1
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Improved adenovirus type 5 vector-mediated transduction of resistant cells by piggybacking on coxsackie B-adenovirus receptor-pseudotyped baculovirus. J Virol 2009; 83:6048-66. [PMID: 19357170 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00012-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Taking advantage of the wide tropism of baculoviruses (BVs), we constructed a recombinant BV (BV(CAR)) pseudotyped with human coxsackie B-adenovirus receptor (CAR), the high-affinity attachment receptor for adenovirus type 5 (Ad5), and used the strategy of piggybacking Ad5-green fluorescent protein (Ad5GFP) vector on BV(CAR) to transduce various cells refractory to Ad5 infection. We found that transduction of all cells tested, including human primary cells and cancer cell lines, was significantly improved using the BV(CAR)-Ad5GFP biviral complex compared to that obtained with Ad5GFP or BV(CAR)GFP alone. We determined the optimal conditions for the formation of the complex and found that a high level of BV(CAR)-Ad5GFP-mediated transduction occurred at relatively low adenovirus vector doses, compared with transduction by Ad5GFP alone. The increase in transduction was dependent on the direct coupling of BV(CAR) to Ad5GFP via CAR-fiber knob interaction, and the cell attachment of the BV(CAR)-Ad5GFP complex was mediated by the baculoviral envelope glycoprotein gp64. Analysis of the virus-cell binding reaction indicated that the presence of BV(CAR) in the complex provided kinetic benefits to Ad5GFP compared to the effects with Ad5GFP alone. The endocytic pathway of BV(CAR)-Ad5GFP did not require Ad5 penton base RGD-integrin interaction. Biodistribution of BV(CAR)-Ad5Luc complex in vivo was studied by intravenous administration to nude BALB/c mice and compared to Ad5Luc injected alone. No significant difference in viscerotropism was found between the two inocula, and the liver remained the preferred localization. In vitro, coagulation factor X drastically increased the Ad5GFP-mediated transduction of CAR-negative cells but had no effect on the efficiency of transduction by the BV(CAR)-Ad5GFP complex. Various situations in vitro or ex vivo in which our BV(CAR)-Ad5 duo could be advantageously used as gene transfer biviral vector are discussed.
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2
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Franqueville L, Henning P, Magnusson M, Vigne E, Schoehn G, Blair-Zajdel ME, Habib N, Lindholm L, Blair GE, Hong SS, Boulanger P. Protein crystals in Adenovirus type 5-infected cells: requirements for intranuclear crystallogenesis, structural and functional analysis. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2894. [PMID: 18682854 PMCID: PMC2488365 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2008] [Accepted: 07/10/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Intranuclear crystalline inclusions have been observed in the nucleus of epithelial cells infected with Adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) at late steps of the virus life cycle. Using immuno-electron microscopy and confocal microscopy of cells infected with various Ad5 recombinants modified in their penton base or fiber domains, we found that these inclusions represented crystals of penton capsomers, the heteromeric capsid protein formed of penton base and fiber subunits. The occurrence of protein crystals within the nucleus of infected cells required the integrity of the fiber knob and part of the shaft domain. In the knob domain, the region overlapping residues 489-492 in the FG loop was found to be essential for crystal formation. In the shaft, a large deletion of repeats 4 to 16 had no detrimental effect on crystal inclusions, whereas deletion of repeats 8 to 21 abolished crystal formation without altering the level of fiber protein expression. This suggested a crucial role of the five penultimate repeats in the crystallisation process. Chimeric pentons made of Ad5 penton base and fiber domains from different serotypes were analyzed with respect to crystal formation. No crystal was found when fiber consisted of shaft (S) from Ad5 and knob (K) from Ad3 (heterotypic S5-K3 fiber), but occurred with homotypic S3K3 fiber. However, less regular crystals were observed with homotypic S35-K35 fiber. TB5, a monoclonal antibody directed against the Ad5 fiber knob was found by immunofluorescence microscopy to react with high efficiency with the intranuclear protein crystals in situ. Data obtained with Ad fiber mutants indicated that the absence of crystalline inclusions correlated with a lower infectivity and/or lower yields of virus progeny, suggesting that the protein crystals might be involved in virion assembly. Thus, we propose that TB5 staining of Ad-infected 293 cells can be used as a prognostic assay for the viability and productivity of fiber-modified Ad5 vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Franqueville
- Université Lyon I, Faculté de Médecine Laënnec, Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathologie Humaine, CNRS-FRE-3011, Lyon, France
| | - Petra Henning
- Institute for Biomedicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
- Got-A-Gene AB, Östra Kyviksvägen 18, Kullavik, Sweden
| | - Maria Magnusson
- Institute for Biomedicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
- Got-A-Gene AB, Östra Kyviksvägen 18, Kullavik, Sweden
| | - Emmanuelle Vigne
- Sanofi-Avantis, Centre de Recherches de Vitry, Vitry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Guy Schoehn
- Université de Grenoble Joseph Fourier (UJF), Unit for Virus-Host Cell Interactions, UMR-5233 UJF-EMBL-CNRS, and Institut de Biologie Structurale Jean-Pierre Ebel, UMR-5075 CEA-CNRS-UJF, Grenoble, France
| | | | - Nagy Habib
- Department of Surgical Oncology and Technology, Imperial College, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Leif Lindholm
- Got-A-Gene AB, Östra Kyviksvägen 18, Kullavik, Sweden
| | - G. Eric Blair
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Saw See Hong
- Université Lyon I, Faculté de Médecine Laënnec, Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathologie Humaine, CNRS-FRE-3011, Lyon, France
