The copper hypothesis of schizophrenia: a review

The substantia nigra in the pathology of schizophrenia: A review on post-mortem and molecular imaging findings

Dysregulation of striatal dopamine is considered to be an important driver of pathophysiological processes in schizophrenia. Despite being one of the main origins of dopaminergic input to the striatum, the (dys)functioning of the substantia nigra (SN) has been relatively understudied in schizophrenia. Hence, this paper aims to review different molecular aspects of nigral functioning in patients with schizophrenia compared to healthy controls by integrating post-mortem and molecular imaging studies. We found evidence for hyperdopaminergic functioning in the SN of patients with schizophrenia (i.e. increased AADC activity in antipsychotic-free/-naïve patients and elevated neuromelanin accumulation). Reduced GABAergic inhibition (i.e. decreased density of GABAergic synapses, lower VGAT mRNA levels and lower mRNA levels for GABA_A receptor subunits), excessive glutamatergic excitation (i.e. increased NR1 and Glur5 mRNA levels and a reduced number of astrocytes), and several other disturbances implicating the SN (i.e. immune functioning and copper concentrations) could potentially underlie this nigral hyperactivity and associated striatal hyperdopaminergic functioning in schizophrenia. These results highlight the importance of the SN in schizophrenia pathology and suggest that some aspects of molecular functioning in the SN could potentially be used as treatment targets or biomarkers.

N-acetyl-cysteine in Schizophrenia: Potential Role on the Sensitive Cysteine Proteome

BACKGROUND

N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) has shown widespread utility in different psychiatric disorders, including a beneficial role in schizophrenic patients. Although the replenishment of glutathione and the antioxidant activity of NAC have been suggested as the mechanisms that improve such a wide range of disorders, none seems to be sufficiently specific to explain these intriguing effects. A sensitive cysteine proteome is emerging as a functional and structural network of interconnected Sensitive Cysteine-containing Proteins (SCCPs) that together with reactive species and the cysteine/ glutathione cycles can regulate the bioenergetic metabolism, the redox homeostasis and the cellular growth, differentiation and survival, acting through different pathways that are regulated by the same thiol radical in cysteine residues.

OBJECTIVE

Since this sensitive cysteine network has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, I have reviewed if the proteins that play a role in schizophrenia can be classified as SCCPs.

RESULTS

The results show that the principal proteins playing a role in schizophrenia can be classified as SCCPs, suggesting that the sensitive cysteine proteome (cysteinet) is defective in this type of psychosis.

CONCLUSION

The present review proposes that there is a deregulation of the sensitive cysteine proteome in schizophrenia as the consequence of a functional imbalance among different SCCPs, which play different functions in neurons and glial cells. In this context, the role of NAC to restore and prevent schizophrenic disorders is discussed.

Beyond the Mind-Serum Trace Element Levels in Schizophrenic Patients: A Systematic Review

The alterations in serum trace element levels are common phenomena observed in patients with different psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, or major depressive disorder. The fluctuations in the trace element concentrations might act as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of many psychiatric and neurological disorders. This paper aimed to assess the alterations in serum trace element concentrations in patients with a diagnosed schizophrenia. The authors made a systematic review, extracting papers from the PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Among 5009 articles identified through database searching, 59 of them were assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, 33 articles were included in the qualitative synthesis. This review includes the analysis of serum levels of the following trace elements: iron, nickel, molybdenum, phosphorus, lead, chromium, antimony, uranium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, copper, selenium, calcium, and manganese. Currently, there is no consistency regarding serum trace element levels in schizophrenic patients. Thus, it cannot be considered as a reliable prognostic or diagnostic marker of schizophrenia. However, it can be assumed that altered concentrations of those elements are crucial regarding the onset and exaggeration of either psychotic or negative symptoms or cognitive dysfunctions.

Trace elements in schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 39 studies (N = 5151 participants)

Context

The pathogenesis of schizophrenia appears to be multifaceted.

Objective

The aim of this meta-analysis of studies that investigated blood and hair concentrations of trace elements in people diagnosed with schizophrenia was to determine whether levels of trace elements in patients with schizophrenia differ from those in healthy individuals.

Data Sources

The PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched to January 2018.

Study Selection

Studies that compared concentrations of trace elements in patients with schizophrenia with those in healthy controls, in patients with schizophrenia under different treatment regimens, or in patients with schizophrenia at different stages of disease were included.

Data Extraction

Data on study and sample characteristics and measures of trace elements were extracted.

