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Meneses CCB, Diogenes A, Sipert CR. Endocannabinoids modulate production of osteoclastogenic factors by stem cells of the apical papilla in vitro. J Endod 2022; 48:1511-1516. [PMID: 36174776 DOI: 10.1016/j.joen.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Many mediators are produced during pulp inflammation and necrosis, including endocannabinoids (ECbs), which might affect the function of stem cells of the apical papilla (SCAP), cells of paramount importance for root formation and regenerative endodontic treatment (RET). The aim of this study was to evaluate the production of osteoclastogenesis-related mediators by SCAP, modulated by ECbs and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in vitro. METHODS SCAP were cultured and treated with ECbs anandamide (AEA), 2-A arachidonoylglycerol or N-arachidonoylaminophenol (AM404). All groups were incubated in the presence of vehicle or LPS and the antagonist of transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV-1), capsazepine (CPZ). After 24 h, the culture medium supernatants were collected for further quantification of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, CCL2, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), osteoprotegerin (OPG), and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL). RESULTS Small amounts of TNF-α and RANKL were detected in SCAP supernatants, and none of the experimental conditions altered their production. A downregulation in constitutive CCL2 production was observed in the AEA group compared to that in the LPS group. The production of M-CSF was significantly increased in all groups treated with AEA compared to the control and LPS-treated groups. OPG was significantly increased by AEA alone and by 2AG and AM404 in presence of LPS and CPZ. CONCLUSIONS AEA modulate some of the osteoclastogenic factors produced by SCAP in a bone resorption-protective fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C B Meneses
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - A Diogenes
- Department of Endodontics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
| | - C R Sipert
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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2
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The immunosuppressive effect of the endocannabinoid system on the inflammatory phenotypes of macrophages and mesenchymal stromal cells: a comparative study. Pharmacol Rep 2020; 73:143-153. [PMID: 33026642 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-020-00166-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The inflammatory sequence is the first phase of wound healing. Macrophages (MPhs) and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) respond to an inflammatory microenvironment by adapting their functional activity, which polarizes them into the pro-inflammatory phenotypes M1 and MSC1. Prolongation of the inflammatory phase results in the formation of chronic wounds. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) possesses immunomodulatory properties that may impede this cellular phenotypic switch. METHODS We investigated the immunosuppressive influence of the endocannabinoids anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) on the M1 and MSC1 cytokine secretion. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) were used as inflammagen to stimulate MPhs and MSCs. Both inflammatory phenotypes were co-exposed to AEA or 2-AG, the specific cannabinoid receptor CB2 agonist JWH-133 served as reference. The inflammatory responses were detected by CD80/163 immuno-labelling and by ELISA measures of secreted IL-6, IL-8, MIF, TNF-α, TGF-β, and VEGF. RESULTS M1 cells were found positive for CD80 expression and secreted less IL-6 and IL-8 than MSC1 cells, while both cell types produced similar amounts of MIF. TNF-α release was increased by M1, and growth factors were secreted by MSC1, only. Cannabinoid receptor ligands efficiently decreased the inflammatory response of M1, while their impact was less pronounced in MSC1. CONCLUSIONS The ECS down-regulated the inflammatory responses of MPhs and MSCs by decreasing the cytokine release upon LPS treatment, while CB2 appeared to be of particular importance. Hence, stimulating the ECS by manipulation of endo- or use of exogenous cannabinoids in vivo may constitute a potent therapeutic option against inflammatory disorders.
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3
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Willis AL, Moss A, Torok M, Lowary M, Klein JD, Wilson KM. Smoke Exposure, Cytokine Levels, and Asthma Visits in Children Hospitalized for Bronchiolitis. Hosp Pediatr 2019; 9:46-50. [PMID: 30530718 DOI: 10.1542/hpeds.2018-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE To determine if cigarette smoke exposure, marijuana smoke exposure, or cytokine levels at admission to the hospital for bronchiolitis are associated with follow-up visits for asthma. METHODS We enrolled a cohort of children aged 31 days to 2 years who were hospitalized with bronchiolitis from January 2013 to April 2014. Data included the results of a baseline survey about children's health and demographics, nasal wash samples, the results of a 6-month postdischarge follow-up survey, and a chart review. Nasal wash samples were tested for interleukin (IL)-6, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α); values were categorized for analysis. χ2, Fisher's exact, and Wilcoxon rank tests were done to test bivariable differences; all analyses were done using SAS. RESULTS We approached 180 families for enrollment; 99 consented to participate, and 74% of these completed follow-up surveys. Half of those with high levels of IL-13 had follow-up visits for asthma, whereas only 4.2% of those with low levels had follow-up visits for asthma (P = .02). Marijuana exposure was reported for 12.5% (n = 7) of study participants. There was a significant association between marijuana exposure and TNF-α levels (P = .03). CONCLUSIONS Our study revealed an association between IL-13 and follow-up visits for asthma in children who were hospitalized with bronchiolitis. We found an association between family-reported marijuana smoke exposure and detectable but lower levels of TNF-α. Further research is needed to study these relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Angela Moss
- Department of Pediatric Hospital Medicine and
- Adult and Child Center for Outcomes Research and Delivery Science, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Michelle Torok
- Department of Pediatric Hospital Medicine and
- Adult and Child Center for Outcomes Research and Delivery Science, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | | | - Jonathan D Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
- American Academy of Pediatrics Julius B Richmond Center of Excellence, Elk Grove Village, Illinois; and
| | - Karen M Wilson
- American Academy of Pediatrics Julius B Richmond Center of Excellence, Elk Grove Village, Illinois; and
- Department of Pediatrics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
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4
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Williams JC, Klein TW, Goldberger BA, Sleasman JW, Mackman N, Goodenow MM. Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) enhances lipopolysaccharide-stimulated tissue factor in human monocytes and monocyte-derived microvesicles. JOURNAL OF INFLAMMATION-LONDON 2015; 12:39. [PMID: 26085816 PMCID: PMC4469459 DOI: 10.1186/s12950-015-0084-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background Immunomodulatory effects in humans of Δ9−Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component of marijuana are controversial. Tissue factor (TF), the activator of the extrinsic coagulation cascade, is increased on circulating activated monocytes and is expressed on microvesicles released from activated monocytes during inflammatory conditions, which perpetuate coagulopathies in a number of diseases. In view of the increased medicinal use of marijuana, effects of THC on human monocytes and monocyte-derived microvesicles activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were investigated. Findings Peak levels of TF procoagulant activity developed in monocytes or microvesicles 6 h following LPS treatment and were unaltered by THC. After 24 h of LPS stimulation, TF activity declined in control-treated or untreated cells and microvesicles, but persisted with THC treatment. Peak TF protein occurred within 6 h of LPS treatment independent of THC; by 24 h, TF protein declined to almost undetectable levels without THC, but was about 4-fold greater with THC. Steady-state TF mRNA levels were similar up to 2 h in the presence of LPS with or without THC, while 10-fold greater TF mRNA levels persisted over 3–24 h with THC treatment. Activation of MAPK or NF-κB pathways was unaltered by THC treatment and inflammatory cytokine IL-6 levels were unchanged. In contrast, TNF and IL-8 levels were enhanced by 20–50 %. Conclusions THC enhances TF expression in activated monocytes resulting in elevated procoagulant activity. Marijuana use could potentiate coagulopathies in individuals with chronic immune activation such as HIV-1 infection or inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie C Williams
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32610-3663 USA
| | - Thomas W Klein
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL USA
| | - Bruce A Goldberger
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32610-3663 USA
| | - John W Sleasman
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC USA
| | - Nigel Mackman
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, McAlister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Maureen M Goodenow
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32610-3663 USA
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5
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Abstract
Marijuana is the most commonly used drug of abuse in the USA. It is commonly abused through inhalation and therefore has effects on the lung that are similar to tobacco smoke, including increased cough, sputum production, hyperinflation, and upper lobe emphysematous changes. However, at this time, it does not appear that marijuana smoke contributes to the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Marijuana can have multiple physiologic effects such as tachycardia, peripheral vasodilatation, behavioral and emotional changes, and possible prolonged cognitive impairment. The carcinogenic effects of marijuana are unclear at this time. Studies are mixed on the ability of marijuana smoke to increase the risk for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, lung cancer, prostate cancer, and cervical cancer. Some studies show that marijuana is protective for development of malignancy. Marijuana smoke has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on the immune system. Components of cannabis are under investigation as treatment for autoimmune diseases and malignancy. As marijuana becomes legalized in many states for medical and recreational use, other forms of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) have been developed, such as food products and beverages. As most research on marijuana at this time has been on whole marijuana smoke, rather than THC, it is difficult to determine if the currently available data is applicable to these newer products.
