The role of epoxidation in 4-vinylcyclohexene-induced ovarian toxicity

Impact of ovary-intact menopause in a mouse model of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) afflicts over half of all patients with heart failure and is a debilitating and fatal syndrome affecting postmenopausal women more than any other demographic. This bias toward older females calls into question the significance of menopause in the development of HFpEF, but this question has not been probed in detail. In this study, we report the first investigation into the impact of ovary-intact menopause in the context of HFpEF. To replicate the human condition as faithfully as possible, vinylcyclohexene dioxide (VCD) was used to accelerate ovarian failure (AOF) in female mice while leaving the ovaries intact. HFpEF was established with a mouse model that involves two stressors typical in humans: a high-fat diet and hypertension induced from the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME). In young female mice, AOF or HFpEF-associated stressors independently induced abnormal myocardial strain indicative of early subclinical systolic and diastolic cardiac dysfunction. HFpEF but not AOF was associated with elevations in systolic blood pressure. Increased myocyte size and reduced myocardial microvascular density were not observed in any group. Also, a broad panel of measurements that included echocardiography, invasive pressure measurements, histology, and serum hormones revealed no interaction between AOF and HFpEF. Interestingly, AOF did evoke a higher density of infiltrating cardiac immune cells in both healthy and HFpEF mice, suggestive of proinflammatory effects. In contrast to young mice, middle-aged "old" mice did not exhibit cardiac dysfunction from estrogen deprivation alone or from HFpEF-related stressors.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first preclinical study to examine the impact of ovary-intact menopause [accelerated ovarian failure (AOF)] on HFpEF. Echocardiography of young female mice revealed early evidence of diastolic and systolic cardiac dysfunction apparent only on strain imaging in HFpEF only, AOF only, or the combination. Surprisingly, AOF did not exacerbate the HFpEF phenotype. Results in middle-aged "old" females also showed no interaction between HFpEF and AOF and, importantly, no cardiovascular impact from HFpEF or AOF.

Estrogen dysregulation, intraocular pressure, and glaucoma risk

Characterized by optic nerve atrophy due to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death, glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Of the major risk factors for glaucoma (age, ocular hypertension, and genetics), only elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is modifiable, which is largely regulated by aqueous humor outflow through the trabecular meshwork. Glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone have long been known to elevate IOP and lead to glaucoma. However, several recent studies have reported that steroid hormone estrogen levels inversely correlate with glaucoma risk, and that variants in estrogen signaling genes have been associated with glaucoma. As a result, estrogen dysregulation may contribute to glaucoma pathogenesis, and estrogen signaling may protect against glaucoma. The mechanism for estrogen-related protection against glaucoma is not completely understood but likely involves both regulation of IOP homeostasis and neuroprotection of RGCs. Based upon its known activities, estrogen signaling may promote IOP homeostasis by affecting extracellular matrix turnover, focal adhesion assembly, actin stress fiber formation, mechanosensation, and nitric oxide production. In addition, estrogen receptors in the RGCs may mediate neuroprotective functions. As a result, the estrogen signaling pathway may offer a therapeutic target for both IOP control and neuroprotection. This review examines the evidence for a relationship between estrogen and IOP and explores the possible mechanisms by which estrogen maintains IOP homeostasis.

Altered m6A modification is involved YAP-mediated apoptosis response in 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide induced ovotoxicity

4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), an industrial occupational health hazard chemical associated with premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) and reproductive failure. Recently, investigators have paid an increasing attention on VCD model of menopause recapitulates the natural, physiological transition through perimenopause to menopause. The current study sought to examining the mechanisms of follicular loss and exploring the effect of the model on systems outside of the ovaries. In this study, 28 days female SD rats were injected with VCD (160 mg/kg) vehicle for 15 consecutive days, euthanized in the diestrus phase approximately 100 days after the onset of treatment. Reproductive system injury, Neuroendocrine, sex hormone levels and receptor were observed, the levels of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA modification and the expression of modulator genes were first measured. The VCD treated rats showing irregular estrous cycles, significantly reduced in the number of primordial follicles, the preantral and antral follicles also decreased significantly, accompanied by the plasma level of FSH increased and anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) were decreased. The total m6A level was significantly decreased after exposure to VCD. Moreover, ALKBH5-mediated YAP m6A modification changed in VCD - induced premature ovarian insufficiency. These present work provides a new perspective on m6A modification in the VCD-induced POI rat model, which could provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying follicle development and finding new therapeutic targets for follicle prematurely exhausted. Also provide novel methodological guidance and endocrine basis to guide research and extend the applications in premature ovarian insufficiency model.

4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide induces premature ovarian insufficiency in rats by triggering the autophagy of granule cells through regulating miR-144

This research explored the pathological and molecular mechanisms of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD)-induced POI model. QRT-PCR was exploited to detect miR-144 expression in the peripheral blood of POI patients. Rat and KGN cells were treated with VCD to construct POI rat or cell model, respectively. After miR-144 agomir or MK-2206 treatment, miR-144 level, follicle damage, autophagy level and expressions of key pathway-related proteins in rats were detected, and cell viability and autophagy in KGN cells were detected. MiR-144 was apparently down-regulated in the peripheral blood of POI patients. Decreased miR-144 was viewed in both the serum and ovary of rats, yet this trend was apparently reversed by miR-144 agomir. The increased concentration of Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH), along with decreased concentration of E2 and AMH, was observed in the serum of model rats, which was conspicuously negated by control agomir or miR-144 agomir. Increased number of autophagosomes, up-regulated PTEN, and inactivated AKT/m-TOR pathway induced by VCD in ovary tissues were strikingly offset by miR-144 agomir. Results of cytotoxicity assay revealed that 2 mM VCD prominently repressed KGN cell viability. In vitro experiments confirmed that miR-144 interfered with the effect of VCD on autophagy in KGN cells through the AKT/mTOR pathway. Taken together, VCD triggers autophagy to induce POI after targeting the AKT pathway by inhibiting miR-144, it suggest that up-regulation the expression of miR-144 may have the potential to treat POI.

A reproductive and developmental toxicity screening study of 1,3-butadiene in Sprague-Dawley rats

1,3 Butadiene (BD) is an industrial intermediate used primarily in product manufacturing with the greatest exposure potential via inhalation. BD was evaluated for reproductive and developmental effects in a Good Laboratory Practice (GLP)-compliant, extended OECD 421 guideline study (completed 2003). Twelve-week old rats (12/sex/dose) were exposed via whole-body inhalation to BD vapor (0, 300, 1500, 6000 ppm) for 6 h/day, 7 days/week, starting 14 days prior to mating through the day prior to euthanasia (total exposures: 83-84 days for F0 males 60-70 days for F0 females). Select F1 offspring (1/sex/litter) were dosed 7 days (postnatal days 21-27 or 28-34), then necropsied. At 1500 and 6000 ppm, treatment-related facial soiling was seen in F0 males and females with decreased body weights/gains in F0 males. F1 males and females exhibited similar effects at 1500 and 6000 ppm. Importantly, the F0 generation had no evidence of altered sperm production, testicular effects, or ovarian atrophy, which were sensitive responses in mice. The no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) is 300 ppm due to decreased body weight/gain and facial soiling at 1500 ppm, whereas 6000 ppm serves as a NOAEL for reproductive and developmental endpoints. This study contributes to the weight-of-evidence of differential BD reproductive toxicity in rats and mice.

Anti-Müllerian hormone and ovarian aging in mares

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is used as a marker of follicle population numbers and potential fertility in several species including horses but limited data exist across the lifespan. No one has decreased ovarian reserve experimentally to investigate whether a corresponding, quantitative decrease in AMH results. Concentrations of AMH across the lifespan were compiled from 1101 equine females sampled from birth to >33 years of age. Young and old mares (averaging 6 and 19 years) were hemi-ovariectomized and circulating AMH was assessed before and daily thereafter for 15 days. The remaining ovary was removed later and blood was drawn again before and after this second surgery for AMH determination. Polynomial regression analysis and analysis of mares grouped by 5-year intervals of age demonstrated AMH concentrations to be higher in mares aged 5-10 and 10-15 years than 0-5 years of age and lower in mares after 20 years of age. There was high variability in AMH concentrations among neonatal fillies, some of which had concentrations typical of males. Hemi-ovariectomy was followed by a decrease of AMH, almost exactly halving concentrations in intact mares. Concentrations of AMH had returned to intact levels in old mares before complete ovariectomy, as if exhibiting ovarian compensatory hypertrophy, but recovery of AMH was not evident in young mares. AMH may reflect ovarian senescence in mares after 20 years of age but is too variable to do so in the first two decades of life. The ovarian endocrine response to hemi-ovariectomy in mares appears to change with age.