Results

Thirty-nine studies with a total of 5151 participants were included. Meta-analysis of combined plasma and serum data showed higher levels of copper, lower levels of iron, and lower levels of zinc among patients with schizophrenia vs controls without schizophrenia. Subgroup analyses confirmed the following: higher levels of copper in plasma, in users of typical antipsychotic drugs, and in males; lower levels of zinc in serum, in patients in Asia, in drug-naive/drug-free patients, and in inpatients; lower levels of iron in serum, in patients in Asia, in drug-naive/drug-free patients, in patients on antipsychotic drugs, in inpatients, in patients with acute or newly diagnosed schizophrenia, in patients with chronic or previously diagnosed schizophrenia, and in males; and lower levels of manganese in plasma and in patients with chronic or previously diagnosed schizophrenia.

Conclusions

This meta-analysis provides evidence of an excess of copper, along with deficiencies of zinc, iron, and manganese, in patients with schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia-risk and urban birth are associated with proteomic changes in neonatal dried blood spots

In the present study, we tested whether there were proteomic differences in blood between schizophrenia patients after the initial onset of the disorder and controls; and whether those differences were also present at birth among neonates who later developed schizophrenia compared to those without a psychiatric admission. We used multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry to quantify 77 proteins (147 peptides) in serum samples from 60 first-onset drug-naive schizophrenia patients and 77 controls, and 96 proteins (152 peptides) in 892 newborn blood-spot (NBS) samples collected between 1975 and 1985. Both serum and NBS studies showed significant alterations in protein levels. Serum results revealed that Haptoglobin and Plasma protease C1 inhibitor were significantly upregulated in first-onset schizophrenia patients (corrected P < 0.05). Alpha-2-antiplasmin, Complement C4-A and Antithrombin-III were increased in first-onset schizophrenia patients (uncorrected P-values 0.041, 0.036 and 0.013, respectively) and also increased in newborn babies who later develop schizophrenia (P-values 0.0058, 0.013 and 0.044, respectively). We also tested whether protein abundance at birth was associated with exposure to an urban environment during pregnancy and found highly significant proteomic differences at birth between urban and rural environments. The prediction model for urbanicity had excellent predictive performance in both discovery (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) = 0.90) and validation (AUC = 0.89) sample sets. We hope that future biomarker studies based on stored NBS samples will identify prognostic disease indicators and targets for preventive measures for neurodevelopmental conditions, particularly those with onset during early childhood, such as autism spectrum disorder.

Misidentification of Wilson Disease as Schizophrenia (1998-2013): Case Report and Review

Wilson's disease (WD) is a neurodegenerative disorder due to copper metabolism. Schizophrenia-like psychosis and delusional disorder are rare forms of psychiatric manifestations of WD. The lack of recognition of these signs and symptoms as being attributable to WD often leads to delays in diagnosis and management. Knowledge about relationship of the psychiatric manifestations to WD can help with the administration of adequate management aimed at both the psychiatric issues and underlying WD. The objectives of this article are to review case reports whose subject is the incorrect diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like syndrome in patients with WD and to detail one case of this mismanagement of the disease. A 35-year-old unmarried Iranian woman presented to the consulting psychiatrist in the emergency room after a suicide attempt due to commanding auditory hallucination. She had previous eleven admissions in psychiatric hospital with major depressive episode with psychotic features, schizoaffective disorders, and then schizophrenia diagnosis. Nineteen years after her first symptoms, it was discovered that the patient was suffering from WD. We searched Google Scholar, Ovid, PsycINFO, CINHAL, and PubMed databases from 1985 to 2015. Finally, 14 researches were entered into the study. Psychiatric manifestations may precede the diagnosis of WD and other symptoms related to neurological or hepatic impairment. Early detection of WD is important to prevent catastrophic outcome. Young patients presenting with psychiatric presentations along with abnormal movement disorder, seizure, or conversion-like symptoms should be evaluate for WD even if signs and symptoms are typically suggestive of schizophrenia or manic episode. An interdisciplinary approach with good collaboration of psychiatrists and neurologists is crucial for WD because early diagnosis and management without delay is an important for good prognosis.