| | - Pierre Boulanger
- Université Lyon I, Faculté de Médecine Laënnec, Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathologie Humaine, CNRS-FRE-3011, Lyon, France
- Laboratoire de Virologie Médicale, Centre de Biologie et Pathologie Est, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
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3
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Madisch I, Hofmayer S, Moritz C, Grintzalis A, Hainmueller J, Pring-Akerblom P, Heim A. Phylogenetic analysis and structural predictions of human adenovirus penton proteins as a basis for tissue-specific adenovirus vector design. J Virol 2007; 81:8270-81. [PMID: 17522221 PMCID: PMC1951325 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00048-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The penton base is a major capsid protein of human adenoviruses (HAdV) which forms the vertices of the capsid and interacts with hexon and fiber protein. Two hypervariable loops of the penton are exposed on the capsid surface. Sequences of these and 300 adjacent amino acid residues of all 51 HAdV and closely related simian adenoviruses were studied. Adjacent sequences and predicted overall secondary structure were conserved. Phylogenetic analysis revealed clustering corresponding to the HAdV species and recombination events in the origin of HAdV prototypes. All HAdV except serotypes 40 and 41 of species F exhibited an integrin binding RGD motif in the second loop. The lengths of the loops (HVR1 and RGD loops) varied significantly between HAdV species with the longest RGD loop observed in species C and the longest HVR1 in species B. Long loops may permit the insertion of motifs that modify tissue tropism. Genetic analysis of HAdV prime strain p17'H30, a neutralization variant of HAdV-D17, indicated the significance of nonhexon neutralization epitopes for HAdV immune escape. Fourteen highly conserved motifs of the penton base were analyzed by site-directed mutagenesis of HAdV-D8 and tested for sustained induction of early cytopathic effects. Thus, three new motifs essential for penton base function were identified additionally to the RGD site, which interacts with a secondary cellular receptor responsible for internalization. Therefore, our penton primary structure data and secondary structure modeling in combination with the recently published fiber knob sequences may permit the rational design of tissue-specific adenoviral vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ijad Madisch
- Institut für Virologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
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4
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Zubieta C, Blanchoin L, Cusack S. Structural and biochemical characterization of a human adenovirus 2/12 penton base chimera. FEBS J 2006; 273:4336-45. [PMID: 16939624 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05430.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The vertex of the adenoviral capsid is formed by the penton, a complex of two proteins, the pentameric penton base and the trimeric fiber protein. The penton contains all necessary components for viral attachment and entry into the host cell. After initial attachment via the head domain of the fiber protein, the penton base interacts with cellular integrins through an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) motif located in a hypervariable surface loop, triggering virus internalization. In order to investigate the structural and functional role of this region, we replaced the hypervariable loop of serotype 2 with the corresponding, but much shorter, loop of serotype 12 and compared it to the wild type. Here, we report the 3.6 A crystal structure of a human adenovirus 2/12 penton base chimera crystallized as a dodecamer. The structure is generally similar to human adenovirus 2 penton base, with the main differences localized to the fiber protein-binding site. Fluorescence anisotropy assays using a trimeric fiber protein mimetic called the minifiber and wild-type human adenovirus 2 and chimeric penton base demonstrate that fiber protein binding is independent of the hypervariable loop, with a K(d) for fiber binding estimated in the 1-2 microm range. Interestingly, competition assays using labeled and unlabeled minifiber demonstrated virtually irreversible binding to the penton base, which we ascribe to a conformational change, on the basis of comparisons of all available penton base structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe Zubieta
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Grenoble Outstation, France.
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5
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Fender P, Boussaid A, Mezin P, Chroboczek J. Synthesis, cellular localization, and quantification of penton-dodecahedron in serotype 3 adenovirus-infected cells. Virology 2005; 340:167-73. [PMID: 16040074 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2005] [Revised: 06/03/2005] [Accepted: 06/14/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Adenovirus penton is a non-covalent complex composed of the penton base and fiber proteins, localized at the twelve vertices of the icosahedral virus capsid. In cells infected by adenovirus serotype 3 (Ad3), penton is found not only in the virus capsid but also self-assembled in dodecahedra formed through interactions between the twelve penton bases. In this study, the intracellular trafficking of penton proteins from the cytoplasm to the nucleus has been followed, and the nuclear re-arrangement induced by viral infection has been observed by electron microscopy of ultrathin sections. The amount of dodecahedra has been assessed in relation to the number of Ad3 infectious virions produced during the Ad3 replication cycle. It appears that dodecahedra are produced in a large excess over viral infectious particles and that they are located intranuclearly along the nuclear membrane of Ad3-infected cells at late times of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Fender
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, 41, Grenoble, France.
