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Thal SB, Bright SJ, Sharbanee JM, Wenge T, Skeffington PM. Current Perspective on the Therapeutic Preset for Substance-Assisted Psychotherapy. Front Psychol 2021; 12:617224. [PMID: 34326789 PMCID: PMC8313735 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.617224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The present narrative review is the first in a series of reviews about the appropriate conduct in substance-assisted psychotherapy (SAPT). It outlines a current perspective onpreconditions and theoretical knowledge that have been identified as valuable in the literaturefor appropriate therapeutic conduct in SAPT. In this context, considerations regarding ethics and the spiritual emphasis of the therapeutic approaches are discussed. Further, current methods, models, and concepts of psychological mechanism of action and therapeutic effects of SAPT are summarized, and similarities between models, approaches, and potential mediators for therapeutic effects are outlined. It is argued that a critical assessment of the literature might indicate that the therapeutic effect of SAPT may be mediated by intra- and interpersonal variables within the therapeutic context rather than specific therapeutic models per se. The review provides a basis for the development and adaptation of future investigations, therapeutic models, training programs for therapists, and those interested in the therapeutic potential of SAPT. Limitations and future directions for research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha B. Thal
- College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Stephen J. Bright
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Psychedelic Research in Science and Medicine Pty Ltd (PRISM), Balwyn North, VIC, Australia
| | - Jason M. Sharbanee
- Department of Psychology and Criminology, School of Arts and Humanities, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Tobias Wenge
- International Society for Bonding Psychotherapy, Friedrichshafen, Germany
| | - Petra M. Skeffington
- College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
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Girn M, Mills C, Roseman L, Carhart-Harris RL, Christoff K. Updating the dynamic framework of thought: Creativity and psychedelics. Neuroimage 2020; 213:116726. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
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Császár-Nagy N, Kapócs G, Bókkon I. Classic psychedelics: the special role of the visual system. Rev Neurosci 2019; 30:651-669. [PMID: 30939118 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2018-0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Here, we briefly overview the various aspects of classic serotonergic hallucinogens reported by a number of studies. One of the key hypotheses of our paper is that the visual effects of psychedelics might play a key role in resetting fears. Namely, we especially focus on visual processes because they are among the most prominent features of hallucinogen-induced hallucinations. We hypothesize that our brain has an ancient visual-based (preverbal) intrinsic cognitive process that, during the transient inhibition of top-down convergent and abstract thinking (mediated by the prefrontal cortex) by psychedelics, can neutralize emotional fears of unconscious and conscious life experiences from the past. In these processes, the decreased functional integrity of the self-referencing processes of the default mode network, the modified multisensory integration (linked to bodily self-consciousness and self-awareness), and the modified amygdala activity may also play key roles. Moreover, the emotional reset (elimination of stress-related emotions) by psychedelics may induce psychological changes and overwrite the stress-related neuroepigenetic information of past unconscious and conscious emotional fears.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noemi Császár-Nagy
- National University of Public Services, Budapest, Hungary.,Psychosomatic Outpatient Clinics, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Kapócs
- Saint John Hospital, Budapest, Hungary.,Institute of Behavioral Sciences, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - István Bókkon
- Psychosomatic Outpatient Clinics, Budapest, Hungary.,Vision Research Institute, Neuroscience and Consciousness Research Department, Lowell, MA, USA
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Sanz C, Zamberlan F, Erowid E, Erowid F, Tagliazucchi E. The Experience Elicited by Hallucinogens Presents the Highest Similarity to Dreaming within a Large Database of Psychoactive Substance Reports. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:7. [PMID: 29403350 PMCID: PMC5786560 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Ever since the modern rediscovery of psychedelic substances by Western society, several authors have independently proposed that their effects bear a high resemblance to the dreams and dreamlike experiences occurring naturally during the sleep-wake cycle. Recent studies in humans have provided neurophysiological evidence supporting this hypothesis. However, a rigorous comparative analysis of the phenomenology (“what it feels like” to experience these states) is currently lacking. We investigated the semantic similarity between a large number of subjective reports of psychoactive substances and reports of high/low lucidity dreams, and found that the highest-ranking substance in terms of the similarity to high lucidity dreams was the serotonergic psychedelic lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), whereas the highest-ranking in terms of the similarity to dreams of low lucidity were plants of the Datura genus, rich in deliriant tropane alkaloids. Conversely, sedatives, stimulants, antipsychotics, and antidepressants comprised most of the lowest-ranking substances. An analysis of the most frequent words in the subjective reports of dreams and hallucinogens revealed that terms associated with perception (“see,” “visual,” “face,” “reality,” “color”), emotion (“fear”), setting (“outside,” “inside,” “street,” “front,” “behind”) and relatives (“mom,” “dad,” “brother,” “parent,” “family”) were the most prevalent across both experiences. In summary, we applied novel quantitative analyses to a large volume of empirical data to confirm the hypothesis that, among all psychoactive substances, hallucinogen drugs elicit experiences with the highest semantic similarity to those of dreams. Our results and the associated methodological developments open the way to study the comparative phenomenology of different altered states of consciousness and its relationship with non-invasive measurements of brain physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Sanz
