.366, relative GoF = 0.971, outer model GoF = 0.997, inner model GoF = 0.973, R2 = 18.300%, p < 0.001; model 2: absolute GoF = 0.298; relative GoF = 0.980; outer model GoF = 0.997; inner model GoF = 0.982; R2 = 12.111%, p < 0.001). Correlational analyses revealed positive relationships between harmonious passion, trait self-control, and wellbeing, and no relationships of obsessive passion with trait self-control and wellbeing. Mediation analyses revealed that trait self-control significantly mediated the relationship between harmonious passion and wellbeing (i.e., partial mediation, VAF = 33.136%). Harmonious passion appeared to significantly mediate the positive effect of trait self-control on wellbeing; however, the size of the mediating effect indicated that (almost) no mediation would take place (i.e., VAF = 11.144%). The present study is the first to examine the relationships between passion, trait self-control, and wellbeing, and supports the view that trait self-control and harmonious passion represent not only adaptive and powerful constructs, but also key determinants of wellbeing. Implications for the study of passion, trait self-control and wellbeing are discussed.

Stuck in Limbo: Motivational Antecedents and Consequences of Experiencing Action Crises in Personal Goal Pursuit

OBJECTIVE

Action crises describe the intrapsychic conflicts individuals experience when they feel torn between further goal pursuit and goal disengagement. The present investigation introduces autonomous and controlled motivation as independent predictors of action crisis severity, beyond known personality-level predictors (action orientation) and novel personality-level predictors (Neuroticism and Conscientiousness).

METHOD

Using a multi-wave prospective longitudinal design and multilevel modeling (MLM), we followed students pursuing three personal goals across an academic semester (N = 425 undergraduates; 76% female; 57% Caucasian; M_age  = 20.2, SD = 2.3). In two follow-up surveys, participants reported on the severity of their action crises, goal progress, and symptoms of depression.

RESULTS

Results suggest that autonomous motivation shields individuals from experiencing action crises, whereas controlled motivation represents a risk factor for developing action crises beyond personality-level predictors. Furthermore, MLM revealed that autonomous motivation is a significant predictor of action crisis severity at both the within- and between-person levels of analysis. Action crises mediate both the relationship between autonomous motivation and goal progress, and the relationship between controlled motivation and symptoms of depression.

CONCLUSIONS

The implications of these findings for the prevention of action crises and motivation research are discussed.

Situational Salience of Norms Moderates Cultural Differences in the Originality and Usefulness of Creative Ideas Generated or Selected by Teams

This study examines how culture affects the normative processes implicated in cultural differences in creative behaviors. Western norms prioritize originality and Eastern norms usefulness. In a cross-cultural study, we found significant performance differences in terms of originality and usefulness between Americans and Taiwanese only when these norms were salient, as when the task required individuals to select ideas (vs. generate new ideas) or to work in a group (vs. work alone). Compared with Taiwanese, Americans generated more original ideas when they worked in a group or when the task required them to select ideas for further elaboration. When required to select ideas in a group, norms were most salient and Americans’ relative advantage over Taiwanese in originality was most pronounced. In contrast, compared with Americans, Taiwanese generated more useful ideas when they worked in a group or when the task required them to select ideas for further elaboration. When required to select ideas in a group, Taiwanese’s advantage over Americans in usefulness was most pronounced. Moreover, although Americans and Taiwanese were equally capable of generating original and useful ideas, Taiwanese teams tended to express useful ideas and hold back original ones in group discussion. In contrast, American teams tended to hold back useful ideas. The theoretical and future research implications of these findings are discussed.

Influence of Coactors on Saccadic and Manual Responses

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of coaction on saccadic and manual responses. Participants performed the experiments either in a solitary condition or in a group of coactors who performed the same tasks at the same time. In Experiment 1, participants completed a pro- and antisaccade task where they were required to make saccades towards (prosaccades) or away (antisaccades) from a peripheral visual stimulus. In Experiment 2, participants performed a visual discrimination task that required both making a saccade towards a peripheral stimulus and making a manual response in reaction to the stimulus’s orientation. The results showed that performance of stimulus-driven responses was independent of the social context, while volitionally controlled responses were delayed by the presence of coactors. These findings are in line with studies assessing the effect of attentional load on saccadic control during dual-task paradigms. In particular, antisaccades – but not prosaccades – were influenced by the type of social context. Additionally, the number of coactors present in the group had a moderating effect on both saccadic and manual responses. The results support an attentional view of social influences.