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6
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Williams JC, Appelberg S, Goldberger BA, Klein TW, Sleasman JW, Goodenow MM. Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol treatment during human monocyte differentiation reduces macrophage susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2014; 9:369-79. [PMID: 24562630 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-014-9527-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The major psychoactive component of marijuana, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), also acts to suppress inflammatory responses. Receptors for THC, CB1, CB2, and GPR55, are differentially expressed on multiple cell types including monocytes and macrophages, which are important modulators of inflammation in vivo and target cells for HIV-1 infection. Use of recreational and medicinal marijuana is increasing, but the consequences of marijuana exposure on HIV-1 infection are unclear. Ex vivo studies were designed to investigate effects on HIV-1 infection in macrophages exposed to THC during or following differentiation. THC treatment of primary human monocytes during differentiation reduced HIV-1 infection of subsequent macrophages by replication competent or single cycle CCR5 using viruses. In contrast, treatment of macrophages with THC immediately prior to or continuously following HIV-1 exposure failed to alter infection. Specific receptor agonists indicated that the THC effect during monocyte differentiation was mediated primarily through CB2. THC reduced the number of p24 positive cells with little to no effect on virus production per infected cell, while quantitation of intracellular viral gag pinpointed the THC effect to an early event in the viral life cycle. Cells treated during differentiation with THC displayed reduced expression of CD14, CD16, and CD163 and donor dependent increases in mRNA expression of selected viral restriction factors, suggesting a fundamental alteration in phenotype. Ultimately, the mechanism of THC suppression of HIV-1 infection was traced to a reduction in cell surface HIV receptor (CD4, CCR5 and CXCR4) expression that diminished entry efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie C Williams
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, Campus Box 103633, Gainesville, FL, 32610-3663, USA
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Kurabayashi M, Takeyoshi I, Yoshinari D, Matsumoto K, Maruyama I, Morishita Y. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol Increases in Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury of the Rat Liver. J INVEST SURG 2009; 18:25-31. [PMID: 15804949 DOI: 10.1080/08941930590905189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have implicated endocannabinoids in various forms of shock. However, the role of endocannabinoids in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes of two endocannabinoidsin hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury: anandamide (ANA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 2 groups: the short (15 min) ischemic group and the long (60 min)ischemic group in the segmental (70%) hepatic tissue. Blood levels of aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), ANA, and 2-AG were examined. Serum lev-els of AST, ALT, and LDH were significantly higher in the long-ischemia group than in the short-ischemia group. Plasma levels of 2-AG showed similar augmentation prior to and after reperfusion in both the short- and long-ischemia groups, although plasma 2-AG lev-els tended to be higher in the long-ischemia group than in the short-ischemia group. Plasma levels of ANA were augmented in the early phase of reperfusion in the short-ischemia group and did not differ significantly from the normal level with time after reperfusion in the long-ischemia group. These results suggest that the endocannabinoid 2-AG increases in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury of rats, rather than ANA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Kurabayashi
- Second Department of Surgery, Gunma University School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
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8
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Cabral GA, Griffin-Thomas L. Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents for ablating neuroinflammatory disease. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets 2008; 8:159-72. [PMID: 18782012 PMCID: PMC2750822 DOI: 10.2174/187153008785700118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoids have been reported to alter the activities of immune cells in vitro and in vivo. These compounds may serve as ideal agents for adjunct treatment of pathological processes that have a neuroinflammatory component. As highly lipophilic molecules, they readily access the brain. Furthermore, they have relatively low toxicity and can be engineered to selectively target cannabinoid receptors. To date, two cannabinoid receptors have been identified, characterized and designated CB(1) and CB(2). CB(1) appears to be constitutively expressed within the CNS while CB(2) apparently is induced during inflammation. The inducible nature of expression of CB(2) extends to microglia, the resident macrophages of the brain that play a critical role during early stages of inflammation in that compartment. Thus, the cannabinoid-cannabinoid receptor system may prove therapeutically manageable in ablating neuropathogenic disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, HIV encephalitis, closed head injury, and granulomatous amebic encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Cabral
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, 1101 E. Marshall Street, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0678 USA.