Neuronal copper homeostasis susceptibility by genetic defects in dysbindin, a schizophrenia susceptibility factor

Environmental factors and susceptible genomes interact to determine the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders. Although few genes and environmental factors have been linked, the intervening cellular and molecular mechanisms connecting a disorder susceptibility gene with environmental factors remain mostly unexplored. Here we focus on the schizophrenia susceptibility gene DTNBP1 and its product dysbindin, a subunit of the BLOC-1 complex, and describe a neuronal pathway modulating copper metabolism via ATP7A. Mutations in ATP7A result in Menkes disease, a disorder of copper metabolism. Dysbindin/BLOC-1 and ATP7A genetically and biochemically interact. Furthermore, disruption of this pathway causes alteration in the transcriptional profile of copper-regulatory and dependent factors in the hippocampus of dysbindin/BLOC-1-null mice. Dysbindin/BLOC-1 loss-of-function alleles do not affect cell and tissue copper content, yet they alter the susceptibility to toxic copper challenges in both mammalian cells and Drosophila. Our results demonstrate that perturbations downstream of the schizophrenia susceptibility gene DTNBP1 confer susceptibility to copper, a metal that in excess is a neurotoxin and whose depletion constitutes a micronutrient deficiency.

Toxicity, Deficiency and Dysmetabolism of Trace Elements in Ghanaian Clinically Stable Schizophrenics

AIM: The purpose of the study was to determine the levels of Copper (Cu), selenium (Se), Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb) and Lithium (Li) in patients in Accra and Pantang Psychiatric Hospitals in Ghana since no data exist.SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Simple random sampling of age-matched subjects was used to recruit 81 schizophrenics and 25 mentally healthy controls in 2012. Serum levels of Cu, Se, Zn, Pb and Li were determined by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS). RESULTS: Mean levels were as follows: Cut 766 ± 250 µg/L and Cuc 855 ± 270 µg/L (p = 0.168). Set 149 ± 72 µg/L and Sec 108 ± 61 µg/L (p=0.009). Znt 702 ± 438 µg/L and Znc 1007 ± 593 µg/L (p = 0.028). Pbt 1.38 ± 0.05 µg/L and Pbc 0.10 ± 0.05 µg/L (p = 0.000). Li levels for the test group (Lit) was 4077 ± 2567 µg/L, whiles that of the controls was undetectable < 0.02 µg/L. Se, Pb and Li levels were significantly higher in schizophrenic patients compared to controls. While Zn and Cu levels were lower in the same group.CONCLUSION: Trace elements dysmetabolism exist among Ghanaian schizophrenics and monitoring is essential to avoid the adverse effects of metal overload or deficiency.

Psychiatric aspects of Wilson disease: a review

OBJECTIVE

To review the current evidence about psychiatric symptoms in Wilson's disease (WD).

METHOD

We searched Ovid, PsychInfo, CINHAL and PubMed databases from May 1946 to May 2012 using the key words Wilson('s) disease in combination with psychiatry, psychiatric, psychosis, schizophrenia, depression, mania, bipolar, mood, anxiety, personality and behavior.

RESULTS

Psychiatric symptoms occur before, concurrent with or after the diagnosis and treatment for WD. Thirty to forty percent of patients have psychiatric manifestations at the time of diagnosis, and 20% had seen a psychiatrist prior to their WD diagnosis. When psychiatric symptoms preceded neurological or hepatic involvement, the average time between the psychiatric symptoms and the diagnosis of WD was 864.3 days. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in WD patients varies wildly (major depressive disorder, 4-47%; psychosis, 1.4-11.3%). Certain gene mutations of ATP7B may correlate with specific personality traits.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychiatric manifestations represent a significant part of the clinical presentation of WD and can present at any point in the course of the illness. Psychiatric manifestations occurring without overt hepatic or neurologic involvement may lead to misdiagnosis. A better understanding of the psychiatric presentations in WD may provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of psychiatric disorders.

Selenium, zinc, and copper plasma levels in patients with schizophrenia: relationship with metabolic risk factors

The aim of this study was to determine the plasma selenium (Se), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) levels and to evaluate their possible association with metabolic syndrome (MetS) components in patients with schizophrenia. The study group consisted of 60 patients with schizophrenia and 60 sex- and age-matched healthy controls. Anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, and biochemical analysis of fasting blood were performed in all subjects. Patients with schizophrenia had significantly higher plasma Cu concentrations compared with controls (0.97 ± 0.31 vs. 0.77 ± 0.32 mg/L, p = 0.001). The plasma Cu concentration showed a positive correlation with plasma glucose and diastolic blood pressure in the patient groups (r s = 0.263, p < 0.05 and r s = 0.272, p < 0.05, respectively). The plasma Se level correlated positive with MetS score (r s = 0.385, p < 0.01), waist circumference (r s = 0.344, p < 0.05), plasma glucose (r s = 0.319, p < 0.05), and triglyceride concentrations (r s = 0.462, p < 0.001) in patients with schizophrenia. Plasma Zn did not correlate with any of the MetS components. These results suggest that alterations in plasma Cu and Se levels in medicated patients with schizophrenia could be associated with metabolic risk factors.