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6
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Vivès RR, Lortat-Jacob H, Chroboczek J, Fender P. Heparan sulfate proteoglycan mediates the selective attachment and internalization of serotype 3 human adenovirus dodecahedron. Virology 2004; 321:332-40. [PMID: 15051392 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2004.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2003] [Revised: 01/09/2004] [Accepted: 01/09/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
During adenovirus type 3 (Ad3) infection cycle, the penton (Pt) of the viral capsid, a noncovalent complex of fiber and penton base proteins, is produced in large excess and self-assembles to form a highly organized dodecahedral structure, termed dodecahedron (Dd). The physiological role of these particles is poorly understood, but we have recently reported that they can penetrate cells with high efficiency and thus may constitute an attractive tool for gene or protein delivery approaches. Surprisingly, Dd displayed the ability to enter cells non-permissive to Ad3, suggesting the existence of additional internalization modes. In this study, we show that Ad3 Dd binds to cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) through high affinity interaction with the penton base. Furthermore, binding to HS was found to be the prerequisite for a novel and Dd specific entry pathway that could not be used by Ad3. Overall, these data provide new insights in the possible role of Dd during viral infection and potential therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain R Vivès
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, CNRS-CEA-UJF, 38027 Grenoble, France
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7
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Hong SS, Bardy M, Monteil M, Gay B, Denesvre C, Tournier J, Martin G, Eloit M, Boulanger P. Immunoreactive domains and integrin-binding motifs in adenovirus penton base capsomer. Viral Immunol 2001; 13:353-71. [PMID: 11016599 DOI: 10.1089/08828240050144671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A panel of nine independent mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against penton base capsomers of subgenus C adenovirus serotypes 2 (Ad2) and 5 (Ad5) were isolated and characterized. Two of them (1D2 and 5A5), raised against Ad5 virion as the immunogen, bound to sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-resistant and subgenus C-specific epitopes that were not present in subgenus B Ad3 penton base. The 1D2 and 5A5 epitopes were mapped to two distinct regions that did not belong to the main variable region carrying the integrin-binding RGD motif at position 340. For the other seven MAbs, raised against recombinant Ad2 penton base protein (9S-pentamers), the epitopes were sensitive to SDS-denaturation, but reacted with native Ad2, Ad5, and Ad3 penton base. The epitopes recognized by the nine MAbs and by polyclonal antipenton base antibodies defined three major immunoreactive regions. One (I) mapped to the N-terminal domain (residues 116-165); the other two regions were almost symmetrically disposed on both sides of the integrin-binding RGD motif at position 340, within residues 248-270 (II), and within residues 368-427 (III) in the C-terminal domain. Region II overlapped the fiber-binding site in penton base (residues 254-260). None of the MAbs showed any detectable virus neutralization effect, but they all slightly augmented the efficiency of Ad-mediated gene transfer. Although none of their epitopes included the RGD-340 tripeptide, substitutions of the arginine residue in the RGD motif abolished the reactivity of six individual and distant epitopes, suggesting a major conformational role for the RGD-containing domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Hong
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathogénèse Virale, Faculté de Médecine, Lyon, France
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8
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Albinsson B, Kidd AH. Adenovirus type 41 lacks an RGD alpha(v)-integrin binding motif on the penton base and undergoes delayed uptake in A549 cells. Virus Res 1999; 64:125-36. [PMID: 10518709 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1702(99)00087-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Human adenovirus (Ad) types 2, 3 and 12 are known to interact with cell surface integrins alpha(v)beta(3) and alpha(v)beta(5) through an RGD motif carried by the penton base. This interaction is thought to augment virus entry after initial contact between the fiber and specific receptor(s). Ad40 and Ad41 are the only members of the human subgroup F adenoviruses. The penton base protein sequence of one Ad40 strain is known to carry the motif RGAD rather than RGD, suggesting that not all human adenoviruses use the above integrins for cell entry. We confirmed that different genomic variants of Ad40 all carry an RGAD motif on the penton base, and found that the Ad41 prototype and several other genomic variants of Ad41 carry the motif IGDD in place of RGAD or RGD. This region is most likely exposed on the Ad41 particle, but attempts to block Ad41 infectivity using a homologous peptide were unsuccessful. Infectivity of an Ad41 preparation as measured by fluorescent focus assay in A549 cells was highly dependent on the length of the adsorption period, indicating that fiber-mediated attachment is inefficient in these cells. Moreover, Ad41 virions adsorbed for 1 h were internalized in a semi-linear fashion over 8 h. This inefficient uptake may be a direct consequence of independence of subgroup F adenoviruses from alpha(v)beta(3) and alpha(v)beta(5) integrin-mediated endocytosis. Ad40 and Ad41 may thus have lost or may never have developed a dependence on the penton base RGD motif for entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Albinsson
- Department of Virology, University of Umeâ, S-901 85, Umeâ, Sweden