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9
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Raborn ES, Marciano-Cabral F, Buckley NE, Martin BR, Cabral GA. The cannabinoid delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol mediates inhibition of macrophage chemotaxis to RANTES/CCL5: linkage to the CB2 receptor. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2008; 3:117-29. [PMID: 18247131 PMCID: PMC2677557 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-007-9077-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The chemotactic response of murine peritoneal macrophages to RANTES/CCL5 was inhibited significantly following pretreatment with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoactive component in marijuana. Significant inhibition of this chemokine directed migratory response was obtained also when the full cannabinoid agonist CP55940 was used. The CB2 receptor-selective ligand O-2137 exerted a robust inhibition of chemotaxis while the CB1 receptor-selective ligand ACEA had a minimal effect. The THC-mediated inhibition was reversed by the CB2 receptor-specific antagonist SR144528 but not by the CB1 receptor-specific antagonist SR141716A. In addition, THC treatment had a minimal effect on the chemotactic response of peritoneal macrophages from CB2 knockout mice. Collectively, these results suggest that cannabinoids act through the CB2 receptor to transdeactivate migratory responsiveness to RANTES/CCL5. Furthermore, the results suggest that the CB2 receptor may be a constituent element of a network of G protein-coupled receptor signal transductional systems, inclusive of chemokine receptors, that act coordinately to modulate macrophage migration.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arachidonic Acids/pharmacology
- Camphanes/pharmacology
- Chemokine CCL5/antagonists & inhibitors
- Chemotaxis/drug effects
- Chemotaxis/physiology
- Cyclohexanols/pharmacology
- Dronabinol/pharmacology
- Female
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/drug effects
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/physiology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Piperidines/pharmacology
- Pyrazoles/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/physiology
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/deficiency
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/physiology
- Receptors, CCR1/biosynthesis
- Receptors, CCR1/genetics
- Receptors, CCR5/biosynthesis
- Receptors, CCR5/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/physiology
- Rimonabant
- Signal Transduction/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Erinn S. Raborn
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology and Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298
| | - Francine Marciano-Cabral
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology and Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298
| | - Nancy E. Buckley
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768
| | - Billy R. Martin
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology and Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298
| | - Guy A. Cabral
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology and Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298
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10
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Pacher P, Bátkai S, Kunos G. The endocannabinoid system as an emerging target of pharmacotherapy. Pharmacol Rev 2006; 58:389-462. [PMID: 16968947 PMCID: PMC2241751 DOI: 10.1124/pr.58.3.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1458] [Impact Index Per Article: 81.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent identification of cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous lipid ligands has triggered an exponential growth of studies exploring the endocannabinoid system and its regulatory functions in health and disease. Such studies have been greatly facilitated by the introduction of selective cannabinoid receptor antagonists and inhibitors of endocannabinoid metabolism and transport, as well as mice deficient in cannabinoid receptors or the endocannabinoid-degrading enzyme fatty acid amidohydrolase. In the past decade, the endocannabinoid system has been implicated in a growing number of physiological functions, both in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in peripheral organs. More importantly, modulating the activity of the endocannabinoid system turned out to hold therapeutic promise in a wide range of disparate diseases and pathological conditions, ranging from mood and anxiety disorders, movement disorders such as Parkinson's and Huntington's disease, neuropathic pain, multiple sclerosis and spinal cord injury, to cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, stroke, hypertension, glaucoma, obesity/metabolic syndrome, and osteoporosis, to name just a few. An impediment to the development of cannabinoid medications has been the socially unacceptable psychoactive properties of plant-derived or synthetic agonists, mediated by CB(1) receptors. However, this problem does not arise when the therapeutic aim is achieved by treatment with a CB(1) receptor antagonist, such as in obesity, and may also be absent when the action of endocannabinoids is enhanced indirectly through blocking their metabolism or transport. The use of selective CB(2) receptor agonists, which lack psychoactive properties, could represent another promising avenue for certain conditions. The abuse potential of plant-derived cannabinoids may also be limited through the use of preparations with controlled composition and the careful selection of dose and route of administration. The growing number of preclinical studies and clinical trials with compounds that modulate the endocannabinoid system will probably result in novel therapeutic approaches in a number of diseases for which current treatments do not fully address the patients' need. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview on the current state of knowledge of the endocannabinoid system as a target of pharmacotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pál Pacher
- Laboratory of Physiological Studies, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, 5625 Fishers Lane, Room 2S-24, Bethesda, MD 20892-9413, USA
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11
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Abstract
Marijuana and other exogenous cannabinoids alter immune function and decrease host resistance to microbial infections in experimental animal models and in vitro. Two modes of action by which delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids affect immune responses have been proposed. First, cannabinoids may signal through the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2. Second, at sites of direct exposure to high concentrations of cannabinoids, such as the lung, membrane perturbation may be involved. In addition, endogenous cannabinoids or endocannabinoids have been identified and have been proposed as native modulators of immune functions through cannabinoid receptors. Exogenously introduced cannabinoids may disturb this homoeostatic immune balance. A mode by which cannabinoids may affect immune responses and host resistance maybe by perturbing the balance of T helper (Th)1 pro-inflammatory versus Th2 anti-inflammatory cytokines. While marijuana and various cannabinoids have been documented to alter immune functions in vitro and in experimental animals, no controlled longitudinal epidemiological studies have yet definitively correlated immunosuppressive effects with increased incidence of infections or immune disorders in humans. However, cannabinoids by virtue of their immunomodulatory properties have the potential to serve as therapeutic agents for ablation of untoward immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Cabral
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, 1101 E. Marshall St., Richmond, VA 23298-0678, USA.
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12
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Croxford JL, Yamamura T. Cannabinoids and the immune system: potential for the treatment of inflammatory diseases? J Neuroimmunol 2005; 166:3-18. [PMID: 16023222 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2005.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2005] [Revised: 04/04/2005] [Accepted: 04/06/2005] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of the cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands, significant advances have been made in studying the physiological function of the endocannabinoid system. The presence of cannabinoid receptors on cells of the immune system and anecdotal and historical evidence suggesting that cannabis use has potent immuno-modulatory effects, has led to research directed at understanding the function and role of these receptors within the context of immunological cellular function. Studies from chronic cannabis smokers have provided much of the evidence for immunomodulatory effects of cannabis in humans, and animal and in vitro studies of immune cells such as T cells and macrophages have also provided important evidence. Cannabinoids can modulate both the function and secretion of cytokines from immune cells. Therefore, cannabinoids may be considered for treatment of inflammatory disease. This review article will highlight recent research on cannabinoids and how they interact with the immune system and also their potential use as therapeutic agents for a number of inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ludovic Croxford
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.
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13
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Kapadia F, Vlahov D, Donahoe RM, Friedland G. The role of substance abuse in HIV disease progression: reconciling differences from laboratory and epidemiologic investigations. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41:1027-34. [PMID: 16142670 DOI: 10.1086/433175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2005] [Accepted: 06/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
From the onset of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the use of licit and illicit drugs has been investigated for its potential impact on HIV disease progression. Findings from a large number of laboratory-based studies indicate that drug abuse may exacerbate HIV disease progression; however, epidemiological studies have shown mixed results. This article presents a review of findings from both laboratory-based and epidemiologic investigations. In addition, we provide a careful evaluation of methodological strengths and limitations inherent to both study designs in order to provide a more nuanced understanding of how these findings may complement one another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farzana Kapadia
- Center for Urban Epidemiologic Studies, New York Academy of Medicine, New York 10029, USA.