Cuprizone short-term exposure: astrocytic IL-6 activation and behavioral changes relevant to psychosis

A growing body of evidence suggests the involvement of inflammatory processes in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Four- to 8-week exposure to cuprizone, a copper chelator, causes robust demyelination and has been used to build a model for multiple sclerosis. In contrast, we report here the effects of 1-week cuprizone exposure in mice. This short-term cuprizone exposure elicits behavioral changes that include augmented responsiveness to methamphetamine and phencyclidine, as well as impaired working memory. The cellular effects of 1-week cuprizone exposure differ substantially from the longer-term exposure; perturbation of astrocytes and microglia is induced without any sign of demyelination. Furthermore, the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 was significantly up-regulated in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive cells. We propose that this cuprizone short-term exposure may offer a model to study some aspects of biology relevant to schizophrenia and related conditions.

A new mouse model for mania shares genetic correlates with human bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder (BPD) is a debilitating heritable psychiatric disorder. Contemporary rodent models for the manic pole of BPD have primarily utilized either single locus transgenics or treatment with psychostimulants. Our lab recently characterized a mouse strain termed Madison (MSN) that naturally displays a manic phenotype, exhibiting elevated locomotor activity, increased sexual behavior, and higher forced swimming relative to control strains. Lithium chloride and olanzapine treatments attenuate this phenotype. In this study, we replicated our locomotor activity experiment, showing that MSN mice display generationally-stable mania relative to their outbred ancestral strain, hsd:ICR (ICR). We then performed a gene expression microarray experiment to compare hippocampus of MSN and ICR mice. We found dysregulation of multiple transcripts whose human orthologs are associated with BPD and other psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia and ADHD, including: Epor, Smarca4, Cmklr1, Cat, Tac1, Npsr1, Fhit, and P2rx7. RT-qPCR confirmed dysregulation for all of seven transcripts tested. Using a novel genome enrichment algorithm, we found enrichment in genome regions homologous to human loci implicated in BPD in replicated linkage studies including homologs of human cytobands 1p36, 3p14, 3q29, 6p21–22, 12q24, 16q24, and 17q25. Using a functional network analysis, we found dysregulation of a gene system related to chromatin packaging, a result convergent with recent human findings on BPD. Our findings suggest that MSN mice represent a polygenic model for the manic pole of BPD showing much of the genetic systems complexity of the corresponding human disorder. Further, the high degree of convergence between our findings and the human literature on BPD brings up novel questions about evolution by analogy in mammalian genomes.

High ceruloplasmin levels are associated with obsessive compulsive disorder: a case control study

Background

Alterations in ceruloplasmin are currently assumed as one of the mechanisms underlying the development of a number of neurodegenerative disorders. Several studies indicate that elevated serum ceruloplasmin levels may play a role in schizophrenia by exacerbating or perpetuating dopaminergic dysregulation. No study investigating the relationship between ceruloplasmin and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has been published to date. Nowadays OCD is increasingly speculated to be a different disorder than other anxiety disorders, and rather is considered to be more similar to psychotic disorders. The objective of this study to explore whether there is an association of ceruloplasmin with OCD as in schizophrenia.

Method

26 pure OCD and 9 co-morbid OCD patients from Gaziantep University Sahinbey Research Hospital, Psychiatry Clinics, diagnosed according to the DSM IV and 40 healthy controls were included in the study. Blood samples were collected; ceruloplasmin levels were measured.

Results

The mean ceruloplasmin level in pure OCD patients, co-morbid OCD patients, and control group persons were 544.46 ± 26.53, 424.43 ± 31.50 and 222.35 ± 8.88 U/L respectively. Results of all 3 groups differ significantly. Positive predictive value of ceruloplasmin for that cut-off point is 31/31 (100%) and negative predictive value is 40/44 (91%) in our group.

Conclusion

Although the nature of relationship is not clear there was an association between ceruloplasmin levels and OCD in our study.