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | | | - Enzo Tagliazucchi
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Brain and Spine Institute, Paris, France
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Kraehenmann R, Pokorny D, Vollenweider L, Preller KH, Pokorny T, Seifritz E, Vollenweider FX. Dreamlike effects of LSD on waking imagery in humans depend on serotonin 2A receptor activation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:2031-2046. [PMID: 28386699 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4610-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Accumulating evidence indicates that the mixed serotonin and dopamine receptor agonist lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) induces an altered state of consciousness that resembles dreaming. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to test the hypotheses that LSD produces dreamlike waking imagery and that this imagery depends on 5-HT2A receptor activation and is related to subjective drug effects. METHODS Twenty-five healthy subjects performed an audiorecorded guided mental imagery task 7 h after drug administration during three drug conditions: placebo, LSD (100 mcg orally) and LSD together with the 5-HT2A receptor antagonist ketanserin (40 mg orally). Cognitive bizarreness of guided mental imagery reports was quantified as a standardised formal measure of dream mentation. State of consciousness was evaluated using the Altered State of Consciousness (5D-ASC) questionnaire. RESULTS LSD, compared with placebo, significantly increased cognitive bizarreness (p < 0.001). The LSD-induced increase in cognitive bizarreness was positively correlated with the LSD-induced loss of self-boundaries and cognitive control (p < 0.05). Both LSD-induced increases in cognitive bizarreness and changes in state of consciousness were fully blocked by ketanserin. CONCLUSIONS LSD produced mental imagery similar to dreaming, primarily via activation of the 5-HT2A receptor and in relation to loss of self-boundaries and cognitive control. Future psychopharmacological studies should assess the differential contribution of the D2/D1 and 5-HT1A receptors to cognitive bizarreness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Kraehenmann
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Dan Pokorny
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Leonie Vollenweider
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katrin H Preller
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Pokorny
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Erich Seifritz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Franz X Vollenweider
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
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Wright KM, Britt TW, Bliese PD, Adler AB, Picchioni D, Moore D. Insomnia as predictor versus outcome of PTSD and depression among Iraq combat veterans. J Clin Psychol 2011; 67:1240-58. [PMID: 22065464 DOI: 10.1002/jclp.20845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The study conducted a longitudinal assessment of insomnia as an antecedent versus consequence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptoms among combat veterans. DESIGN Two postdeployment time points were used in combination with structural equation modeling to examine the relative strength of two possible directions of prediction: insomnia as a predictor of psychological symptoms, and psychological symptoms as a predictor of insomnia. Participants were active duty soldiers (N = 659) in a brigade combat team who were assessed 4 months after their return from a 12-month deployment to Iraq, and then again eight months later. RESULTS Although both insomnia and psychological symptoms were associated at both time periods and across time periods, insomnia at 4 months postdeployment was a significant predictor of change in depression and PTSD symptoms at 12 months postdeployment, whereas depression and PTSD symptoms at 4 months postdeployment were not significant predictors of change in insomnia at 12 months postdeployment. CONCLUSIONS Results support the role of insomnia in the development of additional psychological problems and highlight the clinical implications for combat veterans, to include the importance of longitudinal assessment and monitoring of sleep disturbances, and the need for early intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Wright
- U.S. Army Medical Research Unit-Europe, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Abstract
Acetylcholine (ACh) plays an important role in a wide variety of cognitive tasks, such as perception, selective attention, associative learning, and memory. Extensive experimental and theoretical work in tasks involving learning and memory has suggested that ACh reports on unfamiliarity and controls plasticity and effective network connectivity. Based on these computational and implementational insights, we develop a theory of cholinergic modulation in perceptual inference. We propose that ACh levels reflect the uncertainty associated with top-down information, and have the effect of modulating the interaction between top-down and bottom-up processing in determining the appropriate neural representations for inputs. We illustrate our proposal by means of an hierarchical hidden Markov model, showing that cholinergic modulation of contextual information leads to appropriate perceptual inference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela J Yu
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London, UK.