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14
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Chuchawankul S, Shima M, Buckley NE, Hartmann CB, McCoy KL. Role of cannabinoid receptors in inhibiting macrophage costimulatory activity. Int Immunopharmacol 2004; 4:265-78. [PMID: 14996418 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2003.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2003] [Revised: 04/23/2003] [Accepted: 12/16/2003] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) inhibits several immunologic functions of macrophages. THC's impact on peritoneal macrophages to deliver costimulatory signals to a helper T cell hybridoma was investigated by T cell interleukin-2 production stimulated with immobilized anti-CD3 antibody. The drug's inhibition of costimulatory activity depended on the macrophages. THC decreased costimulation provided by peritoneal cells elicited with polystyrene beads and thioglycollate, but the drug had no influence with macrophages elicited with thioglycollate alone. Bead administration induced CB2 mRNA expression in macrophages, while CB1 mRNA was not detected. Although inhibition was associated with functional heat-stable antigen, a costimulatory molecule, on macrophages, THC exposure did not alter cell surface heat-stable antigen expression. Inhibition by THC and anti-heat-stable antigen antibody was not additive suggesting the inhibitory mechanisms may overlap. Cannabinoid suppression was stereoselective; low affinity synthetic isomer CP56,667 did not diminish the T cell response. CB1-selective antagonist SR141716A completely reversed, and CB2-selective antagonist SR144528 partially blocked THC's inhibition. Both antagonists appeared to behave as inverse agonists in a receptor-selective manner. Although T cells expressed a low level of CB2 mRNA, neither THC nor SR141716A affected T cell activation in a system independent of macrophages, while SR144528 was inhibitory. High affinity synthetic agonist CP55,940, but not partial agonist THC, impaired costimulation by macrophages from mice lacking CB2 receptor. Although CB1 mRNA was not detected in CB2 null macrophages, CP55,940 reversed the inverse agonist activity of SR141716A. Hence, CB2 and possibly another receptor subtype may be involved in mediating cannabinoid suppression of macrophage costimulation.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal
- Cell Count
- Cell Line
- Coculture Techniques
- Dronabinol/pharmacology
- Female
- Hybridomas/immunology
- Hybridomas/metabolism
- Interleukin-2/biosynthesis
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/drug effects
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/immunology
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Mice, Knockout
- Psychotropic Drugs/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/physiology
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/physiology
- T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Siriporn Chuchawankul
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, MCV Station, Box 980678, Medical College of Virginia/Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
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15
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Gongora C, Hose S, O'Brien TP, Sinha D. Downregulation of class II transactivator (CIITA) expression by synthetic cannabinoid CP55,940. Immunol Lett 2004; 91:11-6. [PMID: 14757364 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2003.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoid receptors are known to be expressed in microglia; however, their involvement in specific aspects of microglial immune function has not been demonstrated. Many effects of cannabinoids are mediated by two G-protein coupled receptors, designated CB1 and CB2. We have shown that the CB1 receptor is expressed in microglia that also express MHC class II antigen (J. Neuroimmunol. 82 (1998) 13-21). In our present study, we have analyzed the effect of cannabinoid agonist CP55,940 on MHC class II expression on the surface of IFN-gamma induced microglial cells by flow cytometry. CP55,940 blocked the class II MHC expression induced by IFN-gamma. It has been shown that the regulation of class II MHC genes occurs primarily at the transcriptional level, and a non-DNA binding protein, class II transactivator (CIITA), has been shown to be the master activator for class II transcription. We find that mRNA levels of CIITA are increased in IFN-gamma induced EOC 20 microglial cells and that this increase is almost entirely eliminated by the cannabinoid agonist CP55,940. These data suggests that cannabinoids affect MHC class II expression through actions on CIITA at the transcriptional level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celine Gongora
- Institut de Biotechnologie et Pharmacologie, CNRS UMR 5094, Montpellier, Cedex 5, France
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16
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Klegeris A, Bissonnette CJ, McGeer PL. Reduction of human monocytic cell neurotoxicity and cytokine secretion by ligands of the cannabinoid-type CB2 receptor. Br J Pharmacol 2003; 139:775-86. [PMID: 12813001 PMCID: PMC1573900 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
1 Two cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, have been identified. The CB1 receptor is preferentially expressed in brain, and the CB2 receptor in cells of leukocyte lineage. We identified the mRNA for the CB1 receptor in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, and the mRNA and protein for the CB2 receptor in human microglia and THP-1 cells. 2 Delta(9)-and Delta(8)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) were toxic when added directly to SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. The toxicity of Delta(9)- THC was inhibited by the CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A but not by the CB2 receptor antagonist SR144528. The endogenous ligand anandamide was also toxic, and this toxicity was enhanced by inhibitors of its enzymatic hydrolysis. 3 The selective CB2 receptor ligands JWH-015 and indomethacin morpholinylamide (BML-190), when added to THP-1 cells before stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and IFN-gamma, reduced the toxicity of their culture supernatants to SH-SY5Y cells. JWH-015 was more effective against neurotoxicity of human microglia than THP-1 cells. The antineurotoxic activity of JWH-015 was blocked by the selective CB2 receptor antagonist SR144528, but not by the CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A. This activity of JWH-015 was synergistic with that of the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) inhibitor REV 5901. 4 Cannabinoids inhibited secretion of IL-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) by stimulated THP-1 cells, but these effects could not be directly correlated with their antineurotoxic activity. 5 Specific CB2 receptor ligands could be useful anti-inflammatory agents, while avoiding the neurotoxic and psychoactive effects of CB1 receptor ligands such as Delta(9)-THC.
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MESH Headings
- Astrocytes/cytology
- Astrocytes/drug effects
- Camphanes/pharmacology
- Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators/pharmacology
- Cannabinoids/adverse effects
- Cannabinoids/antagonists & inhibitors
- Cannabinoids/chemistry
- Cell Line
- Cytokines/drug effects
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Dronabinol/antagonists & inhibitors
- Dronabinol/pharmacokinetics
- Dronabinol/toxicity
- Formazans/chemistry
- Gene Expression
- Humans
- Indoles/pharmacology
- Indomethacin/analogs & derivatives
- Indomethacin/pharmacology
- L-Lactate Dehydrogenase/chemistry
- Ligands
- Microglia/cytology
- Microglia/drug effects
- Monocytes/drug effects
- Monocytes/metabolism
- Monocytes/pathology
- Morpholines/pharmacology
- Nerve Degeneration/drug therapy
- Nerve Degeneration/metabolism
- Neurotoxicity Syndromes/pathology
- Neurotoxicity Syndromes/prevention & control
- Piperidines/pharmacology
- Pyrazoles/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Rimonabant
- Temporal Lobe
- Tetrazolium Salts/chemistry
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Affiliation(s)
- Andis Klegeris
- Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, University of British Columbia, 2255 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3
| | - Christopher J Bissonnette
- Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, University of British Columbia, 2255 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3
| | - Patrick L McGeer
- Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, University of British Columbia, 2255 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3
- Author for correspondence:
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17
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Germain N, Boichot E, Advenier C, Berdyshev EV, Lagente V. Effect of the cannabinoid receptor ligand, WIN 55,212-2, on superoxide anion and TNF-alpha production by human mononuclear cells. Int Immunopharmacol 2002; 2:537-43. [PMID: 11962732 DOI: 10.1016/s1567-5769(01)00200-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are known to downregulate immune response but the role for cannabinoid receptors in cannabinoid-induced immunosuppression is still unclear. To address this question, the interference of CB1 and CB2 receptor antagonists with the inhibition of TNF-alpha production by synthetic cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 was studied using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in vitro. CB2 (SR 144528) but not CB1 (SR 141716A) receptor antagonist dose dependently interfered with WIN 55,212-2-induced inhibition of TNF-alpha synthesis. Also, WIN 55,212-2 decreased fMLP-induced reactive oxygen species generation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed PBMC. However, the high concentrations of cannabinoid receptor ligands needed to achieve significant effects suggest that the observed effects may be in part cannabinoid receptor independent.