Effect of Private Self-Awareness on Negative Affect and Self-Referent Attribution: A Quantitative Review

A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the effect of private self-awareness on negative affect and attributions of responsibility to the self. Results of studies manipulating self-awareness using stimuli such as a mirror and studies employing the private subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) as a measure of self-consciousness were summarized and compared. A small effect size was found for the effect of private self-awareness for both negative affect and self-referent attribution; the effect was equivalent across mirror and self-report operationalizations of private self-awareness. Moderator analyses revealed that these effects were stronger for women, particularly for studies that used the self-report operationalization and those that investigated self-referent attribution.

Knowing your heart and your mind: The relationships between metamemory and interoception

Humans experience a unified self that integrates our mental lives and physical bodies, but many studies focus on isolated domains of self-knowledge. We tested the hypothesis that knowledge of one's mind and body are related by examining metamemory and interoception. We evaluated two dimensions of metamemory and interoception: subjective beliefs and the accuracy of those beliefs compared to objective criteria. We first demonstrated, in two studies, that metamemory beliefs were positively correlated with interoceptive beliefs, and this was not due to domain-general confidence. Finally, we showed that individuals with better metamemory accuracy also had better interoceptive accuracy. Taken together, these findings suggest a common mechanism subserving knowledge of our cognitive and bodily states.

Control feedback as the motivational force behind habitual behavior

Motivated behavior is considered to be a product of integration of a behavior's subjective benefits and costs. As such, it is unclear what motivates "habitual behavior" which occurs, by definition, after the outcome's value has diminished. One possible answer is that habitual behavior continues to be selected due to its "intrinsic" worth. Such an explanation, however, highlights the need to specify the motivational system for which the behavior has intrinsic worth. Another key question is how does an activity attain such intrinsically rewarding properties. In an attempt to answer both questions, we suggest that habitual behavior is motivated by the influence it brings over the environment-by the control motivation system, including "control feedback." Thus, when referring to intrinsic worth, we refer to a representation of an activity that has been reinforced due to it being effective in controlling the environment, managing to make something happen. As an answer to when does an activity attain such rewarding properties, we propose that this occurs when the estimated instrumental outcome expectancy of an activity is positive, but the precision of this expectancy is low. This lack of precision overcomes the chronic dominance of outcome feedback over control feedback in determining action selection by increasing the relative weight of the control feedback. Such a state of affairs will lead to repeated selection of control relevant behavior and entails insensitivity to outcome devaluation, thereby producing a habit.

Understanding Groupthink from a Self-Regulatory Perspective

In the years since Janis first identified the group pathology he termed groupthink, researchers have attempted to discover why groupthink occurs and what can be done to prevent it. Although most researchers have worked within Janis’s original framework, the finding of McCauley that there seems to be two different social influence processes at work indicates that there may be a more complicated process at work. This article uses a self-regulatory model of motivation as a unifying framework to show how differing initial motivations on the part of group members combined with other antecedent factors can result in various processes that lead to groupthink. Based on this motivational approach, interventions were suggested.

The Contribution of the Potential for Evaluation to Coaction Effects

Previous research on social facilitation (e.g. Harkins, 1987) has made it clear that the potential for evaluation plays a role in producing coaction effects, but has left unclear the source of these effects. Subsequent research (e.g. Szymanski & Harkins, 1987, 1993) has shown that the potential for self-evaluation and experimenter evaluation each produce performance greater than that found in a `no evaluation' control group. However, the combination of these sources produces performance no better than either taken alone. In Experiment 1, we show that the potential for evaluation by a coactor also produces performance better than that found in a `no evaluation' control group, and that the combination of these sources (coactor plus self) also produces performance no better than either taken alone. Experiment 2 shows that the combination of the potential for evaluation by the experimenter and a coactor does produce better performance than either source taken alone. These findings suggest that, although adding external sources of evaluation contributes to the potency of the coaction effect, adding the potential for self-evaluation to the potential for evaluation by external sources does not.

Public Self-Focus and Sex Differences in Behavioral Self-Handicapping: Does Increasing Self-Threat Still Make it “Just a Man’s Game?”