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Fonoff ET, Silva CP, Ballester G, Timo-Iaria C. Electro-oscillographic correlation between dorsal raphe nucleus, neocortex and hippocampus during wakefulness before and after serotoninergic inactivation. Braz J Med Biol Res 1999; 32:469-72. [PMID: 10347812 DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x1999000400015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Theta rhythm in many brain structures characterizes wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in most subprimate mammalian brains. In close relation to behaviors, theta frequency and voltage undergo a fine modulation which may involve mobilization of dorsal raphe nucleus efferent pathways. In the present study we analyzed frequency modulation (through instantaneous frequency variation) of theta waves occurring in three cortical areas, in hippocampal CA1 and in the dorsal raphe nucleus of Wistar rats during normal wakefulness and after injection of the 5-HT1a receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT into the dorsal raphe. We demonstrated that in attentive states the variation of theta frequency among the above structures is highly congruent, whereas after 8-OH-DPAT injection, although regular signals are present, the variation is much more complex and shows no relation to behaviors. Such functional uncoupling after blockade demonstrates the influence of dorsal raphe nucleus efferent serotoninergic fibers on the organization of alertness, as evaluated by electro-oscillographic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Fonoff
- Departamento de Neurologia e Psiquiatria, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
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9
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Mokler DJ, Lariviere D, Johnson DW, Theriault NL, Bronzino JD, Dixon M, Morgane PJ. Serotonin neuronal release from dorsal hippocampus following electrical stimulation of the dorsal and median raphé nuclei in conscious rats. Hippocampus 1998; 8:262-73. [PMID: 9662140 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-1063(1998)8:3<262::aid-hipo8>3.0.co;2-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
We have studied 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) release in the hippocampal formation following electrical stimulation of the dorsal and median raphé nuclei in the behaving rat. The primary finding in this study is a decrease in neuronal release of serotonin in the dorsal hippocampal formation following electrical stimulation of either the dorsal or median raphé nucleus in conscious rats. At no time did electrical stimulation of either raphé nucleus result in behavioral, including vigilance state, changes. The amount of 5-HT released was found to be frequency dependent with higher frequencies (20 Hz) producing larger decreases in release of 5-HT. However, the pattern of release differs between the two raphé nuclei. Extracellular levels of 5-HT decrease during stimulation of the dorsal raphé, whereas levels decrease only following cessation of stimulation of the median raphé nucleus. This may relate to the patterns of innervation of the dorsal hippocampal formation by these two midbrain raphé nuclei and also may reflect an inhibition of median raphé cell firing during stimulation of the dorsal raphé. Electrical stimulation of the dorsal raphé in anesthetized animals resulted in an enhanced release of 5-HT. The suppression of 5-HT release in the dorsal hippocampal formation in behaving animals was long-lasting (over 2 h), suggesting that the control mechanisms that regulate 5-HT release operate over a long time-course. This difference in release between non-anesthetized and anesthetized animals may relate to anesthesia blocking long- and/or short-loop serotonin recurrent axonal collaterals negatively feeding back onto 5-HT1A and 5-HT1D somatodendritic autoreceptors on raphé neurons. Further, the anesthetized animal has diminished monoaminergic "gating" influences on the hippocampal formation, whereas the behaving animal is more complex with behavioral (vigilance) states associated with different patterns of gating of information flow through the hippocampal formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Mokler
- Department of Pharmacology, University of New England College of Osteopathic Medicine, Biddeford, Maine 04005, USA.