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18
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Abstract
What is the role of the cannabinoid system in invertebrates and can it tell us something about the human system? We discuss in this review the possible presence of the cannabinoid system in invertebrates. Endocannabinoid processes, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis, as well as cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoids, have been identified in various species of invertebrates. These signal molecules appear to have multiple roles in invertebrates; diminishing sensory input, control of reproduction, feeding behavior, neurotransmission and antiinflammatory actions. We propose that since this system worked so well, it was retained during evolution, and that invertebrates can serve as a model to study endogenous cannabinoid signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Salzet
- Laboratoire de Neuroimmunologie des Annélides, LIMR CNRS 8017, IFR 17 INSERM, Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d' Ascq, France
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19
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Li X, Kaminski NE, Fischer LJ. Examination of the immunosuppressive effect of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in streptozotocin-induced autoimmune diabetes. Int Immunopharmacol 2001; 1:699-712. [PMID: 11357882 DOI: 10.1016/s1567-5769(01)00003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) is capable of modulating a variety of immune responses, but has not been evaluated in models of immune-based diabetes. The objectives of the present study were: (a) to investigate the effect of delta9-THC in an established model of multiple low dose streptozotocin (MLDSTZ)-induced autoimmune diabetes; and (b) to determine the contribution of the immune response in the MLDSTZ model. CD-1 mice were treated with 40 mg/kg STZ for 5 days in the presence or absence of delta9-THC treatment. delta9-THC administered orally in corn oil at 150 mg/kg for 11 days attenuated, in a transient manner, the MLDSTZ-induced elevation in serum glucose and loss of pancreatic insulin. MLDSTZ-induced insulitis and increases in IFN-gamma, TNFalpha and IL-12 mRNA expression were all reduced on Day 11 by co-administration of delta9-THC. In separate studies, six doses of delta9-THC, given after completion of STZ treatment, was found equally effective in attenuating mice from MLDSTZ-induced diabetes. Studies performed using B6C3F1 mice showed moderate hyperglycemia and a significant reduction in pancreatic insulin by MLDSTZ in the absence of insulitis. In addition, MLDSTZ produced a less pronounced hyperglycemia compared to CD-1 mice that was not attenuated by delta9-THC. These results suggest that MLDSTZ can initiate direct beta-cell damage, thereby augmenting the destruction of beta-cells by the immune system. Moreover, these results indicate that delta9-THC is capable of attenuating the severity of the autoimmune response in this experimental model of autoimmune diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824, USA
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20
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Abstract
Cannabinoid research underwent a tremendous increase during the last 10 years. This progress was made possible by the discovery of cannabinoid receptors and the endogenous ligands for these receptors. Cannabinoid research is developing in two major directions: neurobehavioral properties of cannabinoids and the impact of cannabinoids on the immune system. Recent studies characterized the cannabinoid-induced response as a very complex process because of the involvement of multiple signalling pathways linked to cannabinoid receptors or effects elicited by cannabinoids without receptor participation. The objective of this review is to present this complexity as it applies to immune response. The functional properties of cannabinoid receptors, signalling pathways linked to cannabinoid receptors and the modulation of immune response by cannabinoid receptor ligands are discussed. Special attention is given to 'endocannabinoids' as immunomodulatory molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- E V Berdyshev
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Avenue N.E., Austin, MN 55912, USA.
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21
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Stefano GB, Bilfinger TV, Rialas CM, Deutsch DG. 2-arachidonyl-glycerol stimulates nitric oxide release from human immune and vascular tissues and invertebrate immunocytes by cannabinoid receptor 1. Pharmacol Res 2000; 42:317-22. [PMID: 10987990 DOI: 10.1006/phrs.2000.0702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The pharmacological physiological effects of the endogenous cannabinomimetic (endocannabinoid) anandamide have been well characterized. Another endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG), has been less-widely studied. 2-AG occurs in vertebrate and invertebrate tissues and binds to both cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2). In the current study, 2-AG was found to cause human monocytes and immunocytes from Mytilus edulis to become round and immobile, which may correlate with decreased production of cytokines and adhesion molecules, i.e. an immunosuppressive response. In addition, exposure of these cells to 2-AG results in nitric oxide (NO) release, which is blocked by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, l-NAME and a CB1 antagonist, but not by a CB2 antagonist. The results obtained in the human vascular system were similar to those obtained in immune cells. Treatment of human saphenous veins and atria with 2-AG stimulated basal NO release, which was antagonized by l-NAME and a CB1 antagonist. Taken together these results indicate that 2-AG exerts immune and vascular actions similar to those observed with anandamide.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Stefano
- Multidisciplinary Center for the Study of Aging, Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York, College at Old Westbury, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA.
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22
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Salzet M, Breton C, Bisogno T, Di Marzo V. Comparative biology of the endocannabinoid system possible role in the immune response. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2000; 267:4917-27. [PMID: 10931174 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01550.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this review we discuss data showing that the endogenous cannabinoid system, represented by cannabinoid receptors, endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands and enzymes for the biosynthesis and degradation of these ligands, is conserved throughout evolution from coelenterates to man. This signaling system has been suggested to play several roles in animals, including the regulation of cell development and growth, nervous functions, reproduction and feeding behavior. In this article, however, we shall describe with more detail the possible function of the endogenous cannabinoid system in the modulation of immune response in organisms from the lower to the higher levels of animal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Salzet
- Laboratoire d'Endocrinologie des Annélides, Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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23
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Matveyeva M, Hartmann CB, Harrison MT, Cabral GA, McCoy KL. Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol selectively increases aspartyl cathepsin D proteolytic activity and impairs lysozyme processing by macrophages. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 2000; 22:373-81. [PMID: 10708885 DOI: 10.1016/s0192-0561(99)00092-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) causes an antigen-dependent defect in the ability of macrophages to activate helper T cells, and this drug-induced impairment is mediated through the peripheral CB2 receptor. Various requirements for the processing of the antigen, lysozyme, were examined to determine where along the pathway THC exerts its influence. A THC-exposed macrophage hybridoma inefficiently stimulated interleukin-2 secretion by a helper T cell hybridoma in response to native lysozyme and its reduced form, suggesting that disulfide bond reduction was unaffected. Cell surface expression of major histocompatibility complex class II molecules was normal on THC-exposed macrophages. The drug-exposed macrophages also competently presented a lysozyme peptide to the T cells, indicating that the class II molecules were functional. The proteolytic activity of two thiol cathepsins was unaltered, but aspartyl cathepsin D activity was significantly increased in THC-exposed macrophages. Thus, selective up-regulation of aspartyl cathepsin activity accompanied the deficiency in lysozyme processing and may contribute, at least in part, to the antigen-dependent processing defect in THC-exposed macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Matveyeva
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Box 980678, Richmond, VA 23298-0678, USA
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24
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Stefano GB, Goumon Y, Bilfinger TV, Welters ID, Cadet P. Basal nitric oxide limits immune, nervous and cardiovascular excitation: human endothelia express a mu opiate receptor. Prog Neurobiol 2000; 60:513-30. [PMID: 10739087 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0082(99)00038-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a major signaling molecule in the immune, cardiovascular and nervous systems. The synthesizing enzyme, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) occurs in three forms: endothelial (e), neuronal (n) and inducible (i) NOS. The first two are constitutively expressed. We surmise that in many tissues there is a basal level of NO and that the actions of several signaling molecules initiate increases in cNOS-derived NO to enhance momentary basal levels that exerts inhibitory cellular actions, via cellular conformational changes. It is our contention that much of the literature concerning the actions of NO really deal with i-NOS-derived NO. We make the case that cNOS is responsible for a basal or 'tonal' level of NO; that this NO keeps particular types of cells in a state of inhibition and that activation of these cells occurs through disinhibition. Furthermore, naturally occurring signaling molecules such as morphine, anandamide, interleukin-10 and 17-beta-estradiol appear to exert, in part, their beneficial physiological actions, i.e., immune and endothelial down regulation by the stimulation of cNOS. In regard to opiates, we demonstrate the presence of a human endothelial mu opiate receptor by RT-PCR and sequence determination, further substantiating the role of opiates in vascular coupling to NO release. Taken together, cNOS derived NO enhances basal NO actions, i.e., cellular activation state, and these actions are further enhanced by iNOS derived NO.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Stefano
- Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York at Old Westbury, 11568-0210, USA.