Effects of raloxifene against letrozole-induced bone loss in chemically-induced model of menopause in mice

INTRODUCTION

The deleterious effects of letrozole, an aromatase inhibitor, used in the adjuvant treatment of breast cancer in postmenopausal women, on bone are well-documented and represent a major drawback to its clinical use. Raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator and a clinically approved anti-osteoporotic drug, has been recently demonstrated to be efficacious in women with breast cancer. The present study evaluated the effects of preventive and curative treatment with raloxifene on letrozole-induced alterations of bone microarchitecture and turnover markers in a chemically-induced menopause model in mice.

METHOD

Swiss strain albino female mice were made menopausal by inducing ovotoxicity using vinyl cyclohexene di epoxide (VCD, 160 mg/kg for 15 days followed by 30 days drug-free period) confirmed by ovarian histology and serum estradiol levels. Effects on femoral and lumbar bones were evaluated by micro CT determination of bone volume, trabecular number, separation, thickness, connective density and trabecular pattern factor and bone turnover markers including ALP, TRAP5b, hydroxyproline and RANKL. In addition to these, markers of Wnt signaling (sclerostin and dickkopf-1) were also evaluated. To rule out the involvement of pharmacokinetic interaction, plasma levels of letrozole and raloxifene were measured following drugs alone and in combination.

RESULTS

Though bone loss was observed in VCD treated mice (as indicated by micro CT measurements), it was further enhanced with letrozole administration (1 mg/kg) for one month particularly in epiphysis of femoral bones. Raloxifene (15 mg/kg), whether administered concurrently or post-letrozole was able to revert the structural alterations and changes in turnover markers caused by letrozole to varying degrees (p < 0.01 or p < 0.001). Further, estrogen deficiency following letrozole treatment in ovotoxic mice was associated with significant increase in sclerostin and dickkopf-1 in both lumbar and femur bones (p < 0.001) which was attenuated with preventive and curative treatment with raloxifene (p < 0.05). The plasma levels of letrozole remained unaffected by raloxifene administration and vice versa.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates the potential of raloxifene in preventing and attenuating letrozole-induced bone loss. Further, these effects were found to be independent of a pharmacokinetic interaction between the two drugs.

Danzhi Qing'e (DZQE) activates AMPK pathway and regulates lipid metabolism in a rat model of perimenopausal hyperlipidaemia

What is the central question of this study? Does Danzhi Qing'e (DZQE) regulate lipid metabolism and improve ovarian function in a rat model of perimenopausal hyperlipidaemia, and could this effect be mediated through the AMPK pathway? What is the main finding and its importance? We revealed that DZQE is a pharmacotherapy that could activate the AMPK pathway to improve ovarian function and lipid metabolism during perimenopause complicated with hyperlipidaemia syndrome in an animal model. Thus, this study provides a novel therapeutic option for treating perimenopausal syndrome and highlights the therapeutic potential of DZQE in perimenopausal rats. Menopause is an important event in a woman's life. During perimenopause, accompanied by development of osteoporosis and dyslipidaemia, ovarian function gradually declines. Dyslipidaemia is a risk factor for cardiovascular disorders, cerebrovascular disease and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. All of these contribute to impairment of liver function, particularly fatty liver disease, because liver dysfunction is associated with ovarian dysfunction and hyperlipidaemia. The aim of this study was to define a therapeutic approach to improve ovarian function and attenuate lipid accumulation in order to prevent perimenopause-induced ovarian dysfunction and hyperlipidaemia. Four-week-old female Wistar rats were injected i.p. with 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (4-VCD) and fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) to serve as a model of perimenopause complicated with hyperlipidaemia. The 4-VCD induces perimenopause, while the HFD causes hyperlipidaemia. Five days after administration of 4-VCD, the 4-VCD + HFD-treated rats were assessed daily for oestrous cycle stage by vaginal cytology. Rats were then assigned into groups, in which 2.5, 5.0 or 10.0 g kg^-1 Danzhi Qing'e (DZQE) or estradiol valerate was administered intragastrically for 8 weeks. Expression levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), oestrogen and testosterone measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay served as biomarkers for perimenopause and ovarian dysfunction. The expression levels of AMPK and acetyl-CoA carboxylase in the liver were determined with Western blotting, and aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase were analysed using an automated biochemical analyser to examine liver function. The DZQE improved ovarian function by upregulating oestrogen and testosterone concentrations in serum and downregulating FSH and LH serum concentrations. Moreover, DZQE reduced serum concentrations of triglyceride, total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein in a dose-dependent manner to regulate lipid levels during perimenopause. Furthermore, DZQE increased AMPK at both the transcriptional and translational levels and decreased the expression of SREBP-1c gene as well as its downstream target gene, fatty acid synthase. Danzhi Qing'e improved dyslipidaemia during menopause and also had an effect on liver function. Danzhi Qing'e is an effective Chinese herbal compound, which improves ovarian function and lipid metabolism in perimenopause complicated with hyperlipidaemia at least in part through the AMPK pathway.

Hepatic and renal toxicological evaluations of an industrial ovotoxic chemical, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide, in both sexes of Wistar rats

4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) is an industrial occupational health hazard chemical because it induces ovotoxicity in rodents. The current study investigated the impacts of VCD on selected hepatic and renal markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in both sexes of Wistar rats. Thus, male and female rats were randomly distributed into four groups of ten rats per group, and dosed orally with VCD for 28days. The control male and female groups of rats received corn oil only, while each of the three remaining groups of both sexes of rats received VCD (100, 250 and 500mg/kg BW) respectively. Thereafter, biomarkers of hepatic and renal oxidative damage, inflammation and immunohistochemical expressions of iNOS, COX-2, caspase-9 and caspase-3 were evaluated. The results revealed that VCD increased markers of liver and kidney functions, oxidative damage and inflammation, and disrupted the antioxidant homeostasis of the rats (p<0.05). Lastly, VCD enhanced the immunohistochemical expressions of iNOS, COX-2, caspase-9 and caspase-3 in the liver of the rats. Thus, our data imply that VCD induced toxicity in the liver and kidney of rats via the combined impacts of oxidative damage and inflammation.

Conditions and possible mechanisms of VCD-induced ovarian failure

Perimenopause is an important period in women's lives, in which they experience a series of physiological changes. Current animal models of perimenopause fail to adequately replicate this particular stage in female life, while current in vitro models are too simplistic and cannot account for systemic effects. Neither the naturally-ageing animal model, nor the ovariectomised animal model, mimic the natural transitional process that is the menopause. In vivo and in vitro studies have confirmed that the occupational chemical, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), can cause selective destruction of the ovarian primordial and primary follicles of rats and mice by accelerating the apoptotic process, which successfully mimics the perimenopausal state in women. However, it is the in vivo VCD-induced rodent perimenopausal models that are currently the most widely used in research, rather than any of the available in vitro models. Studies on the mechanisms involved have found that VCD induces ovotoxicity via interference with the c-kit/kit ligand and apoptotic signalling pathways, among others. Overall, the VCD-induced perimenopausal animal models have provided some insight into female perimenopause, but they are far from ideal models of the human situation.

Ovotoxicants 4-vinylcyclohexene 1,2-monoepoxide and 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide disrupt redox status and modify different electrophile sensitive target enzymes and genes in Drosophila melanogaster

The compounds 4-vinylcyclohexene 1,2-monoepoxide (VCM) and 4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) are the two downstream metabolites of 4-vinylcyclohexene (VCH), an ovotoxic agent in mammals. In addition, VCM and VCD may be found as by-products of VCH oxidation in the environment. Recently, we reported the involvement of oxidative stress in the toxicity of VCH in Drosophila melanogaster. However, it was not possible to determine the individual contributions of VCM and VCD in VCH toxicity. Hence, we investigated the toxicity of VCM and VCD (10–1000 µM) in flies after 5 days of exposure via the diet. Our results indicated impairments in climbing behaviour and disruptions in antioxidant balance and redox status evidenced by an increase in DCFH oxidation, decreases in total thiol content and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity in the flies exposed to VCM and VCD (p<0.05). These effects were accompanied by disruptions in the transcription of the genes encoding the proteins superoxide dismutase (SOD1), kelch-like erythroid-derived cap-n-collar (CNC) homology (ECH)-associated protein 1 (Keap-1), mitogen activated protein kinase 2 (MAPK-2), catalase, Cyp18a1, JAFRAC 1 (thioredoxin peroxidase 1) and thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR-1) (p<0.05). VCM and VCD inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and delta aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA D) activities in the flies (p<0.05). Indeed, here, we demonstrated that different target enzymes and genes were modified by the electrophiles VCM and VCD in the flies. Thus, D. melanogaster has provided further lessons on the toxicity of VCM and VCD which suggest that the reported toxicity of VCH may be mediated by its transformation to VCM and VCD.