The mineral depletion of foods available to us as a nation (1940-2002)--a review of the 6th Edition of McCance and Widdowson

Over the past 60 years there have been fundamental changes in the quality and quantity of food available to us as a nation. The character, growing method, preparation, source and ultimate presentation of basic staples have changed significantly to the extent that trace elements and micronutrient contents have been severely depleted. This trend, established in a review of the 5th Edition of McCance & Widdowson's The Composition of Foods, is still apparent in this review of the 6th edition of the same work. Concurrently there has been a precipitous change towards convenience and pre-prepared foods containing saturated fats, highly processed meats and refined carbohydrates, often devoid of vital micronutrients yet packed with a cocktail of chemical additives including colourings, flavourings and preservatives. It is proposed that these changes are significant contributors to rising levels of diet-induced ill health. Ongoing research clearly demonstrates a significant relationship between deficiencies in micronutrients and physical and mental ill health.

Plasma copper, iron, ceruloplasmin and ferroxidase activity in schizophrenia

As ceruloplasmin and copper abnormalities have been implicated in schizophrenia, we investigated the role of a second copper-containing non-ceruloplasmin protein, the iron oxidase ferroxidase II, in a prospective study of ten inpatients with schizophrenia and a comparison group. Ferroxidase II is a protein known to reciprocally regulate with ceruloplasmin in Wilson's disease, an illness characterized by psychotic symptoms, decreased ceruloplasmin, and increased copper deposition in tissues. Ferroxidase II plays a key role in the maintenance of near-normal iron metabolism in Wilson's disease, but its role in schizophrenia has never been studied. In this study, we assayed ceruloplasmin by two enzymatic assays, a standard clinical laboratory p-phenylenediamine oxidation assay and a second assay based on the rate of the oxidation and incorporation of iron (Fe3+) into transferrin; we assayed ferroxidase II activity using this second iron oxidation assay. We found that ceruloplasmin levels as measured by both enzymatic methods, but not ferroxidase II, were elevated in schizophrenia. The increased ceruloplasmin also correlated with elevated serum copper as assayed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, which was unsurprising as the majority of copper in blood is bound to ceruloplasmin. It has been proposed that copper, as a component of several enzymes linked to dopamine synthesis, may play a role in schizophrenia by exacerbating or perpetuating dopaminergic dysregulation. Our study suggests that the ceruloplasmin elevation in schizophrenia is specific, and not simply an elevation of plasma copper-containing oxidative enzymes. Increases in ceruloplasmin may result in increased levels of copper, which ultimately proves deleterious in schizophrenia.

Copper in Developmental Stuttering

It has previously been reported that men with developmental stuttering showed reduced concentration of copper in the blood, and a negative correlation between the copper level and the severity of stuttering. Disorders of copper metabolism may result in dysfunction of the basal ganglia system and dystonia, a motor disorder sharing some traits of stuttering. It has been shown that copper ions affect the dopamine and the GABA systems. With this background we investigated the plasma level of copper, the copper binding protein ceruloplasmin, and the estimated level of free copper in stuttering adults. Sixteen men with developmental stuttering were compared with 16 men without speech problems. The samples were assayed in one batch in a pseudorandom and counterbalanced order. No significant differences were found between stuttering men and the control group in any of the biological variables, and no negative correlation between copper and the general severity of stuttering was shown. On the contrary, an explorative analysis resulted in a positive correlation between high plasma copper and superfluous muscular activity during stuttering (r=0.51, p=0.04). This result indicates that there is no relation between developmental stuttering and low plasma copper in the main population of stuttering adults.

Copper in disorders with neurological symptoms: Alzheimer's, Menkes, and Wilson diseases

Copper is an essential element for the activity of a number of physiologically important enzymes. Enzyme-related malfunctions may contribute to severe neurological symptoms and neurological diseases: copper is a component of cytochrome c oxidase, which catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to water, the essential step in cellular respiration. Copper is a cofactor of Cu/Zn-superoxide-dismutase which plays a key role in the cellular response to oxidative stress by scavenging reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, copper is a constituent of dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, a critical enzyme in the catecholamine biosynthetic pathway. A detailed exploration of the biological importance and functional properties of proteins associated with neurological symptoms will have an important impact on understanding disease mechanisms and may accelerate development and testing of new therapeutic approaches. Copper binding proteins play important roles in the establishment and maintenance of metal-ion homeostasis, in deficiency disorders with neurological symptoms (Menkes disease, Wilson disease) and in neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's disease). The Menkes and Wilson proteins have been characterized as copper transporters and the amyloid precursor protein (APP) of Alzheimer's disease has been proposed to work as a Cu(II) and/or Zn(II) transporter. Experimental, clinical and epidemiological observations in neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease and in the genetically inherited copper-dependent disorders Menkes and Wilson disease are summarized. This could provide a rationale for a link between severely dysregulated metal-ion homeostasis and the selective neuronal pathology.