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25
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Sugiura T, Kondo S, Kishimoto S, Miyashita T, Nakane S, Kodaka T, Suhara Y, Takayama H, Waku K. Evidence that 2-arachidonoylglycerol but not N-palmitoylethanolamine or anandamide is the physiological ligand for the cannabinoid CB2 receptor. Comparison of the agonistic activities of various cannabinoid receptor ligands in HL-60 cells. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:605-12. [PMID: 10617657 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.275.1.605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the effect of 2-arachidonoylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, on the intracellular free Ca(2+) concentrations in HL-60 cells that express the cannabinoid CB2 receptor. We found that 2-arachidonoylglycerol induces a rapid transient increase in intracellular free Ca(2+) concentrations in HL-60 cells. The response was affected by neither cyclooxygenase inhibitors nor lipoxygenase inhibitors, suggesting that arachidonic acid metabolites are not involved. Consistent with this notion, free arachidonic acid was devoid of any agonistic activity. Importantly, the Ca(2+) transient induced by 2-arachidonoylglycerol was blocked by pretreatment of the cells with SR144528, a CB2 receptor-specific antagonist, but not with SR141716A, a CB1 receptor-specific antagonist, indicating the involvement of the CB2 receptor but not the CB1 receptor in this cellular response. G(i) or G(o) is also assumed to be involved, because pertussis toxin treatment of the cells abolished the response. We further examined the structure-activity relationship. We found that 2-arachidonoylglycerol is the most potent compound among a number of naturally occurring cannabimimetic molecules. Interestingly, anandamide and N-palmitoylethanolamine, other putative endogenous ligands, were found to be a weak partial agonist and an inactive ligand, respectively. These results strongly suggest that the CB2 receptor is originally a 2-arachidonoylglycerol receptor, and 2-arachidonoylglycerol is the intrinsic natural ligand for the CB2 receptor that is abundant in the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Sugiura
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Teikyo University, Sagamiko, Tsukui-gun, Kanagawa 199-0195, Japan
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26
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Klein
- University of South Florida, College of Medicine, Dept of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Tampa 33612, USA.
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27
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Clements DJ, Matveyeva M, McCoy KL. Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol suppresses macrophage costimulation by decreasing heat-stable antigen expression. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1998; 20:415-28. [PMID: 9778102 DOI: 10.1016/s0192-0561(98)00044-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) suppresses several immunologic functions of macrophages. The costimulatory activity of a THC-exposed macrophage hybridoma was investigated by its ability to elicit interleukin-2 secretion by a helper T cell hybridoma activated with immobilized monoclonal anti-CD3 antibody. THC added at culture initiation inhibited the T cell response in a dose-dependent manner. When the macrophages were fixed with paraformaldehyde before culture, THC had no effect on T cell stimulation. However, macrophages, which were preincubated with THC and then fixed, were impaired in delivering costimulatory signals to T cells cultured without THC. The drug's inhibitory effect on macrophage costimulatory activity was reversible. THC exposure also decreased macrophage expression of heat-stable antigen (HSA). Antibody blocking experiments showed that HSA expressed on the macrophages provided an important costimulatory signal, whereas B7-1 and B7-2 molecules had a minor role. Treatment of the macrophages with phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C cleaved HSA, but not the transmembrane B7 molecules, from the cell surface. Similar to THC, enzyme treatment significantly diminished macrophage costimulatory activity, which was also reversible. After drug or enzyme removal, HSA expression returned to the control level by 4 h. Therefore, THC suppresses macrophage costimulatory activity by diminishing cell surface expression of HSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Clements
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Virginia/Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond 23298, USA
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28
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Stefano GB, Salzet M, Bilfinger TV. Long-term exposure of human blood vessels to HIV gp120, morphine, and anandamide increases endothelial adhesion of monocytes: uncoupling of nitric oxide release. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1998; 31:862-8. [PMID: 9641470 DOI: 10.1097/00005344-199806000-00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Acute exposure of human saphenous vein or internal thoracic artery endothelium to either morphine [27.4 +/- 3.7 and 35.4 +/- 4.1 nM nitric oxide (NO), respectively] or anandamide (18.3 +/- 2.2 and 24.3 +/- 3.0 nM, respectively) results in NO release, whereas exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus envelope protein gp120 does not. After the short-term exposure of the vessel endothelium, monocyte adherence is diminished with morphine and anandamide treatment (jointly by -80%), whereas it is enhanced with that of gp120 (approximately 40%), indicating that gp120 enhances the ability of the endothelium to adhere monocytes. Long-term or continuous exposure of the endothelia to all agents results in a significant enhancement of monocyte adherence (p < 0.05), which is further increased when exposed to either morphine and anandamide plus gp120. This is caused by a desensitization of the endothelium to further NO release after the initial exposure to either anandamide or morphine. The results serve to indicate that in individuals abusing opiates and or cannabinoids, a tissue [i.e., central nervous system (CNS)] viral load may be higher, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) may progress more rapidly because monocyte adherence and mobility is significantly increased, indicating a higher level of transmembrane migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Stefano
- Multidisciplinary Center for the Study of Aging, Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York/College at Old Westbury, 11568, USA
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29
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Stefano GB, Salzet M, Rialas CM, Mattocks D, Fimiani C, Bilfinger TV. Macrophage behavior associated with acute and chronic exposure to HIV GP120, morphine and anandamide: endothelial implications. Int J Cardiol 1998; 64 Suppl 1:S3-13. [PMID: 9687087 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-5273(98)00030-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate that immediate exposure to gp120 (5 min; 0.1 microg/ml) results in a significant shift of the macrophage population to an amoeboid and motile category (P<0.01; 91.7+/-5.5 vs. a control value of 42.4+/-4.2) and prior exposure with anti-gp120 antagonizes this shift. Acute exposure of the macrophages to morphine (10(-6) M) or anandamide (10(-6) M) resulted in the cells rounding up (shape factors of 0.84 and 0.87 respectively) and becoming non-motile. The action is blocked by prior treatment with the specific antagonists naloxone and SR 141716A. Chronic exposure (6 h) of the cells to all three agents resulted in a random migration pattern. Further, all agents blocked chemotaxis induced by DAMA and IL-1. Observation of the cells behavior during chronic exposure revealed a sporadic activity pattern with gp120 whereas morphine and anandamide first induced a period of inactivity which is followed by a period of activity (chemokinesis). Recent work from our laboratory has demonstrated that both morphine and anandamide acutely stimulate constitutive macrophage nitric oxide (NO) release, which then induces macrophage rounding and inactivity. It was therefore of interest to examine their behavior by exposing macrophages to the NO-donor SNAP. In a concentration dependent manner SNAP exhibited the same behavioral actions as both substances of abuse. Given this, we next determined if macrophages exposed to gp120 would release NO. We demonstrated that NO was released only when exposed to morphine and anandamide not gp120. Thus. the chemokinetic inducing activities of these agents may be the basis for excitotoxin liberation in neural tissues and/or a higher viral load in various organ systems since cellular adherence and random migration are stimulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Stefano
- Multidisciplinary Center for the Study of Aging, Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York/College at Old Westbury, 11568, USA.