Involvement of oxidative stress in 4-vinylcyclohexene-induced toxicity in Drosophila melanogaster

4-Vinylcyclohexene (VCH) is a dimer of 1,3-butadiene produced as a by-product of pesticides, plastic, rubber, flame retardants, and tire production. Although, several studies have reported the ovotoxicity of VCH, information on a possible involvement of oxidative stress in the toxicity of this occupational chemical is scarce. Hence, this study was carried out to investigate further possible mechanisms of toxicity of VCH with a specific emphasis on oxidative stress using a Drosophila melanogaster model. D. melanogaster (both genders) of 1 to 3 days old were exposed to different concentrations of VCH (10 µM-1 mM) in the diet for 5 days. Subsequently, the survival and negative geotaxis assays and the quantification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation were determined. In addition, we evaluated RT-PCR expressions of selected oxidative stress and antioxidant mRNA genes (HSP27, 70, and 83, SOD, Nrf-2, MAPK2, and catalase). Furthermore, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), delta aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA-D), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities were determined. VCH exposure impaired negative geotaxic behavior and induced the mRNA of SOD, Nrf-2, and MAPK2 genes expressions. There were increases in catalase and ROS production, as well as inhibitions of GST, δ-ALA-D, and AChE activities (P<0.05). Our results suggest that the VCH mechanism of toxicity is associated with oxidative damage, as evidenced by the alteration in the oxidative stress-antioxidant balance, and possible neurotoxic consequences due to decreased AChE activity, and impairments in negative geotaxic behavior. Thus, we conclude that D. melanogaster is a useful model for investigating the toxicity of VCH exposure, and here, we have provided further insights on the mechanism of VCH-induced toxicity.

Acute 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene exposure causes differential concentration-dependent follicle depletion and gene expression in neonatal rat ovaries

Chronic exposure to the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA), generated during combustion of organic matter including cigarette smoke, depletes all ovarian follicle types in the mouse and rat, and in vitro models mimic this effect. To investigate the mechanisms involved in follicular depletion during acute DMBA exposure, two concentrations of DMBA at which follicle depletion has (75 nM) and has not (12.5 nM) been observed were investigated. Postnatal day four F344 rat ovaries were maintained in culture for four days before a single exposure to vehicle control (1% DMSO; CT) or DMBA (12 nM; low-concentration or 75 nM; high-concentration). After four or eight additional days of culture, DMBA-induced follicle depletion was evaluated via follicle enumeration. Relative to control, DMBA did not affect follicle numbers after 4 days of exposure, but induced large primary follicle loss at both concentrations after 8 days; while, the low-concentration DMBA also caused secondary follicle depletion. Neither concentration affected primordial or small primary follicle number. RNA was isolated and quantitative RT-PCR performed prior to follicle loss to measure mRNA levels of genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism (Cyp2e1, Gstmu, Gstpi, Ephx1), autophagy (Atg7, Becn1), oxidative stress response (Sod1, Sod2) and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway (Kitlg, cKit, Akt1) 1, 2 and 4 days after exposure. With the exception of Atg7 and cKit, DMBA increased (P < 0.05) expression of all genes investigated. Also, BECN1 and pAKT(Thr308) protein levels were increased while cKIT was decreased by DMBA exposure. Taken together, these results suggest an increase in DMBA bioactivation, add to the mechanistic understanding of DMBA-induced ovotoxicity and raise concern regarding female low concentration DMBA exposures.

Glutathione S-transferase class μ regulation of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 protein during VCD-induced ovotoxicity in neonatal rat ovaries

4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) destroys ovarian primordial and small primary follicles via apoptosis. In mice, VCD exposure induces ovarian mRNA expression of glutathione S-transferase (GST) family members, including isoform mu (Gstm). Extra-ovarian GSTM negatively regulates pro-apoptotic apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) through protein complex formation, which dissociates during stress, thereby initiating ASK1-induced apoptosis. The present study investigated the ovarian response of Gstm mRNA and protein to VCD. Induction of Ask1 mRNA at VCD-induced follicle loss onset was determined. Ovarian GSTM:ASK1 protein complex formation was investigated and VCD exposure effects thereon evaluated. Phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) regulation of GSTM protein was also studied. Postnatal day (PND) 4 rat ovaries were cultured in control media ± 1) VCD (30 μM) for 2-8 days; 2) VCD (30 μM) for 2 days, followed by incubation in control media for 4 days (acute VCD exposure); or 3) LY294002 (20 μM) for 6 days. VCD exposure did not alter Gstm mRNA expression, however, GSTM protein increased (P<0.05) after 6 days of both the acute and chronic treatments. Ask1 mRNA increased (0.33-fold; P<0.05) relative to control after 6 days of VCD exposure. Ovarian GSTM:ASK1 protein complex formation was confirmed and, relative to control, the amount of GSTM bound to ASK1 increased 33% (P<0.05) by chronic but with no effect of acute VCD exposure. PI3K inhibition increased (P<0.05) GSTM protein by 40% and 71% on d4 and d6, respectively. These findings support involvement of GSTM in the ovarian response to VCD exposure, through regulation of pro-apoptotic ASK1.

4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide: a model chemical for ovotoxicity

The occupational chemical 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) has been shown to cause selective destruction of ovarian small pre-antral (primordial and primary) follicles in rats and mice by accelerating the natural, apoptotic process of atresia. Chemicals that destroy primordial follicles are of concern to women because exposure can result in premature ovarian failure (early menopause). Initial studies using in vivo exposure of rats determined that VCD specifically targets primordial and primary (small pre-antral) follicles and that repeated dosing is required. Through a method of isolation of ovarian small follicles, biochemical and molecular studies determined that intracellular pro-apoptotic pathways are activated following VCD dosing in rats. Subsequently an in vitro system using cultured whole neonatal rat ovaries was developed to provide more mechanistic information. That approach was used to demonstrate that the cell survival c-kit/kit ligand signaling pathway is the direct target for VCD-induced ovotoxicity. Specifically, VCD directly interacts with the oocyte-associated c-kit receptor to inhibit its autophosphorylation, and thereby impair oocyte viability. The cellular and molecular approach developed to determine these findings is described in this article.

Impact of environmental exposures on ovarian function and role of xenobiotic metabolism during ovotoxicity

The mammalian ovary is a heterogeneous organ and contains oocyte-containing follicles at varying stages of development. The most immature follicular stage, the primordial follicle, comprises the ovarian reserve and is a finite number, defined at the time of birth. Depletion of all follicles within the ovary leads to reproductive senescence, known as menopause. A number of chemical classes can destroy follicles, thus hastening entry into the menopausal state. The ovarian response to chemical exposure can determine the extent of ovotoxicity that occurs. Enzymes capable of bioactivating as well as detoxifying xenobiotics are expressed in the ovary and their impact on ovotoxicity has been partially characterized for trichloroethylene, 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene, and 4-vinylcyclohexene. This review will discuss those studies, as well as illustrate where knowledge gaps remain for chemicals that have also been established as ovotoxicants.

Roles of reactive oxygen species and antioxidants in ovarian toxicity

Proper functioning of the ovary is critical to maintain fertility and overall health, and ovarian function depends on the maintenance and normal development of ovarian follicles. This review presents evidence about the potential impact of oxidative stress on the well-being of primordial, growing and preovulatory follicles, as well as oocytes and early embryos, examining cell types and molecular targets. Limited data from genetically modified mouse models suggest that several antioxidant enzymes that protect cells from reactive oxygen species (ROS) may play important roles in follicular development and/or survival. Exposures to agents known to cause oxidative stress, such as gamma irradiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, induce rapid primordial follicle loss; however, the mechanistic role of ROS has received limited attention. In contrast, ROS may play an important role in the initiation of apoptosis in antral follicles. Depletion of glutathione leads to atresia of antral follicles in vivo and apoptosis of granulosa cells in cultured antral follicles. Chemicals, such as cyclophosphamide, dimethylbenzanthracene, and methoxychlor, increase proapoptotic signals, preceded by increased ROS and signs of oxidative stress, and cotreatment with antioxidants is protective. In oocytes, glutathione levels change rapidly during progression of meiosis and early embryonic development, and high oocyte glutathione at the time of fertilization is required for male pronucleus formation and for embryonic development to the blastocyst stage. Because current evidence suggests that oxidative stress can have significant negative impacts on female fertility and gamete health, dietary or pharmacological intervention may prove to be effective strategies to protect female fertility.