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10
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Abstract
Changes in motor activity have long been used to characterize the effects of serotonergic manipulations. The prevailing view has been that serotonin typically inhibits motor output, often in reciprocity with catecholaminergic systems. Recent findings, however, indicate that the release of presynaptic serotonin by indirect agonists leads to a profound locomotor activation. Studies were performed in a behavioral pattern monitor (BPM). The BPM is an automated holeboard/activity apparatus measuring 30.5 x 61 cm, that allows detailed sequential analyses of both locomotor and investigatory behaviors. When tested under comparable conditions, direct agonists at both 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 receptors decrease locomotor activity in rats. With hallucinogenic 5-HT2 agonists, this effect is dependent upon the novelty of the test environment, indicating that these compounds increase the responsiveness of the animal to the threatening aspects of the novel environment. Indirect serotonin agonists, however, increase locomotor activity and decrease investigation of discrete stimuli in the environment. The activating effects of indirect agonists such as 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), para-chloroamphetamine (PCA), or alpha-ethyltryptamine are dependent upon the release of serotonin from presynaptic terminals and are mimicked by direct agonists at 5-HT1B receptors. Both behavioral analyses and studies with synthesis inhibitors and receptor antagonists clearly distinguish the MDMA-induced hyperactivity from that induced by amphetamine-like releasers of dopamine. Further supporting the relevance of 5-HT1B receptors to the activating effects of serotonin-releasing agents, MDMA exhibits reciprocal cross-tolerance with the 5-HT1B agonist RU 24969, but not with either 5-HT1A or 5-HT2 agonists or amphetamine. Thus, studies of locomotor and investigatory responses can be used to demonstrate and differentiate the effects of direct agonists at 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, and 5-HT2 receptors as well as indirect serotonin agonists. The fact that the predominant effect of serotonin releasers is locomotor activation, apparently mediated via post-synaptic 5-HT1B receptors, suggests that some endogenous serotonergic systems may normally activate rather than suppress motor output.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Geyer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0804, USA
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11
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Mittman SM, Geyer MA. Dissociation of multiple effects of acute LSD on exploratory behavior in rats by ritanserin and propranolol. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1991; 105:69-76. [PMID: 1745714 DOI: 10.1007/bf02316866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Rats tested for 1 h in the Behavioral Pattern Monitor (BPM) after injection of the mixed serotonergic agonist d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) exhibit a behavioral profile similar to that produced by various hallucinogenic 5HT-2 agonists. The characteristic effects of the hallucinogens include suppression of locomotor and exploratory behavior and a preferential decrease in entries into the center of the BPM during the initial half of the test session. After LSD, the initial suppression of responding is followed by a subsequent increase in locomotor activity that is not observed with other serotonergic agonists. In the present studies, the 5HT-1 and beta-adrenergic antagonist d,l-propranolol and the 5HT-2 antagonist ritanserin were administered individually or in combination prior to the acute administration of LSD to test for the involvement of these receptor subtypes in the mediation of the effects of LSD in the BPM paradigm. Propranolol (20 mg/kg) abolished the initial suppression of activity induced by 60 micrograms/kg LSD without affecting the subsequent increase in locomotion. Conversely, 2.0 mg/kg ritanserin failed to block the initial suppressive effects of 60 or 120 micrograms/kg LSD, but attenuated the LSD-induced increases in activity during the second half of the session. The combination of propranolol and ritanserin prevented both these effects of LSD. By contrast, the more selective 5HT-2 agonist 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI) (0.27 mg/kg) produced an initial suppression of activity in the BPM that was blocked by 2.0 mg/kg ritanserin and was not followed by a subsequent increase in activity. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Mittman
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0804
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12
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Chaturvedi SK, Sinha VK. Recurrence of hallucinations in consecutive episodes of schizophrenia and affective disorder. Schizophr Res 1990; 3:103-6. [PMID: 2278974 DOI: 10.1016/0920-9964(90)90042-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
48 patients with episodic psychosis (18 schizophrenia, 30 MDP) were studied to examine whether they had similar hallucinations in consecutive episodes. 34 cases reported hallucinations, 23 of whom had hallucinations in consecutive episodes. In 22 of these 23 cases, the same type of hallucination (in the same sense organ modality) recurred. A recurrence of similar content was found in nearly half of the cases. In cases in whom the hallucinatory content persisted, however, there was no persistence of delusional content. Similar neurophysiological disturbances in similar neuroanatomical regions may result in the persistence of the same hallucinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Chaturvedi
- Psychological Medicine Group, Christie Hospital, Manchester, U.K
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13
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Abstract