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30
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Cabral GA, Dove Pettit DA. Drugs and immunity: cannabinoids and their role in decreased resistance to infectious disease. J Neuroimmunol 1998; 83:116-23. [PMID: 9610679 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(97)00227-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Marijuana, Cannabis sativa, elicits a variety of effects in experimental animals and humans. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the major psychoactive component in marijuana. This substance has been shown, also, to be immunosuppressive and to decrease host resistance to bacterial, protozoan, and viral infections. Macrophages, T lymphocytes, and natural killer cells appear to be major targets of the immunosuppressive effects of THC. Definitive data which directly link marijuana use to increased susceptibility to infection in humans currently is unavailable. However, cumulative reports indicating that THC alters resistance to infection in vitro and in a variety of experimental animals support the hypothesis that a similar effect occurs in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Cabral
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Virginia/Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond 23298-0678, USA.
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31
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Stefano GB. Autoimmunovascular regulation: morphine and anandamide and ancondamide stimulated nitric oxide release. J Neuroimmunol 1998; 83:70-6. [PMID: 9610675 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(97)00223-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The hypothesis concerning morphine as an endogenous signal molecule has been strengthened with the recent discovery of a new opiate receptor subtype, designated mu3. This opiate receptor is opiate alkaloid sensitive and opioid peptide insensitive, including peptides previously shown to have affinities for mu opiate receptors. This receptor is coupled to nitric oxide release in human endothelial cells, granulocytes and monocytes and in invertebrate immunocytes and microglia. In relation to the endothelium, it has also been coupled to vasodilation via nitric oxide. Given the known influence of nitric oxide in downregulating cell adhesion, the role of this compound has now been investigated in also diminishing endothelial-immunocyte interaction. Morphine, via nitric oxide, has the potential to diminish adhesion molecule expression and in so doing calm an inflammatory process between immunocytes and the endothelial surface. In this regard, the potential for abuse is also present.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Stefano
- Multidisciplinary Center for the Study of Aging, Old Westbury Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York at Old Westbury, 11568, USA
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Abstract
The influence of marijuana cannabinoids on immune function has been examined extensively over the last 25 yr. Various experimental models have been used employing drug-abusing human subjects, experimental animals exposed to marijuana smoke or injected with cannabinoids, and in vitro models employing immune cell cultures treated with various cannabinoids. For the most part, these studies suggest that cannabinoids modulate the function of T and B lymphocytes as well as NK cells and macrophages. In addition to studies examining cannabinoid effects on immune cell function, other reports have documented that these substances modulate host resistance to various infectious agents. Viruses such as herpes simplex virus and murine retrovirus have been studied as well as bacterial agents such as members of the genera Staphylococcus, Listeria, Treponema, and Legionella. These studies suggest that cannabinoids modulate host resistance, especially the secondary immune response. Finally, a third major area of host immunity and cannabinoids is that involving drug effects on the cytokine network. Employing in vivo and in vitro models, it has been determined that cannabinoids modulate the production and function of acute phase and immune cytokines as well as modulate the activity of network cells such as macrophages and T helper cells, Th1 and Th2. These results are intriguing and demonstrate that under certain conditions, cannabinoids can be immunomodulatory and enhance the disease process. However, more studies are needed to determine both the health risk of marijuana abuse and the role of the cannabinoid receptor/ligand system in immune regulation and homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Klein
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida, Tampa 33612, USA.
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Ongrádi J, Specter S, Horváth A, Friedman H. Combined in vitro effect of marijuana and retrovirus on the activity of mouse natural killer cells. Pathol Oncol Res 1998; 4:191-9. [PMID: 9761937 DOI: 10.1007/bf02905248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Both marijuana and retroviruses impair natural killer (NK) cell functions. No data on their simulataneous effects are available. Similarities to human AIDS induced early by Friend leukemia complex (FLC) and its replication competent helper Rowson-Parr virus (RPV) provides a mouse model to study drug-virus action. Leukemia susceptible BALB/c and resistant C57BL/6 mice were infected, then at time intervals their nylon wool-separated splenocytes were exposed to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) for 3h. Natural killer (NK) cell activity against Yac-1 cells was assayed by 51Cr-release for 4 and 18h. Recovery of splenocytes was found to be suppressed by FLC, but in BALB/c only by RPV. After a transient enhancement in C57BL/6 by FLC, NK cell activity of both mice became suppressed early (2 to 4 days), normalized subsequently and enhanced late (11 to 14 days) postinfection. A moderate increase in BALB/c, no change in C57BL/6 were induced by low (1-2.5 microgram/ml) THC doses. NK cell activity of BALB/c became suppressed exponentially by higher (5-10 microgrtam/ ml) THC doses in 18h as compared to 4h assays, while its proportional and moderate impairment was seen in C57BL/6. The magnitude of NK cell activity of infected mice was determined by THC: enhancement or impairment followed those of untreated, infected counterparts, but on the level of THC-treated cells. Low doses hardly, high doses additively influenced NK cells of infected BALB/c. THC hardly affected very early and late enhancement in NK cell activiy of FLC infected C57BL/6, but augmented RPV induced suppression late in 18h assays. Genetic factors similar to endotoxin resistance, altered cytokine profile might determine these effects. Similar phenomena in humans might result in earlier manifestation of AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ongrádi
- National Institute of Dermato-Venereology, Budapest, Hungary.