Xenobiotic effects on ovarian preantral follicles

Women are born with a finite population of ovarian follicles, which are slowly depleted during their reproductive years until reproductive failure (menopause) occurs. The rate of loss of primordial follicles is determined by genetic and environmental influences, but certain toxic exposures can accelerate this process. Ionizing radiation reduces preantral follicle numbers in rodents and humans in a dose-dependent manner. Cigarette smoking is linked to menopause occurring 1-4 yr earlier than with nonsmokers, and components of smoke, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, can cause follicle depletion in rodents or in ovaries in vitro. Chemotherapeutic agents, such as alkylating drugs and cisplatin, also cause loss of preantral ovarian follicles. Effects depend on dose, type, and reactivity of the drug, and the age of the individual. Evidence suggests DNA damage may underlie follicle loss induced by one common alkylating drug, cyclophosphamide. Occupational exposures have also been linked to ovarian damage. In an industrial setting, 2-bromopropane caused infertility in men and women, and it can induce ovarian follicle depletion in rats. Solvents, such as butadiene, 4-vinylcyclohexene, and their diepoxides, can also cause specific preantral follicle depletion. The mechanism(s) underlying effects of the latter compound may involve alterations in apoptosis, survival factors such as KIT/Kit Ligand, and/or the cellular signaling that maintains primordial follicle dormancy. Estrogenic endocrine disruptors may alter follicle formation/development and impair fertility or normal development of offspring. Thus, specific exposures are known or suspected of detrimentally impacting preantral ovarian follicles, leading to early ovarian failure.

Ovarian expressed microsomal epoxide hydrolase: role in detoxification of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide and regulation by phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase signaling

4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) is a metabolite of 4-vinylcyclohexene (VCH) which has the potential to be formed in the ovary through CYP2E1 activity. VCD specifically destroys primordial and small primary follicles in the rodent ovary. Mouse ovaries exposed to VCD demonstrate increased mRNA and protein expression of microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH), and an inactive tetrol metabolite (4-(1,2-dihydroxy)ethyl-1,2-dihydroxycyclohexane) can be formed in mouse ovarian follicles, potentially through detoxification action of mEH. In contrast, mEH can bioactivate another ovotoxic chemical, 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) to a more toxic compound, DMBA-3,4-diol-1,2-epoxide. Thus, the present study evaluated a functional role for mEH during detoxification of VCD. Additionally, because inhibition of the phosphatidyinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway in a previous study protected primordial follicles from VCD-induced destruction, but accelerated DMBA-induced ovotoxicity, a role for PI3K in ovarian mEH regulation was evaluated. Using a post-natal day (PND) 4 Fischer 344 rat whole ovary culture system inhibition of mEH using cyclohexene oxide during VCD exposure resulted in a greater (P<0.05) loss of primordial and small primary follicles relative to VCD-treated ovaries. Also, relative to controls, meh mRNA was increased (P<0.05) on day 4 of VCD (30 μM) exposure, followed by increased (P<0.05) mEH protein after 6 days. Furthermore, inhibition of PI3K signaling increased mEH mRNA and protein expression. Thus, these results support a functional role for mEH in the rat ovary, and demonstrate the involvement of PI3K signaling in regulation of ovarian xenobiotic metabolism by mEH.

Ovarian metabolism of xenobiotics

At birth, the mammalian ovary contains a finite number of primordial follicles, which once depleted, cannot be replaced. Xenobiotic exposures can destroy primordial follicles resulting in premature ovarian failure and, consequently, early entry into menopause. A number of chemical classes can induce premature ovarian failure, including environmental, chemotherapeutic and industrial exposures. While our knowledge on the mechanistic events that occur in the ovary with chemical exposures is increasing, our understanding of the ovary's capacity to metabolize such compounds is less established. This review will focus on three chemicals for which information on ovarian metabolism is known: trichloroethylene, 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and 4-vinylcyclohexene. The current state of understanding of ovarian bioactivation and detoxification processes for each will be described.

Accelerated ovarian failure: a novel, chemically induced animal model of menopause

Current rodent models of menopause fail to adequately recapitulate the menopause transition. The intact aging model fails to achieve very low estrogen levels, and the ovariectomy model lacks a perimenopause phase. A new rodent model of accelerated ovarian failure (AOF) successfully replicates human perimenopause and postmenopause, including estrous acyclicity and fluctuating, followed by undetectable, estrogen levels, and allows for the dissociation of the effects of hormone levels from the effects of aging. In this model, an ovotoxic chemical, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), selective for primary and primordial follicles, is injected intraperitonelly in animals for 15 days. As the mature follicle population is depleted through natural cycling, ovarian failure follows increasing periods of acyclity. Administered at low doses, VCD specifically causes apoptotic cell death of primordial follicles but does not affect other peripheral tissues, including the liver and spleen, nor does it affect brain inflammation markers. In addition to reducing confounds associated with genetic and surgical manipulations, the AOF model maintains the presence of ovarian tissue which importantly parallels to the menopause transition in humans. The VCD injection procedure can be applied to studies using transgenic or knockout mice strains, or in other disease-state models (e.g., ischemia, atherosclerosis, or diabetes). This AOF model of menopause will generate new insights into women's health particularly in determining the critical periods (i.e., a window of opportunity) during perimenopause for restoring ovarian hormones for the most efficacious effect on memory and mood disorders as well as other menopausal symptoms.

Inhibition of PIK3 signaling pathway members by the ovotoxicant 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide in rats

4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), an occupational chemical that specifically destroys primordial and small primary follicles in the ovaries of rats and mice, is thought to target an oocyte-expressed tyrosine kinase receptor, Kit. This study compared the temporal effect of VCD on protein distribution of KIT and its downstream PIK3-activated proteins, AKT and FOXO3. Postnatal Day 4 Fischer 344 rat ovaries were cultured in control media ± VCD (30 μM) for 2-8 days (d2-d8). KIT, AKT, phosphorylated AKT, FOXO3, and pFOXO3 protein levels were assessed by Western blotting and/or immunofluorescence staining with confocal microscopy. Phosphorylated AKT was decreased (P < 0.05) in oocyte nuclei in primordial (39% decrease) and small primary (37% decrease) follicles within 2 days of VCD exposure. After d4, VCD reduced (P < 0.05) oocyte staining for KIT (primordial, 44% decrease; small primary, 39% decrease) and FOXO3 (primordial, 40% decrease; small primary, 36% decrease) protein. Total AKT and pFOXO3 were not affected by VCD at any time. Akt1 mRNA, as measured by quantitative RT-PCR, was reduced (P < 0.05) by 23% on d4 of VCD exposure, but returned to control levels on d6 and d8. VCD exposure reduced Foxo3a mRNA by 26% on d6 (P < 0.05) and by 23% on d8 (P < 0.1). These results demonstrate that the earliest observed effect of VCD is an inhibition of phosphorylation and nuclear localization of AKT in the oocyte of primordial and small primary follicles. This event is followed by reductions in KIT and FOXO3 protein subcellular distribution prior to changes in mRNA. Thus, these findings further support that VCD induces ovotoxicity by directly targeting the oocyte through posttranslational inhibition of KIT-mediated signaling components.

Dual protective role for glutathione S-transferase class pi against VCD-induced ovotoxicity in the rat ovary

The occupational chemical 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) selectively destroys ovarian small pre-antral follicles in rats and mice via apoptosis. Detoxification of VCD can occur through glutathione conjugation, catalyzed by glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymes. Further, GST class pi (GSTp) can negatively regulate JNK activity through protein:protein interactions in extra-ovarian tissues. Dissociation of this protein complex in the face of chemical exposure releases the inhibition of pro-apoptotic JNK. Increased JNK activity during VCD-induced ovotoxicity has been shown in isolated ovarian small pre-antral follicles following in vivo dosing of rats (80mg/kg/day; 15days, i.p.). The present study investigated the pattern of ovarian GSTp expression during VCD exposure. Additionally, the effect of VCD on an ovarian GSTp:JNK protein complex was investigated. PND4 F344 rat ovaries were incubated in control medium+/-VCD (30muM) for 2-8days. VCD increased ovarian GSTp mRNA (P <0.05) relative to control on d4-d8; whereas GSTp protein was increased (P<0.05) on d6-d8. A GSTp:JNK protein complex was detected by immunoprecipitation and Western blotting in ovarian tissues. Relative to control, the amount of GSTp-bound JNK was increased (P=0.09), while unbound JNK was decreased (P<0.05) on d6 of VCD exposure. The VCD-induced decrease in unbound JNK was preceded by a decrease in phosphorylated c-Jun which occurred on d4. These findings are in support of a possible dual protective role for GSTp in the rat ovary, consisting of metabolism of VCD and inhibition of JNK-initiated apoptosis.