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9
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Hong SS, Gay B, Karayan L, Dabauvalle MC, Boulanger P. Cellular uptake and nuclear delivery of recombinant adenovirus penton base. Virology 1999; 262:163-77. [PMID: 10489350 DOI: 10.1006/viro.1999.9864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
An Ad2 capsid component, the penton base, expressed as recombinant protein, was found to be capable of affecting the entire entry pathway of adenovirion in HeLa cells, i.e., cell attachment, endocytosis, vesicular escape, intracytoplasmic movement, and translocation through the nuclear pore complex. Data with pentamerization-defective mutants suggested that none of these successive steps depended upon penton base pentamer status, indicating that the peptide domains responsible for these functions were carried by the monomer. Observations performed with wild-type (WT) and an integrin-binding-site double-mutant (K288E340) suggested that the penton base could enter the cell via an alternative, RGD- and LDV-independent, pathway. Of three mutants that were found to be defective in nuclear addressing in insect cells, only one, W165H, was also altered in nuclear transport in HeLa cells. The other two, W119H and RRR547EQQ, showed a WT pattern of nuclear localization in HeLa cells, suggesting that the region including tryptophan-119 and the basic signal at position 547 did not act as a nuclear localization signal in the human cell context. The integrity of cellular structures and the cytoskeleton seemed to be required for the vectorial movement and nuclear import of WT penton base, as suggested by experiments using permeabilized HeLa cells, isolated nuclear membranes, and cytoskeleton-targeted drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Hong
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathogénèse Virale, CNRS UMR 5537, Faculté de Médecine RTH Laennec, Rue Guillaume Paradin, Lyon, 69008, France
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10
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Karayan L, Hong SS, Gay B, Tournier J, d'Angeac AD, Boulanger P. Structural and functional determinants in adenovirus type 2 penton base recombinant protein. J Virol 1997; 71:8678-89. [PMID: 9343226 PMCID: PMC192332 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.71.11.8678-8689.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Discrete domains involved in structural and functional properties of adenovirus type 2 (Ad2) penton base were investigated with site-directed mutagenesis of the recombinant protein expressed in baculovirus-infected cells. Seventeen substitution mutants were generated and phenotyped for various functions in insect and human cells as follows. (i) Pentamerization of the penton base protein was found to be dependent on three amino acid side chains, the indole ring of Trp119, the hydroxylic group of Tyr553, and the basic group of Lys556. (ii) Arg254, Cys432, and Trp439, the stretch of basic residues at positions 547 to 556, and Arg340 of the RGD motif played a critical role in stable fiber-penton base interactions in vivo. (iii) Nuclear localization of penton base in Sf9 cells was negatively affected in mutants W119H or W165H, and, to a lesser extent, by substitutions in the consensus polybasic signal at positions 547 to 549. (iv) Penton base mutants were also assayed for HeLa cell binding, cell detachment, plasmid DNA internalization, and Ad-mediated gene delivery. The results obtained suggested that the previously identified integrin-binding motifs RGD340 and LDV287 were functionally and/or topologically related to other discrete regions which include Trp119, Trp165, Cys246, Cys432, and Trp439, all of which were involved in penton base-cell surface recognition, endocytosis, and postendocytotic steps of the virus life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Karayan
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathogénèse Moléculaires, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique URA-1487, Faculté de Médecine, Montpellier, France
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11
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Meissner JD, Hirsch GN, LaRue EA, Fulcher RA, Spindler KR. Completion of the DNA sequence of mouse adenovirus type 1: sequence of E2B, L1, and L2 (18-51 map units). Virus Res 1997; 51:53-64. [PMID: 9381795 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1702(97)00079-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The DNA sequence of 9991 nt, corresponding to 18-51 map units of mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1), was determined, completing the sequence of the Larsen strain of MAV-1. The length of the complete MAV-1 genome is 30,946 nucleotides, consistent with previous experimental estimates. The 18-51 map unit region encodes early region 2B proteins necessary for adenoviral replication as well as late region L1 and L2 structural and packaging proteins. Sequence comparison in this region with human adenoviruses indicates broad similarities, including colinear preservation of all recognized open reading frames (ORFs), with highest amino acid identity occurring in the DNA polymerase and polypeptide III (penton base subunit) ORFs. Virus-associated (VA) RNA is not encoded in the region where VA RNAs are found in the human adenoviruses, between E2B and L1, nor is it encoded anywhere in the entire MAV-1 genome. The MAV-1 polypeptide III lacks the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) motif which is involved in an association with cell-surface integrins. Only one RGD sequence is found in an identified coding region in the entire MAV-1 genome. Similar to the porcine adenovirus, this RGD sequence is found in the C-terminus of the MAV-1 fiber protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Meissner
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens 30602, USA
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12