The visions of dream sleep are suggested to occur through a dream mechanism which implicates tryptamine derivatives as endogenous paychedelics. The hallucinations that occur in some schizophrenic syndromes are also proposed to occur through a similar, though desynchronized, mechanism. These compounds occur in the human pineal gland and are regarded as neurotransmitters or neuroregulators. A protocol for experimental verification is suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Callaway
- School of Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco 94143
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Badham ER. Ethnobotany of psilocybin mushrooms, especially Psilocybe cubensis. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 1984; 10:249-254. [PMID: 6539409 DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(84)90007-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
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15
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Review of mechanisms of hallucinogenic drug action. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/0149-7634(82)90028-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Trulson ME, Jacobs BL, Morrison AR. Raphe unit activity during REM sleep in normal cats and in pontine lesioned cats displaying REM sleep without atonia. Brain Res 1981; 226:75-91. [PMID: 7296301 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(81)91084-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that the activity of serotonin-containing raphe neurons in cats is almost completely suppressed during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. However, since raphe unit activity is known to be grossly correlated with the level of behavioral arousal or tonic motor activity, this decrease in activity during REM sleep may be simply due to the fact that tonic EMG activity or motoric output is at a minimum. On the other hand, raphe unit activity may be related to the state (i.e. REM sleep) of the organism. To test these competing hypotheses, in the present study we compared raphe unit activity in normal cats with that in cats that display REM sleep without atonia (produced by bilateral lesions of the pontine tegmentum). These lesioned cats manifest episodes which, by all criteria, appear to be REM sleep except that they display overt behavior, presumably because the mechanism normally responsible for producing atonia has been disrupted. Although the activity of raphe neurons in lesioned cats during REM sleep without atonia was significantly below that seen in these cats during waking, the level of activity was often impressive. This is especially true when those animals that displayed the greatest degree of tonic motor activity during REM sleep (group IV animals) are considered separately. In these cats, the depression was only 40.5% below their quiet waking level, whereas in lesioned cats displaying less tonic motor activity (Group II animals), raphe discharge rate was 65.6% below their quiet waking level. The discharge rate of raphe neurons during REM sleep in lesioned cats was more than 6-fold greater than that seen in normal animals. These data, in conjunction with other recent results from our laboratory, suggest that the decrease in raphe unit activity during REM sleep is largely a concomitant of the atonia which characterizes that state. These data are discussed within the general context of the relationship between raphe unit discharge and the activity of central motor systems.
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Mirmiran M, van de Poll NE, Corner MA, van Oyen HG, Bour HL. Suppression of active sleep by chronic treatment with chlorimipramine during early postnatal development: effects upon adult sleep and behavior in the rat. Brain Res 1981; 204:129-46. [PMID: 7195762 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(81)90657-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
In an attempt to study the possible role of active sleep in brain development, male rats were injected twice daily with chlorimipramine, a potent monoamine reuptake blocker, from 1 week to 3 weeks of postnatal age. AS was reduced to less than 10% of total sleep time, the level found in mature rats. Most of the AS reduction was compensated for by quiet sleep but a slight increase in wakefulness also occurred, owing to brief interruptions of sleep at times when AS was expected. In adulthood, the AS-deprived rats showed a higher percentage of AS than did the controls, due to an increase in frequency and duration of AS epochs. Moreover, many of the epochs contained abnormally frequent and strong jerky body movements and rapid-eye-movements, reminiscent of neonatal AS patterns. In addition, the amplitude of hippocampal theta waves during AS was greater than in control rats. The chlorimipramine-treated rats also showed behavioral abnormalities in later life. On the open field test exploratory behavior was much reduced, while increased rearing and defecation occurred. Masculine sexual performance was severely deficient, primarily due to the low level of intromissions and ejaculations. Experimental animals performed less efficiently than controls on a temporal learning task (differential reinforcement of low response rate) and responded more rapidly on a spatial task (left-right alternation learning). These results demonstrate that early interference with the functioning of monoaminergic systems can have long-lasting physiological and behavioral consequences. Furthermore, they are consistent with the hypothesis that AS is an important factor in normal brain development.
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Curzon G. Some behavioural interactions between 5-hydroxytryptamine and dopamine. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1981; 133:563-84. [PMID: 6459008 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-3860-4_32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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