Metabolism of ethanol to acetaldehyde and increased susceptibility to oxidative stress could play a role in the ovarian tissue cell injury promoted by alcohol drinking

It is known that drinking alcohol can lead to reproductive problems in women. In this study, we analyzed the possibility that part of those effects were mediated through alterations of ovarian function related to ethanol oxidation to acetaldehyde occurring in situ. Biotransformation in the rat ovary cytosolic fraction was partially inhibited by allopurinol, suggesting the participation of xanthine oxidoreductase in the process. Microsomal pathway was of enzymatic nature, requiring nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase (NADPH), sensitive to oxygen and significantly inhibited by sodium diethyldithiocarbamate, 4-methylpyrazole and diphenyleneiodonium. Aldehyde dehydrogenase activity was detected by histochemistry in the ovarian tissue, in the strome surrounding the follicle while no alcohol dehydrogenase was detected. However, biochemical determination of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase activities in rat ovarian tissue revealed the presence of some activity of both enzymes but significantly lower than those found in the liver. By repetitive exposure of animals to ethanol, the microsomal metabolism to acetaldehyde was increased but not in the case of the cytosolic fraction. In these animals, t-butylhydroperoxyde-promoted chemiluminiscence was increased in comparison to control, revealing an increased susceptibility to oxidative stress due to alcohol drinking. Ultrastructure of ovarian tissue from rats exposed chronically to alcohol revealed alterations at the level of the granulosa; theca interna and pellucida zones. In the secondary follicle, alterations consisted of marked condensation of chromatin attached to the nuclear inner membrane. Intense dilatation of the outer perinuclear space could be observed. There was a marked dilatation of the rough endoplasmic reticulum accompanied of significant detachment of ribosomes from their membranes. Mitochondria appeared swollen. In the zona pellucida, most of the cell processes from oocyte and corona radiata cells were absent or broken totally or in part. Results suggest that in the rat ovary, metabolism of ethanol to acetaldehyde may play a role in alcohol effects on female reproductive function.

Effect of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase inhibition on ovotoxicity caused by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide and 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in neonatal rat ovaries

4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) is an ovotoxicant that specifically destroys primordial and small primary follicles in the ovaries of mice and rats. In contrast, 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) is ovotoxic to all ovarian follicle classes. This study investigated phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase signaling involvement in VCD- and DMBA-induced ovotoxicity. Postnatal day (PND) 4 Fischer 344 (F344) rat whole ovaries were cultured for 2-12 days in vehicle control, VCD (30 microM), or DMBA (1 microM), +/-PI3 kinase inhibitor LY294002 (20 microM) or its inactive analog LY303511 (20 microM). Following culture, ovaries were histologically evaluated, and healthy follicles were classified and counted. PI3 kinase inhibition had no effect on primordial follicle number, but reduced (P<0.05) small primary and larger follicles beginning on day 4. VCD caused primordial and small primary follicle loss (P<0.05) beginning on day 6. With PI3 kinase inhibition, VCD did not affect primordial follicles (P>0.05) at any time, but did cause loss (P<0.05) of small primary follicles. DMBA exposure caused primordial and small primary follicle loss (P<0.05) on day 6. Further, DMBA-induced primordial and small primary follicle loss was greater with PI3 kinase inhibition (P<0.05) than with DMBA alone. These results support that (1) PI3 kinase mediates primordial to small primary follicle recruitment, (2) VCD, but not DMBA, enhances ovotoxicity by increasing primordial to small primary follicle recruitment, and (3) in addition to xenobiotic-induced ovotoxicity, VCD is also a useful model chemical with which to elucidate signaling mechanisms involved in primordial follicle recruitment.

Collaborative work on evaluation of ovarian toxicity. 4) Two- or four-week repeated dose study of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide in female rats

To determine the optimal administration period for evaluation of ovarian toxicity of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), VCD was intraperitoneally administered to female Sprague-Dawley rats at 0 (Control), 5, 20 and 80 mg/kg once a day for 2 or 4 weeks (2- or 4-week study). To identify small follicles, serial sections of the ovaries were stained with routine hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunohistochemistry. In the 4-week study, decrease in small follicles was observed in the ovaries at 20 and 80 mg/kg. In the 2-week study, the same change was also observed at 80 mg/kg. Identification of small follicles using PCNA-stained slides was easier than that using HE-stained slides. In conclusion, histopathological findings in the ovaries are important for evaluation of female reproductive toxicity of VCD, and ovarian toxicity of VCD can be detected by administration for 2 weeks at an appropriate dose level. Furthermore, PCNA immunohistochemistry is effective for evaluation of small follicle destruction in chemical-induced ovarian toxicity.

Collaborative work on evaluation of ovarian toxicity. 4) Effects of fertility study of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide in female rats

As part of a collaborative project, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), an ovarian toxicant, was intraperitoneally administered to female Sprague-Dawley rats at 0, 5, 20 or 80 mg/kg from 2 weeks prior to mating to Day 7 of gestation. At necropsy, the number of implanted embryos, rate of implantation decreased and the rate of preimplantation loss showed an increasing tendency in the 80 mg/kg group. As for organ weight, decreases in absolute and relative ovary weight were observed in the 80 mg/kg group. Histopathologically, the ovaries showed a decrease in number of small follicles at 80 mg/kg

Neuroprotection against excitotoxic brain injury in mice after ovarian steroid depletion

Ovarian steroid hormones influence not only seizure phenomena, but also the neuronal cell death that follows. In the present study, we applied two models of ovarian steroid loss, ovariectomy and chemically-induced ovarian failure, to evaluate kainate-induced seizure activity and the susceptibility of hippocampal neurons to seizure-induced neurodegeneration. Young adult female FVB/NJ mice were ovariectomized with (OVX+E, n=6) or without (OVX, n=8) estrogen replacement. A separate group of females received the ovotoxin, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD, n=8) to deplete ovarian follicles. Mice underwent kainate-induced status epilepticus and were evaluated for seizure activity (3 h) and delayed hippocampal neuronal injury (7 days). While there were no differences in latency or duration of severe seizures among control, OVX and VCD-treated mice, OVX+E mice exhibited seizures of a significantly longer duration. However, both VCD-induced ovarian failure and OVX led to a dramatic reduction in the extent of excitotoxic cell death, with slightly greater effects observed in VCD-treated mice. Estradiol administration to OVX mice also exerted a significant neuroprotective effect against kainate-induced cell death. These results support and extend earlier findings suggesting that the hormonal milieu may have differential effects on seizure susceptibility that are separate and distinct from those influencing hippocampal neuronal vulnerability. Collectively, these findings highlight the complex interactions among the loss of ovarian steroid hormones, estrogen replacement, seizures, and seizure-induced cell death.

Ovarian neoplasm development by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) in a chemically-induced rat model of ovarian failure

OBJECTIVES

The objectives were to determine the time course for ovarian failure in rats caused by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) and develop a model for ovarian cancer in which ovarian neoplasms were chemically induced in an animal that was follicle depleted, but retained residual ovarian tissue.

METHODS

Initially, female Fisher 344 rats were treated with VCD (to induce ovarian failure) or vehicle control (sesame oil). Three or 6 months after treatment, ovaries were collected and processed for histological evaluation for confirmation of ovarian failure. A further set of female rats was assigned to four groups exposed to combinations of vehicle control, VCD and/or DMBA (directly applied to the ovary) in a novel model for examining early stages of ovarian neoplasia.

RESULTS

Three and 6 months following VCD dosing there was a significant reduction of ovarian weight and follicle number. Treatment with DMBA subsequent to VCD resulted in tumors in 42% of animals at 3 months and 57% at 5 months. All neoplasms were classified Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors (SLCT). No tumor occurred in animals treated with vehicle or DMBA alone.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies demonstrate that the VCD-treated rat can be used as a model for peri- and post-menopause. DMBA induction of ovarian neoplasms was greater in those rats treated with VCD. Whether this increase was due to tumor initiation by VCD or was the result of ovarian failure cannot be distinguished from these results. This represents the only animal model to date for sex cord stromal tumors.