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Suresh M, Sharma JM. Hemorrhagic enteritis virus induced changes in the lymphocyte subpopulations in turkeys and the effect of experimental immunodeficiency on viral pathogenesis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1995; 45:139-50. [PMID: 7604531 DOI: 10.1016/0165-2427(94)05323-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
We examined the changes in the lymphocyte subpopulations in the spleen and peripheral blood of turkeys and the effects of experimental immunodeficiency in the B and T cell compartments on the pathogenesis of hemorrhagic enteritis (HE) in turkeys. Inoculation of turkeys with hemorrhagic enteritis virus (HEV) induced a drop in the relative proportions of IgM bearing cells on Day 2, 3, and 9 post-infection and an elevation in the relative proportions of CD4+ cells on Day 4 and 6 post-infection. Elevated levels of CD8+ cells were observed in the infected turkeys only on Day 16 after infection. Marked depletion of IgM+ cells may play a role in immunodepression caused by HEV. Cyclophosphamide (CY) treatment induced B cell deficiency in turkeys severely impaired HEV replication in the spleen suggesting that B lymphocytes are important for viral replication. Cyclosporin A (CsA) selectively impaired T cell mitogenesis and protected the turkeys against HEV-induced intestinal hemorrhages. CsA did not prevent viral replication in the spleen or the associated splenomegaly. This result suggested that T cell immunity may be important for intestinal hemorrhaging induced by HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Suresh
- Dept. of Veterinary PathoBiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul 55108, USA
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14
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Nemerow GR, Cheresh DA, Wickham TJ. Adenovirus entry into host cells: a role for αv integrins. Trends Cell Biol 1994; 4:52-5. [PMID: 14731867 DOI: 10.1016/0962-8924(94)90010-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism(s) by which nonenveloped viruses enter host cells is poorly understood. The recent identification of cell-surface alpha(v) integrins as receptors for adenovirus internalization has shed much light on this process. In addition, analysis of alpha(v) integrins as internalization receptors for adenovirus has provided further insights into the biology of integrins.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Nemerow
- Scripps Research Institute, 10666 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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15
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Abstract
Adenoviruses enter their host cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis and acid-activated penetration from endosomes into the cytosol and deliver their DNA genome into the nucleus. Our results show that incoming adenovirus type 2 particles undergo a stepwise disassembly program necessary to allow progress of the virus in the entry pathway and release of the genome into the nucleus. The fibers are released, the penton base structures dissociated, the proteins connecting the DNA to the inside surface of the capsid degraded or shed, and the capsid-stabilizing minor proteins eliminated. The uncoating process starts immediately upon endocytic uptake with the loss of fibers and ends with the uptake of dissociated hexon proteins and DNA into the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- U F Greber
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510
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16
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Bai M, Harfe B, Freimuth P. Mutations that alter an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) sequence in the adenovirus type 2 penton base protein abolish its cell-rounding activity and delay virus reproduction in flat cells. J Virol 1993; 67:5198-205. [PMID: 8350395 PMCID: PMC237917 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.67.9.5198-5205.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The adenovirus penton base protein has a cell rounding activity and may lyse endosomes during virus entry into the cytoplasm. We found that penton base that was expressed in Escherichia coli also caused cell rounding and that cells adhered to polystyrene wells that were coated with the protein. Mutant analysis showed that both properties required an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) sequence at residues 340 to 342 of penton base. In flat adherent cells, virus mutants with amino acid substitutions in the RGD sequence were delayed in virus reproduction and in the onset of viral DNA synthesis. In nonadherent or poorly spread cells, the kinetics of mutant virus reproduction were similar to those of wild-type adenovirus type 2. Expression of the mutant phenotype exclusively in the flat cells that we tested supports a model in which penton base interacts with an RGD-directed cell adhesion molecule during adenovirus uptake or uncoating.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bai
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973
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17
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Wickham TJ, Mathias P, Cheresh DA, Nemerow GR. Integrins alpha v beta 3 and alpha v beta 5 promote adenovirus internalization but not virus attachment. Cell 1993; 73:309-19. [PMID: 8477447 DOI: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90231-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1667] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Adenovirus contains a heterodimeric protein complex consisting of 186 kd fiber protein that mediates high affinity virus attachment to cells and a 400 kd pentavalent subunit (penton base) that contains five Arg-Gly-Asp sequences, implying a role for integrins in adenovirus infection. We demonstrate that the vitro-nectin-binding integrins alpha v beta 3 and alpha v beta 5 promote viral infection in a novel way since antibodies against these receptors or soluble penton base block virus internalization without affecting attachment. Moreover, adenovirus binds to cultured cells lacking alpha v integrins but fail to become internalized, thus restricting infection of these cells. Transfection of alpha v(-) cells with a cDNA encoding alpha v results in the expression of integrins alpha v beta 3 and alpha v beta 5 and allows virus internalization and infection. These data indicate that adenovirus attachment and uptake into cells are separate but cooperative events that result from the interaction of distinct viral coat proteins with a receptor for attachment and alpha v integrin receptors for internalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Wickham