The present study examined the effects of public self-focus and participants’ sex on self-handicapping behavior. Research in the area of self-handicapping has consistently shown that men alone tend to self-handicap behaviorally. Because conditions of public self-focus tend to make the evaluative implications of per formance more salient, the authors hypothesized that people would self-handicap more when they are self-focused (as opposed to other-focused). Men and women were presented with an important intellectual evaluation and were allowed to practice for the upcoming test as much as they wanted. Results showed that men self-handicap more when they are self-focused but women do not behaviorally self-handicap under self-or other-focused conditions. Heightened concern over possible failure in self-focused conditions appeared to be the critical mediator in encouraging self-handicapping behavior among men.

Understanding the Mechanisms Underlying Gambling Behaviour and Sleep

Problem gambling and sleep difficulty threaten health. Using the basis of self-regulatory theory, potential mechanisms for these problems were investigated. Fifty-nine treatment-seeking gamblers completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (sleep difficulty), the Sleep Hygiene Index (negative sleep habits), the Problem Gambling Severity Index and measures of self-regulatory capacity and arousability with data entered into regression analyses. Results supported the relationship between problem gambling and greater sleep difficulty (β = .18, t = 3.22, p < .01). Self-regulatory capacity mediated the relationship between problem gambling and sleep difficulty (R (2) change = .15, F(2, 57) = 12.14, β = -.45, t = -3.45, p < .001) as well as between problem gambling and negative sleep habits; R (2) change = .17, F(2, 57) = 13.57, β = -.28, t = -3.76, p < .001. Arousability predicted sleep difficulty (β = .15, t = 3.07, p < .01) and negative sleep habits (β = .40, t = 5.40, p < .01) but showed no relationship with problem gambling (r = .09, ns). Self-regulatory capacity represents an important mediator of the relationship between problem gambling and sleep-related behaviour and if targeted could reduce behavioural threats to health.

Running on Empty

Past research shows that self-control is limited and becomes depleted after initial exertions. This study examined the neural processes underlying self-control failure by testing whether controlled, effortful behavior impairs subsequent attempts at control by depleting the neural system associated with conflict monitoring. Subjects either watched an emotional movie normally or tried to suppress their emotions while watching the movie; they then completed an ostensibly unrelated Stroop task while electroencephalographic activity was recorded. The error-related negativity (ERN)—a waveform associated with activity in the anterior cingulate—was measured to determine whether prior regulatory exertion constrained the conflict-monitoring system. Compared with subjects in the control condition, those who suppressed their emotions performed worse on the Stroop task, and this deficit was mediated by weaker ERN signals. These results offer a neural account for the self-regulatory-strength model and demonstrate the utility of the social neuroscience approach.

The combination of perception of other individuals and exogenous manipulation of arousal enhances social facilitation as an aftereffect: re-examination of Zajonc's drive theory

Zajonc’s drive theory postulates that arousal enhanced through the perception of the presence of other individuals plays a crucial role in social facilitation (Zajonc, 1965). Here, we conducted two experiments to examine whether the elevation of arousal through a stepping exercise performed in front of others as an exogenous factor causes social facilitation of a cognitive task in a condition where the presence of others does not elevate the arousal level. In the main experiment, as an “aftereffect of social stimulus,” we manipulated the presence or absence of others and arousal enhancement before participants conducted the primary cognitive task. The results showed that the strongest social facilitation was induced by the combination of the perception of others and arousal enhancement. In a supplementary experiment, we manipulated these factors by adding the presence of another person during the task. The results showed that the effect of the presence of the other during the primary task is enough on its own to produce facilitation of task performance regardless of the arousal enhancement as an aftereffect of social stimulus. Our study therefore extends the framework of Zajonc’s drive theory in that the combination of the perception of others and enhanced arousal as an “aftereffect” was found to induce social facilitation especially when participants did not experience the presence of others while conducting the primary task.

Uses of self-regulation to facilitate and restrain addictive behavior

We apply self-regulation theory to understand addictive behavior. Self-regulation and volition depend on a limited resource, and when that resource has been depleted, self-regulation becomes prone to fail. Moving beyond traditional models that have emphasized the relevance of self-regulation to quitting addiction, we propose that self-regulation is used both to facilitate and resist addictive behaviors. Self-regulation is often needed to overcome initial aversion to drugs and alcohol, as well as to maintain addictive usage patterns despite situational obstacles (e.g., illegality, erratic availability, family disapproval). Sustaining addiction also requires preventing use from spiraling out of control and interfering with other aspects of life. More generally, the automaticity and irresistibility of addictive responses may have been overrated, as indicated by how addictive behaviors respond rationally to incentives and other concerns. Self-regulation does facilitate quitting, and relapse may be especially likely when self-regulatory capabilities are depleted.