Evaluation of ovotoxicity induced by 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and its 3,4-diol metabolite utilizing a rat in vitro ovarian culture system

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene, (DMBA), targets and destroys all follicle types in rat and mouse ovaries. DMBA requires bioactivation to DMBA-3,4-diol-1,2-epoxide for ovotoxicity via formation of the intermediate, DMBA-3,4-diol (catalyzed by microsomal epoxide hydrolase; mEH). mEH was shown to be involved in DMBA bioactivation for ovotoxicity induction in B6C3F(1) mouse ovaries. The current study compared DMBA and DMBA-3,4-diol mediated ovotoxicity, and investigated mEH involvement in DMBA-3,4-diol bioactivation in Fischer 344 (F344) rat ovary. F344 postnatal day (PND) 4 rat ovaries were cultured in vehicle control or media containing 1) DMBA or DMBA-3,4-diol (12.5 nM - 1 muM; 15 days); 2) DMBA (1 muM; 6 h - 15 days); and 3) DMBA (1 muM) or DMBA-3,4-diol (75 nM)+/-the mEH activity inhibitor cyclohexene oxide (CHO; 2 mM; 4 days). Ovaries were histologically evaluated and mEH mRNA and protein were measured by reverse transcriptase PCR or Western blotting, respectively. Ovotoxicity following 15 days of culture occurred (P<0.05) at lower concentrations of DMBA-3,4-diol (12.5 nM - primordial; 75 nM - primary) than DMBA (75 nM - primordial; 375 nM - primary). The temporal pattern of mEH expression following DMBA exposure showed mRNA up-regulation (P<0.05) on day 2, with increased protein (P<0.05) on day 4, the earliest time of observed follicle loss (P<0.05). mEH inhibition prevented DMBA-induced, but not DMBA-3,4-diol-induced ovotoxicity. These results demonstrate a conserved response in mice and rats for ovarian mEH involvement in DMBA bioactivation to its ovotoxic, 3,4-diol-1,2-epoxide form.

Effect of CYP2E1 gene deletion in mice on expression of microsomal epoxide hydrolase in response to VCD exposure

Females are born with a finite number of primordial follicles. 4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) is a metabolite formed by epoxidation of 4-vinylcyclohexene (VCH) via its two monoepoxides 1,2- and 7,8-4-vinylcyclohexene monoepoxide (VCM). VCD specifically destroys small preantral (primordial and small primary) follicles in the rodent ovary. The phase I enzyme, cytochrome P450 isoform 2E1 (CYP2E1) is involved in ovarian metabolism of VCM to VCD. Further, microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH) can detoxify VCD to an inactive tetrol (4-(1,2-dihydroxy)ethyl-1,2-dihydroxycyclohexane). This study evaluated the effects of VCD-induced ovotoxicity on mEH in CYP2E1+/+ and -/- mice (129S(1)/SvImJ background strain) using a postnatal day 4 mouse whole ovary culture system. The hypothesis of our study is that there is a relationship between CYP2E1 and mEH gene expression in the mouse ovary. Relative to control, VCD exposure caused follicle loss (p < 0.05) in ovaries from both genotypes; however, after 15 days, this loss was greater (p < 0.05) in CYP2E1+/+ ovaries. In a time course (2-15 days), relative to control, VCD (5 microM) caused an increase (p < 0.05) in mEH mRNA by 0.5-fold (day 10) and 1.84-fold (day 15) in CYP2E1-/- but not +/+ ovaries. 7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) also destroys ovarian follicles but, unlike VCD, is bioactivated by mEH to an ovotoxic 3,4-diol-1,2-epoxide metabolite. Incubation of ovaries in increasing concentrations of DMBA (0.5-1 microM, 15 days) resulted in greater (p < 0.05) follicle loss in CYP2E1-/-, relative to +/+ ovaries. With greater mEH (CYP2E1-/-), increased follicle loss with DMBA (bioactivation) and decreased follicle loss with VCD (detoxification) support that ovarian expression of CYP2E1 and mEH may be linked.

Expression of ovarian microsomal epoxide hydrolase and glutathione S-transferase during onset of VCD-induced ovotoxicity in B6C3F(1) mice

4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) specifically destroys small pre-antral follicles in the rodent ovary. VCD can be detoxified to an inactive tetrol by microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH), or by conjugation to glutathione (GSH) by glutathione S-transferase (GST). Formation of VCD-GSH adducts in the mouse ovary 4 h after VCD exposure (0.57 mmol/kg/day) has been demonstrated. Because the mouse ovary expresses both mEH and GST, expression of mEH and GST pi and mu during a time-course of VCD-induced ovotoxicity was evaluated in a neonatal mouse ovarian culture system. Ovaries from postnatal day 4 (PND4) B6C3F(1) mice were incubated with VCD (15 microM) for 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 15 days. Following incubation, ovaries were histologically evaluated, or assessed for mRNA or protein expression. VCD did not cause follicle loss (p>0.05) on days 2, 4, or 6 of culture. At days 8, 10, 12, and 15, VCD reduced (p<0.05) both primordial and primary follicle numbers. Increased (p<0.05) expression of mEH, GST pi and GST mu mRNA was detected after 4 days of VCD exposure. This expression was reduced on days 6 and 8, when follicle loss was underway, but increased (p<0.05) after 10 days of exposure. mEH and GST pi proteins were elevated (p<0.05) following 8 days of VCD-exposure however there was no increase in GST mu protein. These findings suggest that with continuous exposure to VCD, increased expression of detoxification enzymes may participate in retarding the onset of follicle loss, but that this loss cannot ultimately be prevented.

Involvement of CYP 2E1 enzyme in ovotoxicity caused by 4-vinylcyclohexene and its metabolites

4-Vinylcyclohexene (VCH) is bioactivated by hepatic CYP 2A and 2B to a monoepoxide (VCM) and subsequently to an ovotoxic diepoxide metabolite (VCD). Studies suggest that the ovary can directly bioactivate VCH via CYP 2E1. The current study was designed to evaluate the role of ovarian CYP 2E1 in VCM-induced ovotoxicity. Postnatal day 4 B6C3F(1) and CYP 2E1 wild-type (+/+) and null (-/-) mouse ovaries were cultured (15 days) with VCD (30 microM), 1,2-VCM (125-1000 microM), or vehicle. Twenty-eight days female CYP 2E1 +/+ and -/- mice were dosed daily (15 days; ip) with VCH, 1,2-VCM, VCD or vehicle. Following culture or in vivo dosing, ovaries were histologically evaluated. In culture, VCD decreased (p<0.05) primordial and primary follicles in ovaries from all three groups of mice. 1,2-VCM decreased (p<0.05) primordial follicles in B6C3F(1) and CYP 2E1 +/+ ovaries, but not in CYP 2E1 -/- ovaries in culture. 1,2-VCM did not affect primary follicles in any group of mouse ovaries. Conversely, following in vivo dosing, primordial and primary follicles were reduced (p<0.05) by VCD and VCM in CYP2E1 +/+ and -/-, and by VCH in +/+ mice. The data demonstrate that, whereas in vitro ovarian bioactivation of VCM requires CYP 2E1 enzyme, in vivo CYP 2E1 plays a minimal role. Thus, the findings support that hepatic metabolism dominates the contribution made by the ovary in bioactivation of VCM to its ovotoxic metabolite, VCD. This study also demonstrates the use of a novel ovarian culture system to evaluate ovary-specific metabolism of xenobiotics.

Development of an animal model for ovotoxicity using 4-vinylcyclohexene: a case study

BACKGROUND

The occupational chemical 4-vinylcyclohexene (VCH) has been shown to cause destruction of small pre-antral follicles in ovaries of mice. Further, its monoepoxide metabolites, 1,2-VCH epoxide, 7,8-VCH epoxide, and the diepoxide, VCD, have been shown to cause pre-antral follicle loss in rats as well as mice. Chemicals that destroy small pre-antral follicles are of concern to women because exposure can result in premature ovarian failure (early menopause).

METHODS

Studies working with these chemicals over the past decade have determined a number of aspects of the mechanism(s) of small pre-antral destruction, and a variety of questions have been answered.

RESULTS

Specifically, it has been determined that the diepoxide (VCD) is the bioactive form and it directly targets the ovary in mice and rats. Mice are more susceptible to VCH than rats because they are capable of its metabolic bioactivation. Follicle destruction by VCD is selective for primordial and primary follicles. Mechanistic studies in rats have determined that VCD causes ovotoxicity by accelerating the natural process of atresia (apoptosis) and this requires repeated exposures. Pro-apoptotic signaling events in the Bcl-2 and mitogen activated protein kinase families have been shown to be selectively activated in fractions of small pre-antral follicles (targets for VCD). Finally, a whole ovarian culture system using neonatal mouse and rat ovaries has been developed to expand the potential for more in depth investigations into ovotoxicity caused by VCD.

CONCLUSIONS

This article provides an overview of the questions asked and the approaches taken in studying VCH and VCD to support these conclusions.