- Scripps Research Institute, Department of Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037
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van den Hurk JV. Characterization of the structural proteins of hemorrhagic enteritis virus. Arch Virol 1992; 126:195-213. [PMID: 1326260 DOI: 10.1007/bf01309695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The structural proteins of hemorrhagic enteritis (HEV), a turkey adenovirus, were analyzed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and Western blotting using polyspecific, monospecific and monoclonal antibodies for detection. In purified HEV preparations, eleven polypeptides with apparent molecular weights ranging from 96,000 to 9,500 (96k to 9.5k), were specifically recognized by convalescent turkey serum. Six of these polypeptides were further characterized by PAGE, Western blotting, ELISA, sucrose gradient centrifugation and electron microscopy. The 96k polypeptide was identified as the hexon polypeptide which is a monomer of the major outer capsid or hexon protein. The 51/52k and 29k polypeptides, identified as the penton base and fiber polypeptides respectively, were the components of the vertex or penton protein. The 57k polypeptide was identified as a homologue of the human adenovirus type 2 (Ad 2) IIIa protein with which it shares a common epitope. Two core proteins with molecular weights of 12.5 and 9.5k were present in purified HEV nucleoprotein cores. The proteins of two HEV isolates, one apathogenic (HEV-A) and one virulent (HEV-V), resembled each other in most respects. However, differences between HEV-A and HEV-V were found in electrophoretic migration of the penton base protein both under native and denatured conditions, and in the electrophoretic migration of the 43/44k polypeptide. Moreover, homologous antiserum against the fiber protein reacted stronger than heterologous antiserum in an ELISA. Single fibers were detected by electron microscopy attached to the penton base proteins of HEV virions and in isolated pentons. The feature of having single fibers is shared with the mammalian adenoviruses and the avian egg drop syndrome 1976 virus (EDS 76 V), but not with the fowl adenoviruses which have double fibers attached to their penton base proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V van den Hurk
- Veterinary Infectious Disease Organization, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Ruigrok RW, Barge A, Albiges-Rizo C, Dayan S. Structure of adenovirus fibre. II. Morphology of single fibres. J Mol Biol 1990; 215:589-96. [PMID: 2231721 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2836(05)80170-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Adenovirus type 2 fibres in crystals appear to be significantly longer than found previously (accompanying paper). We therefore examined isolated fibre by electron microscopy and measured a length of 370 A, consistent with the length found in the crystals. The specific N-terminal structure of the fibre caused a heterogeneity in the length that may at least partially explain the values of 280 to 310 A published previously. Green et al. described a 15 amino acid repeat in the primary structure of the shaft of the fibre thought to be associated with the specific three-dimensional folding of the shaft. We compared the adenovirus type 2 (with 22 repeats) and type 3 (with 6 repeats) fibre lengths and derived a contribution of 13.2 A to the length of the shaft per 15 amino acid repeat. Specific morphological features of the fibre are discussed in relation to its amino acid sequence.
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Caillet-Boudin ML, Novelli A, Gesquière JC, Lemay P. Structural study of adenovirus type 2 fibre using anti-fibre and anti-peptide sera. ANNALES DE L'INSTITUT PASTEUR. VIROLOGY 1988; 139:141-56. [PMID: 3155400 DOI: 10.1016/s0769-2617(88)80013-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Peptides corresponding to the N- and C-extremities of the adenovirus 2 fibre polypeptide were synthesized, coupled to tetanus toxoid and injected into rabbits. Two sera were obtained: the anti-NTT serum and the anti-CTT serum. These sera and an anti-native-fibre serum were used to study fragments generated by hydrochloric acid cleavage of the fibre. The 44-Kd fragment corresponding to the 2/3 N-terminal part of the molecule retained its antigenic reactivity. This is consistent with a shaft structure for this part of the fibre. The anti-peptide sera were used to orientate the fibre, i.e., to determine the site of anchorage of this protein in the penton base. First, immunorevelation of blots of enzymatic digests of native or dissociated penton suggested that the N-extremity of the fibre was involved in the assembly of this protein in the penton base. Second, attempts were made to determine the accessibility of the fibre ends in the penton structure by ELISA assays and by immunorevelation of penton in Western blots. The results agreed with the proposed orientation derived from study of the enzymatic digests. Since the 2 anti-peptide sera and the peptides were unable to affect viral adsorption, it was not possible to determine how the fibre is orientated with respect to the cell receptor. However, the anti-peptide sera were found to inhibit viral production slightly.