Free radical mechanisms in schizophrenia and tardive dyskinesia

The present article discusses the distribution of free radical processes in the central nervous system (CNS). Specifically, we discuss the involvement of oxyradicals in the normal metabolism of catecholamine. We also review some proposals related to the possible importance of these compounds in the development of neuropsychiatric and movement disorders such as schizophrenia and neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia (TD), respectively. Clinical studies have shown that antioxidant treatment can attenuate the movement abnormalities observed in TD. Further studies are necessary to evaluate the status of specific scavenging systems in these two disorders. The prophylactic use of antioxidants in patients who are treated with neuroleptics needs also to be considered.

Iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, and calcium in postmortem brain tissue from schizophrenic patients

The regional distribution of iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, and calcium in postmortem brain of schizophrenic patients was compared with that of matched controls. In none of the brain regions investigated (caudate nucleus, hippocampus, amygdala, cortex, corpus mamillare, gyrus cinguli, and hypothalamus) were significant differences observed between these two groups. In the total group, region-specific differences were found for iron, copper, zinc, and calcium, but not for magnesium. Gender differences were observed only for zinc. There was no correlation between a neuroleptic-free period before death and the content of any of the metals investigated, except for a positive correlation between copper in the hippocampus and a neuroleptic-free period. The results of the present study suggest that there are no profound differences in the content of iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, and calcium in postmortem brains between controls and schizophrenic patients.

Geopsychology and geopsychopathology: mental processes and disorders associated with geochemical and geophysical factors

Temporal and regional variations in psychological processes have been associated with three geological factors. They are geochemical profiles, geomagnetic variations, and tectonic stresses. In the geochemical domain, copper, aluminum, zinc, and lithium may influence the incidence of thought disorders such as schizophrenia and senile dementia. These common elements are found in many soils and ground water. Geomagnetic variations have been correlated with enhanced anxiety, sleep disturbances, altered moods, and greater incidences of psychiatric admissions. The effects are usually brief but pervasive. Transient and very local epidemics of bizarre and unusual behaviors are sociological phenomena that sometimes precede increases in earthquake activity within a region; they have been hypothesized to be associated with tectonic strain. Many of the contemporary correlations between geological factors and human behavior are also apparent within historical data. The effects of geophysical and geochemical factors upon human behavior are not artifactual, but they are complex and often not detected by the limited scope of most studies.

On the physiological role of neurocuprein: aponeurocuprein is an inhibitor of dopamine beta-monooxygenase

The apoform of neurocuprein, the copper protein from brain and chromaffin granules, was found to be a potent inhibitor of the hydroxylating activity of dopamine beta-monooxygenase, whereas the holoform of neurocuprein has no effect on the activity of the enzyme. The inhibiting capacity of neurocuprein may be due to the property of the apoprotein to chelate copper from the enzyme. A role of neurocuprein as an endogenous protein regulator of dopamine beta-monooxygenase is suggested.

Effects of copper on dopaminergic function in the rat corpus striatum

Copper-loading was produced in rats by administration of 0.125% CuSO4 in the drinking water for a period of 11 months from weaning. At conclusion of the treatment the animals had significant increases in liver (552%) and brain (26%) copper content relative to age-matched controls. Whereas the concentration of dopamine was unaffected, the concentration of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid in the corpus striatum was found to be lower (25% decrease) in the copper-treated group. Saturation studies of the striatal D-2 dopamine receptors using [3H]spiperone indicated that in copper-loaded animals the affinity was significantly increased threefold, whereas there was a trend for the number of receptors to decrease. When included in the radioligand binding assay, copper salts (Cu2+) inhibited specific [3H]spiperone binding to untreated corpora striata. The inhibition produced by copper was competitive with a significant decrease in affinity, the 50% effective concentration of Cu2+ was 21 to 24 microM, and the potency of dopamine agonists was also decreased. These results are discussed in relation to the mechanism by which copper affects dopaminergic function and to the use of copper-loaded rats as a model of Wilson's disease.