The rodent estrous cycle: characterization of vaginal cytology and its utility in toxicological studies

While an evaluation of the estrous cycle in laboratory rodents can be a useful measure of the integrity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian reproductive axis, it can also serve as a way of insuring that animals exhibiting abnormal cycling patterns are disincluded from a study prior to exposure to a test compound. Assessment of vaginal cytology in regularly cycling animals also provides a means to establish a comparable endocrine milieu for animals at necropsy. The procedure for obtaining a vaginal smear is relatively non-invasive and is one to which animals can become readily accustomed. It requires few supplies, and with some experience the assessments can be easily performed in fresh, unstained smears, or in fixed, stained ones. When incorporated as an adjunct to other endpoint measures, a determination of a female's cycling status can contribute important information about the nature of a toxicant insult to the reproductive system. In doing so, it can help to integrate the data into a more comprehensive mechanistic portrait of the effect, and in terms of risk assessment, may provide some indication of a toxicant's impact on human reproductive physiology.

Accelerated ovarian failure induced by 4-vinyl cyclohexene diepoxide in Nrf2 null mice

Genetic and biochemical analyses have uncovered an essential role for nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in regulating phase II xenobiotic metabolism and antioxidant response. Here we show that Nrf2 protects against the ovarian toxicity of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) in mice. Nrf2-/- female mice exposed to VCD exhibit an age-dependent decline in reproduction leading to secondary infertility accompanied by hypergonadotropic hypogonadism after 30 weeks of age. VCD is shown to selectively destroy small ovarian follicles, resulting in early depletion of functional follicles. Treatment with VCD induces apoptotic death in cultured cells and in ovarian follicles, suggesting apoptosis as a mechanism of follicle loss. Loss of Nrf2 function blocks the basal and inducible expression of microsomal epoxide hydrolase, a key enzyme in the detoxification of VCD, and increases the oxidative stress in cells that is further exacerbated by VCD. Foxo3a, a repressor in the early stages of follicle activation, displays reduced expression in Nrf2-/- ovaries, causing accelerated growth of follicles in the absence of exposure to exogenous chemicals. Furthermore, Foxo3a is degraded through the 26S proteasome pathway in untreated cells and is induced by VCD via both Nrf2-dependent transcription and protein stabilization. This study demonstrates that Nrf2 serves as an essential sensor and regulator of chemical homeostasis in ovarian cells, protecting the cells from toxic chemicals by controlling metabolic detoxification, reactive oxygen species defense, and Foxo3a expression. In addition, these findings raise the possibility that exposure to environmental or occupational ovotoxicants plays a role in the premature ovarian failure commonly associated with infertility and premature aging in women.

Damage to ovarian development and function

Ovarian function in women can be compromised by exposure to toxic environmental factors. Chemicals that affect ovarian function can act through direct effects on hormone action (ovary) or by interference with steroid hormone action (hypothalamus and/or pituitary). These effects can cause problems in the form of infertility. Alternatively, ovarian toxicants can directly cause ovarian failure by extensive follicular destruction. This targeting can result in loss of ovarian steroid hormones, eventual ovarian failure (menopause), and ultimate disruption of neuroendocrine feedback causing increased levels of FSH and LH. This article provides an overview of chemicals that in animal studies have been identified to cause disrupted ovarian function with a focus on the sites of targeting by which these disruptions occur. In predicting the impact of environmental factors on reproductive function in women, it is critical to gain a better appreciation of the physiological consequences resulting from the potential variety of mechanisms by which toxicants can disrupt ovarian function. This article attempts to provide such a perspective within the context of specific chemicals for which ovarian sites of toxicity have been identified.

Differences between rats and mice in the involvement of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide-induced ovarian follicle loss

Repeated dosing with the occupational chemical 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) selectively depletes small pre-antral follicles in the ovaries of rats and mice via apoptosis. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) plays a role in mediating the effects of several xenobiotics. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate a potential role of the AhR in VCD-induced ovotoxicity. Female F344 rats, C57BL/6 mice, or AhR-deficient (-/-, AhRKO) mice were dosed daily (15 days) with vehicle, VCD (80 mg/kg, i.p.) and/or the AhR antagonist, alpha-naphthoflavone (ANF; 80 mg/kg, i.p.). Compared with controls, VCD caused a 60% reduction (P < 0.05) in primordial and primary follicles in mice and rats. Concurrent dosing with ANF protected against the VCD-induced follicle loss in rats, but not in mice. As with AhR-intact mice and rats, VCD induced a 70% loss (P < 0.05) of small pre-antral follicles in AhRKO mice. AhR mRNA expression was increased (P < 0.05) by VCD dosing in small pre-antral follicles isolated from ovaries of rats but not mice. AhR protein in rats was increased by VCD dosing in oocyte nuclei in primordial and primary follicles when measured by immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. In rat small pre-antral follicles, apoptosis-associated caspase-3-like activity was increased (P < 0.05) by VCD treatment, decreased (P < 0.05) by ANF treatment, and unaffected by VCD plus ANF treatment. VCD had no effect on expression of GST Ya1 or GST Ya2 mRNA or CYP 1A1 protein in rats. Taken together, these findings demonstrate a difference between rats and mice in the potential involvement of AhR as related to VCD-induced ovotoxicity. Whereas, AhR appears to be involved in rats, no evidence for a similar role in mice was obtained. Overall, these findings point out that there can be mechanistic species differences in ovarian responses to xenobiotic chemicals.

Initiation of delayed ovotoxicity by in vitro and in vivo exposures of rat ovaries to 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide

Repeated daily dosing of rats with the ovotoxic, occupational chemical 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD, 80 mg/kg, i.p.) selectively depletes primordial and primary ovarian follicles. This study was designed to investigate whether follicle loss can be achieved following a single, acute exposure to VCD. Ovaries removed from postnatal-day-4 female Fischer 344 rats were cultured in the absence or presence of VCD for 15 days. Continuous in vitro exposure to VCD (15 days) caused concentration-dependent loss of primordial and small primary follicles. A single exposure to VCD in vitro (30 microM, 24 h) also caused significant losses of primordial and primary follicles 14 days later. Additionally, 28-day-old female rats were given a single injection of VCD (40-320 mg/kg, i.p.). A single dose at 320 mg/kg resulted in substantial loss of all follicle stages beginning 6 days later. Overall, these results demonstrate that an acute exposure to high concentrations/doses of VCD is sufficient to cause subsequent delayed loss of follicles.

Do environmental contaminants adversely affect human reproductive physiology?

There is increasing concern among Canadian women that unwitting and unwanted exposures to environmental contaminants are adversely affecting their health, particularly their ability to become pregnant and have a healthy baby. Evidence of adverse reproductive outcomes among populations exposed to environmental contaminants in the workplace via accidental poisoning, together with detection of environmental contaminant residues in serum and ovarian follicular fluid, has led to the hypothesis that chemical contaminants may be contributing to adverse reproductive outcomes such as infertility, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, spontaneous abortion, preterm labour, intrauterine growth restriction, and pregnancy-induced hypertension in the general population. The lack of clear evidence concerning the association between exposure to environmental contaminants and adverse reproductive outcomes hampers the clinician's ability to counsel women who are trying to conceive or who have concerns about their pregnancy. This review summarizes the evidence linking environmental contaminant exposure to selected adverse health outcomes by examining the changes in health-outcome trends, the consistency of the epidemiological evidence of an association between the health outcome of concern and exposure to environmental contaminants, and the biological plausibility for environmental contaminant mediated effects on human reproductive health. At best, only a moderate association can be found linking exposure to environmental contaminants with evidence of deleterious reproductive effects in women. Lack of disease trend data, weak exposure assessments, and limited mechanistic data supporting the biological plausibility of potential effects are the primary limitations to the hypothesis that exposure to environmental contaminants adversely affects human reproductive physiology.

Long-term effects of ovarian follicular depletion in rats by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide

4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) destroys preantral ovarian follicles in rats. Female 28-day Fisher 344 (F344) rats were dosed (30 days) with VCD (80 mg/kg per day, i.p.) or vehicle, and animals were evaluated for reproductive function at subsequent time points for up to 360 days. At each time point animals were killed, and ovaries and plasma collected. VCD reduced (P<0.05) the number of preantral follicles by day 30 relative to control. There were no ultrastructural differences in morphology between VCD-treated and control ovaries. Circulating FSH levels in VCD-treated animals were greater (days 120, 240, and 360, P<0.05) than in controls. Cyclicity was disrupted in the VCD-treated group by day 360. These results show that VCD-induced follicular destruction in rats is associated with a sequence of events (loss of preantral follicles, increased plasma FSH, and cyclic disruption) preceding premature ovarian senescence that is similar to events that occur during the onset of menopause in women.

Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and AP-1 transcription factor in ovotoxicity induced by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide in rats

Previous studies have demonstrated that ovotoxicity induced in small preantral (primordial and primary) ovarian follicles by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) in rats is likely via acceleration of the normal process of atresia (apoptosis). This acceleration is associated with increased activities of caspase cascades, changes in subcellular distribution of Bcl-2 family members, and alteration of estrogen receptor-mediated signaling pathways. The present study was designed to investigate possible effects of VCD dosing on the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK)/AP-1 signaling pathways in rat ovarian small follicles. Female F344 rats were given a single dose of VCD (80 mg/kg i.p., 1 day--a time when ovotoxicity has not been initiated) or dosed daily for 10 or 15 days (80 mg/kg i.p.; 10 days--a time when the earliest signs of impending follicular destruction is seen, 15 days--a time when significant ovotoxicity is underway). Four hours following the final dose, ovaries and livers were collected. Ovarian small (25-100 microm) and large (100-250 microm) preantral follicles were isolated, and cytosolic or nuclear extracts were prepared from follicles and livers for analyses. Activities of MAPKs, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase, c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK), and p38 kinase, were determined in follicular and liver cytosolic extracts, and AP-1 DNA binding activity was determined in follicular and liver nuclear extracts. Compared with control, a single dose of VCD caused a decrease in JNK activity and an increase of AP-1 binding activity in isolated small ovarian follicles. After repeated daily dosing with VCD for 10 or 15 days, JNK and p38 kinase activities in small ovarian follicles were increased (p38 kinase: 1.64 +/- 0.14 for 10 days, 1.48 +/- 0.11 for 15 days, VCD/control, P < 0.01; JNK: 1.44 +/- 0.11 for 10 days, 1.37 +/- 0.06 for 15 days, VCD/control, P < 0.01) and AP-1 binding activity in small ovarian follicles was decreased (10 days, 0.29 +/- 0.04; 15 days, 0.51 +/- 0.04, VCD/control, P < 0.01). VCD did not affect any of these measurements in large preantral follicles or liver. Phosphorylation status of c-Jun protein as measured by Western blotting was increased (1.22 +/- 0.1, VCD/control, P < 0.05) after the 15-day daily dosing with VCD, but total c-Jun protein levels were unaffected. Using antibodies against c-Jun or phospho-c-Jun for supershift DNA binding assay, c-Jun and phospho-c-Jun were identified in the AP-1-DNA binding complex, and the binding activity was reduced in tissues with increased phospho-c-Jun protein levels. Taken together, these data provide evidence that accelerated atretic signals induced by VCD is associated with MAPK/AP-1 signaling pathways and phosphorylation of c-Jun plays a significant role in transmitting the apoptotic signals.

17beta-estradiol affords protection against 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide-induced ovarian follicle loss in Fischer-344 rats

Repeated dosing with 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) accelerates atresia via apoptosis in primordial and primary follicles in ovaries of rats. The mechanisms that control atresia and VCD-induced toxicity are unknown; however, they could involve 17beta-E2. Atresia slows as animals enter puberty, whereas circulating E2 levels increase with the the onset of cyclicity. This inverse relationship suggests that E2 may be involved in the control of atresia. Therefore, this study was designed to determine whether treatment of immature rats with E2 could protect follicles normally destroyed by VCD-induced apoptosis. Female F344 rats were treated daily with E2, ER analogs, and/or VCD for 15 d. VCD alone caused a 50% reduction in primordial and primary follicles. Coinjection of E2 (0.1 mg/kg) and VCD (80 mg/kg) selectively protected primary follicles from VCD-induced follicle loss. This protection was mimicked by an ER agonist, genistein (0.1 mg/kg), and prevented by an ER antagonist, 4-hydroxytamoxifen (2 mg/kg). VCD treatment increased caspase-3-like activity, whereas concurrent treatment with genistein and VCD restored caspase-3-like activity to control levels. VCD treatment had no effect on circulating E2 levels, uterine weight, or E2 binding to the ER, nor could it directly displace E2 from ERbeta. These observations support the idea that ER-mediated protection against VCD-induced follicle toxicity is obtained by reducing apoptosis in small preantral follicles, although VCD does not appear to directly interact with ER.

Effect of 4-vinylcyclohexene on micronucleus formation in the bone marrow of rats and mice

This study was conducted to evaluate the potential of 4-vinylcyclohexene (VCH) to induce micronuclei in the bone marrow of mice and rats. Male and female Crl:CD BR (Sprague-Dawley) rats and B6C3F1/CrBR mice were exposed to VCH 6 hr/day for 2 days or for 13 weeks. In the 2-day study, mice were exposed by inhalation to 0, 250, 500, or 1000 ppm, and rats were exposed to 0, 500, 1000, or 2000 ppm. In the 13-week study, mice were exposed to 0, 50, 250, or 1000 ppm, and rats were exposed to 0, 250, 1000, or 1500 ppm. In each study, a separate group of mice was exposed to 1000 ppm 1,3-butadiene (BD) so that a comparison could be made between the two compounds. Likewise, cyclophosphamide was also included for rats as a positive control. Bone marrow was collected from VCH-exposed animals approximately 24 h and 48 h after the final exposure. There were no statistically significant increases in micronucleatedpolychromatic erythrocytes (MN-PCEs) among VCH-treated mice and rats at any dose level or sampling interval at either 2-days or 13-weeks. Also, no statistically significant differences in the polychromatic erythrocytes (PCE) to normochromatic erythrocytes (NCE) ratios were observed in any of the VCH-treated mice and rats compared to air-exposed animals. As expected, both the butadiene-treated mice and the cyclophosphamide-treated rats showed significantly more MN-PCEs than the control animals.

Apoptosis induced in rats by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide is associated with activation of the caspase cascades

Previous studies have shown that ovotoxicity induced in rats by dosing with 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) is likely via acceleration of the normal rate of atresia (apoptosis). The present study was designed to investigate the apoptosis-related caspase cascades as a component of this phenomenon in isolated ovarian small follicles. Female F344 rats were given a single dose of VCD (80 mg/kg, i.p., on Day 1; a time when ovotoxicity has not been initiated), or dosed daily for 15 days (80 mg/kg, i.p., on Day 15; a time when significant ovotoxicity is underway). Ovaries were collected after the final dose. Small preantral follicles (25-100 microm in diameter) were isolated, cellular fractions were prepared, and cleavage activity or protein expression levels of caspases-3, -8, and -9 were measured. Cytosolic caspase-3 activity was increased in small follicles (P < 0.01) by VCD treatment (Day 1, 2.86 +/- 0.23; Day 15, 3.25 +/- 0.64, VCD/control, n = 3). This activation was not seen in large or antral follicles (not targeted by VCD). Procaspase-3 protein was increased(P < 0.05) by VCD treatment 212% over controls in small ovarian follicles in Day 15, but not Day 1-dosed rats. Immunofluorescence staining intensity was evaluated by confocal microscopy. Caspase-3 protein, located in the cytosolic compartment of oocytes and granulosa cells of preantral follicles in various stages of development, was selectively increased (P < 0.05) in primordial and small primary follicles from Day 15 VCD-dosed rats. Caspase-8 activity was increased in small follicles in Day 15, but not in Day 1-treated rats; whereas caspase-9 activity was increased by VCD on Day 1 in the mitochondrial fraction. Thus, these data provide evidence that accelerated atresia induced in small ovarian follicles in rats by VCD is associated with activation of a caspase-mediated cascade.

Ovarian toxicity of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide: a mechanistic model

Female mammals are born with a finite number of ovarian primordial follicles that cannot be regenerated; thus, chemicals that destroy oocytes contained in these follicles can produce premature ovarian failure (early menopuase in women). Exposure of women to known ovotoxicants, such as contaminants in cigarette smoke, is associated with early menopause. Thus, the potential risks posed by ovotoxic chemicals is of concern. Our studies have focused on the environmental chemical 4-vinylcyclohexene (VCH), which is produced during the manufacture of rubber tires, flame retardants, insecticides, plasticizers, and antioxidants. Dosing of female rats and mice with the ovotoxic diepoxide metabolite of VCH, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), for 30 days destroyed the majority of ovarian primordial follicles. Using VCD in rats as a generalized model for ovotoxicity, we determined that 1) repeated daily dosing is required, 2) cell death is via apoptosis, and 3) altered expression of specific genes is involved. An integrated approach at the morphologic, biochemical, and molecular level was used to support these conclusions. Studies in isolated rat small preantral follicles (targeted for VCD-induced ovotoxicity) focused on the role of cell death genes, mitochondrion-associated events, and VCD metabolism. We also evaluated how this information relates to human risk for early menopause. These animal research results provide a better understanding of the potential risk of human exposure to environmental ovarian toxicants and greater insight as to the impact of these toxicants on reproductive health in women.