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Devaux C, Caillet-Boudin ML, Jacrot B, Boulanger P. Crystallization, enzymatic cleavage, and the polarity of the adenovirus type 2 fiber. Virology 1987; 161:121-8. [PMID: 3314115 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(87)90177-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Crystals of the fiber protein of adenovirus type 2 have been grown. Analysis of these crystals (type I crystals) showed that they were composed of fiber polypeptide with a lower apparent molecular weight (60 kDa) than that of the soluble or virion-incorporated fiber (62 kDa). N-terminal sequencing revealed that the fiber polypeptide chain of 60 kDa was cleaved at tyrosine17 from the N-end. The C-terminus remained intact. Assays with protease inhibitors suggested that the spontaneous cleavage of the fiber occurring upon its crystallization was due to a cellular, calcium-dependent, chymotrypsin-like protease co-purifying with the fiber and activated during hydroxyapatite chromatography. Crystallization of fiber purified in the presence of chymostatin provided crystals of a different structure under the electron microscope (crystals of type II), composed of 62-kDa fiber polypeptide units. The 62-kDa fiber from the type II crystals, as well as the 62-kDa fiber isolated from infected cell extracts, were able to associate with the penton base in vitro to form a penton capsomer. The 60-kDa fiber has lost this capacity. The accessibility of the N- and C-termini of the fiber inside the penton structure was probed by anti-peptide sera after limited proteolysis. The results are consistent with a polarity of the fiber in which its N-terminus is oriented toward the penton base, the C-terminal domain corresponding to the distal knob.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Devaux
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Grenoble Outstation, France
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Wohlfart CE, Svensson UK, Everitt E. Interaction between HeLa cells and adenovirus type 2 virions neutralized by different antisera. J Virol 1985; 56:896-903. [PMID: 4068145 PMCID: PMC252662 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.56.3.896-903.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Three adenovirus type 2-specified immunogens elicited neutralizing antibodies when injected into rabbits; these were the fiber, the hexon, and the penton base. Adenovirus type 2 virions, neutralized by antihexon- or anti-penton base antisera, attached to HeLa cells to the same extent as untreated control virus, and after attachment, neutralized viruses also became sensitive to DNase treatment. A fraction of 75 to 80% of the attached antibody-treated virions penetrated the plasma membrane, which should be compared with an 84 to 88% penetration level in the control series. A majority of the antihexon-neutralized virions was found in intracellular vesicles, as revealed with an electron microscope, but in the case of anti-penton base neutralization, a maximum of 50% of the virions was retained within vesicles, and ca. 30% was free in the cytoplasmic compartment. A value greater than 45% was never obtained for neutralization with a monospecific anti-penton base antiserum, which could imply the existence of alternative pathways for virus penetration into HeLa cells--one of these being sensitive to treatment with anti-penton base antiserum. Antisera containing antifiber specificities efficiently aggregated virions, and the aggregation data mirrored the degree of neutralization. Antifiber-neutralized virions attached to cells to a three- to five times greater extent than untreated control virus, but the former virions had a reduced ability to become sensitive to DNase treatment. Around 15% of the attached antifiber-treated virions was found as large aggregates inside multivesicular bodies or lysosomes.
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Abstract
The representation of the different structural polypeptides within the adenovirus virion has been accurately determined, and the particle molecular weight has been derived. A stoichiometric analysis was performed with [35S]methionine as a radiolabel, and analytical sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to separate the polypeptides. The recently available sequence of the adenovirus type 2 genome was used to determine the number of methionines in each polypeptide. The resulting relative representation was placed on an absolute scale by using the known number of hexon polypeptides per virion. The analysis provides new information on the composition of the vertex region, which has been the subject of some controversy. Penton base was found to be present in 60 copies, distributed as pentamers at each of the 12 vertices. Three fiber monomers were associated with one penton base to form the penton complex. Polypeptide IX was present in 240 copies per virion and 12 copies per group-of-nine hexons, supporting a model proposed earlier for the distribution of this protein. The location of polypeptide IX explains the dissociation of the virus outer capsid into groups-of-nine hexons. The penton base was microheterogeneous, and the relative amounts suggest that the symmetry mismatch, which occurs within the penton complex between base and fiber, is resolved by the synthesis of penton base polypeptides from two closely spaced start codons.
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Evidence that the penton base of adenovirus is involved in potentiation of toxicity of Pseudomonas exotoxin conjugated to epidermal growth factor. Mol Cell Biol 1984. [PMID: 6333584 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.4.8.1528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
When KB cells are incubated for 1 h with human adenovirus type 2 or type 5 (1 microgram/ml) and a conjugate of epidermal growth factor and Pseudomonas exotoxin (EGF-PE), protein synthesis is inhibited by 80 to 90%. Under these conditions, neither adenovirus nor EGF-PE alone has any effect on host protein synthesis. Thus, adenovirus enhances the toxicity of EGF-PE. A number of antibodies to intact virus and capsid components were tested for their ability to block the enhancing activity and virus uptake. At appropriate dilutions, antibodies prepared against intact virus and penton base blocked the enhancing activity without affecting virus uptake. Antibodies against hexon and fiber blocked virus uptake and enhancing activity in parallel. These studies suggest that the penton base is important in lysis of the vesicles which contain adenovirus and EGF-PE, and this base allows virus and toxin to enter the cytoplasm.
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Seth P, Fitzgerald D, Ginsberg H, Willingham M, Pastan I. Evidence that the penton base of adenovirus is involved in potentiation of toxicity of Pseudomonas exotoxin conjugated to epidermal growth factor. Mol Cell Biol 1984; 4:1528-33. [PMID: 6333584 PMCID: PMC368944 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.4.8.1528-1533.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
When KB cells are incubated for 1 h with human adenovirus type 2 or type 5 (1 microgram/ml) and a conjugate of epidermal growth factor and Pseudomonas exotoxin (EGF-PE), protein synthesis is inhibited by 80 to 90%. Under these conditions, neither adenovirus nor EGF-PE alone has any effect on host protein synthesis. Thus, adenovirus enhances the toxicity of EGF-PE. A number of antibodies to intact virus and capsid components were tested for their ability to block the enhancing activity and virus uptake. At appropriate dilutions, antibodies prepared against intact virus and penton base blocked the enhancing activity without affecting virus uptake. Antibodies against hexon and fiber blocked virus uptake and enhancing activity in parallel. These studies suggest that the penton base is important in lysis of the vesicles which contain adenovirus and EGF-PE, and this base allows virus and toxin to enter the cytoplasm.
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Boulanger P, Devaux C. Native molecular weight of adenovirus proteins: on the oligomeric structure of the fiber. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1983; 110:913-8. [PMID: 6838559 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(83)91049-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescamine-modification of amino groups was used to eliminate the influence of basic charge on the final migration position of protein's in alkaline pH polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis. As applied to adenovirus structural components, this type of analysis suggested the fiber to be composed of three identical subunits. The trimeric nature of both penton base and fiber therefore displaces the problem of symmetry mismatching to penton base and surrounding hexons at each vertex of the adenovirus icosahedron.
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Devaux C, Zulauf M, Boulanger P, Jacrot B. Molecular weight of adenovirus serotype 2 capsomers. A new characterization. J Mol Biol 1982; 156:927-39. [PMID: 7120398 DOI: 10.1016/0022-2836(82)90148-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Cepko CL, Changelian PS, Sharp PA. Immunoprecipitation with two-dimensional pools as a hybridoma screening technique: production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against adenovirus 2 proteins. Virology 1981; 110:385-401. [PMID: 7222481 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(81)90069-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Abstract
Cross-linking reovirus spike protein with the bifunctional reagent dimethyl suberimidate revealed that each spike was composed of a pentameric aggregate of polypeptide lambda 2.
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Lemay P, Boulanger P. Physicochemical characteristics of structural and non-structural proteins of human adenovirus 2. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/s0769-2617(80)80001-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Boudin ML, D'Halluin JC, Cousin C, Boulanger P. Human adenovirus type 2 protein IIIa. II. Maturation and encapsidation. Virology 1980; 101:144-56. [PMID: 7355575 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(80)90491-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Lemay P, Boudin ML, Milleville M, Boulanger P. Human adenovirus type 2 protein IIIa. I. Purification and characterization. Virology 1980; 101:131-43. [PMID: 7355574 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(80)90490-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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D'Halluin JC, Milleville M, Martin GR, Boulanger P. Morphogenesis of human adenovirus type 2 studied with fiber- and fiber and penton base-defective temperature-sensitive mutants. J Virol 1980; 33:88-99. [PMID: 7365872 PMCID: PMC288526 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.33.1.88-99.1980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The nature, polypeptide composition, and antigenic composition of the particles formed by six human adenovirus type 2 temperature-sensitive (ts) mutants were studied. ts115, ts116, and ts125 were phenotypically fiber-defective mutants, and ts103, ts104, and ts136 failed to synthesize detectable amounts of fiber plus penton base at 39.5 degrees C. The mutants belonged to five complementation groups, one group including ts116 and ts125. Except for ts103 and ts136, the other mutants were capable of producing particles at 39.5 degrees C. ts116 and ts125 accumulated light assembly intermediate particles (or top components) at nonpermissive temperatures, with few virus particles. The sodium dodecyl sulfate polypeptide pattern of ts116- or ts125-infected cells, intermediate particles, and virus particles showed that polypeptide IV (fiber) was smaller by a molecular weight of 2,000 than that in the wild-type virion and was glycosylated. In fiber plus penton base-defective ts104-infected cells, equivalent quantities of top components and viruses with a buoyant density (rho) of 1.345 g/ml (rho = 1.345 particles) were produced at 39.5 degrees C. These rho = 1.345 particles corresponded to young virions, as evidenced by the presence of uncleaved precursors to proteins VI, VIII, and VII. These young virions matured upon a shift down. Virus capsid vertex antigenic components underwent a phase of eclipse during their incorporation into mature virus particles. No antigenic penton base or IIa was detected in intermediate particles of all the ts mutants tested. Only hexon and traces of fiber antigens were found in ts104 young virions. Penton base and IIIa appeared as fully antigenically expressed capsid subunits in mature wild-type virions or ts104 virions after a shift down. The ts104 lesion is postulated to affect a regulatory function related in some way to penton base and fiber overproduction and the maturation processing of precursors PVI, PVII, and PVII.
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Hennache B, Torpier G, Boulanger P. Freeze-fracture study of adenovirus-induced KB cell surface alterations. Exp Cell Res 1979; 124:139-50. [PMID: 499379 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4827(79)90264-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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