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Abstract
Daily marijuana smoking has been clearly shown to have adverse effects on pulmonary function and produce respiratory symptomatology (cough, wheeze, and sputum production) similar to that of tobacco smokers. Based on the tobacco experience, decrements in pulmonary function may be predictive of the future development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, in the absence of alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, the habitual marijuana-only smoker would likely have to smoke 4-5 joints per day for a span of at least 30 yr in order to develop overt manifestations of COPD. The mutagenic/carcinogenic properties of marijuana smoke are also well-established. The potential for induction of laryngeal, oropharyngeal, and possibly bronchogenic carcinoma from marijuana has been documented by several case reports and observational series. Despite this, a relative risk ratio for the development of these tumors has not yet been quantified. Based on a higher frequency of case reports for upper airway cancer compared to bronchogenic carcinoma, marijuana smoking may have a more deleterious effect on the upper respiratory tract. However, this hypothesis remains speculative at best, pending confirmation by longitudinal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- B E Van Hoozen
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento 95817, USA
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Berdyshev EV, Boichot E, Germain N, Allain N, Anger JP, Lagente V. Influence of fatty acid ethanolamides and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on cytokine and arachidonate release by mononuclear cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1997; 330:231-40. [PMID: 9253958 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(97)01007-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The effects of arachidonic acid ethanolamide (anandamide), palmitoylethanolamide and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-4, interleukin-6, interleukin-8, interleukin-10, interferon-gamma, p55 and p75 TNF-alpha soluble receptors by stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells as well as [3H]arachidonic acid release by non-stimulated and N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP)-stimulated human monocytes were investigated. Anandamide was shown to diminish interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 production at low nanomolar concentrations (3-30 nM) but inhibited the production of TNF-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin-4 and p75 TNF-alpha soluble receptors at higher concentrations (0.3-3 microM). Palmitoylethanolamide inhibited interleukin-4, interleukin-6, interleukin-8 synthesis and the production of p75 TNF-alpha soluble receptors at concentrations similar to those of anandamide but failed to influence TNF-alpha and interferon-gamma production. The effect of both compounds on interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 production disappeared with an increase in the concentration used. Neither anandamide nor palmitoylethanolamide influenced interleukin-10 synthesis. delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol exerted a biphasic action on pro-inflammatory cytokine production. TNF-alpha, interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 synthesis was maximally inhibited by 3 nM delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol but stimulated by 3 microM delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, as was interleukin-8 and interferon-gamma synthesis. The level of interleukin-4, interleukin-10 and p75 TNF-alpha soluble receptors was diminished by 3 microM delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. [3H]Arachidonate release was stimulated only by high delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and anandamide concentrations (30 microM). These results suggest that the inhibitory properties of anandamide, palmitoylethanolamide and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol are determined by the activation of the peripheral-type cannabinoid receptors, and that various endogenous fatty acid ethanolamides may participate in the regulation of the immune response.
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36
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Stefano GB, Salzet B, Salzet M. Identification and characterization of the leech CNS cannabinoid receptor: coupling to nitric oxide release. Brain Res 1997; 753:219-24. [PMID: 9125406 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(96)01484-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The present study demonstrates that stereoselective binding sites for anandamide, a naturally occurring cannabinoid substance, can be found in leech (Theromyzon tessulatum and Hirudo medicinalis) central nervous system. The anandamide binding site is monophasic and of high affinity exhibiting a Kd of approximately 32 nM with a Bmax of 550 fmol/mg protein in both animals. These sites are highly select as demonstrated by the inability of other types of signaling molecules to displace [3H]anandamide. Furthermore, this binding site is coupled to nitric oxide release. A deduced amino acid sequence (153 residues) analysis from a 480 pb amplified RT-PCR fragment cDNA exhibits a 49.3% and 47.2% sequence identity with human and rat cannabinoid receptors (CB1R), respectively. Thus, the leech cannabinoid receptor may be a G-protein coupled receptor with seven transmembrane domains as in CB1R. Moreover, this sequence exhibits highly conserved regions, particularly in the putative transmembrane domains 1 and 2. The presence of a cannabinoid receptor in these organisms indicates that this signaling system has been conserved during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Stefano
- Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York at Old Westbury, 11568, USA.
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Coffey RG, Snella E, Johnson K, Pross S. Inhibition of macrophage nitric oxide production by tetrahydrocannabinol in vivo and in vitro. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1996; 18:749-52. [PMID: 9172018 DOI: 10.1016/s0192-0561(97)85557-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, 10 micrograms) was administered intraperitoneally to thioglycollate-treated mice. After 18 h, peritoneal macrophages were harvested and nitric oxide (NO.) production was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1 microgram/ml) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma, 0.1-10 U/ml). Macrophages from THC-treated mice produced about half as much NO. as controls. THC (1 microgram/ml) added in vitro caused further inhibition. Greater inhibition was observed at the lower (0.1-0.3 U/ml) IFN-gamma concentrations. The results suggest that the use of THC can reduce NO. production and thereby affect host defense mechanisms, inflammation and autoimmune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Coffey
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa 33612, USA
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38
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Coffey RG, Yamamoto Y, Snella E, Pross S. Tetrahydrocannabinol inhibition of macrophage nitric oxide production. Biochem Pharmacol 1996; 52:743-51. [PMID: 8765472 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(96)00356-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production by mouse peritoneal macrophages activated by bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-gamma (IFN)-gamma). Inhibition of NO production was noted at THC concentrations as low as 0.5 microgram/mL, and was nearly total at 7 micrograms/mL. Inhibition was greatest if THC was added 1-4 hr before induction of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) by LPS and IFN-gamma, and declined with time after addition of the inducing agents. This suggested that an early step such as NOS gene transcription or NOS synthesis, rather than NOS activity, was affected by THC. Steady-state levels of mRNA for NOS were not affected by THC. In contrast, protein synthesis was inhibited as indicated by immunoblotting. NOS activity was also decreased in the cytosol of cells pretreated with THC. Addition of excess cofactors did not restore activity. Inhibition of NO production was greater at low levels of IFN-gamma, indicating the ability of the cytokine to overcome inhibition. The effectiveness of various THC analogues, in decreasing order of potency, was delta 8-THC > delta 9-THC > cannabidiol > or = 11-OH-THC > cannabinol. The presumably inactive stereoisomer, (+)delta 9-THC, and the endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors, anandamide, were weakly inhibitory. Inhibition may be mediated by a process that depends partly on stereoselective receptors and partly on a nonselective process. LPS, IFN-gamma, hormone receptor agonists, and forskolin increased macrophage cyclic AMP levels. THC inhibited this increase, indicating functional cannabinoid receptors. Addition of 8-bromocyclic AMP increased NO 2-fold, and partially restored NO production that had been inhibited by THC. This occurred only under conditions of limited NOS induction, suggesting that the effect of THC on cyclic AMP was responsible for only a small portion of the inhibition of NO.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Coffey
- Department of Pharmacology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa 33612-4799, USA
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39
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Stefano GB, Liu Y, Goligorsky MS. Cannabinoid receptors are coupled to nitric oxide release in invertebrate immunocytes, microglia, and human monocytes. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:19238-42. [PMID: 8702604 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.32.19238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study demonstrates that stereoselective binding sites for anandamide, a naturally occurring cannabinoid substance, can be found in invertebrate immunocytes and microglia. The anandamide-binding site is monophasic and of high affinity, exhibiting a Kd of 34.3 nM with a Bmax of 441 fmol/mg protein. These sites are highly selective, as demonstrated by the inability of other types of signaling molecules to displace [3H]anandamide. Furthermore, this binding site is coupled to nitric oxide release in the invertebrate tissues examined as well as in human monocytes. Interestingly, the cannabinoid-stimulated release of nitric oxide initiates cell rounding. Thus, these cannabinoid actions resemble those of opiate alkaloids. In this regard, we demonstrate that these signaling systems use the same effector system, i.e. nitric oxide release, but separate receptors. Last, the presence of a cannabinoid receptor in selected evolutionary diverse organisms indicates that this signaling system has been conserved for more than 500 million years.
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Affiliation(s)
- G B Stefano
- Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York, Old Westbury, New York 11568, USA
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Langstein J, Hofstädter F, Schwarz H. cis-9,10-octadecenoamide, an endogenous sleep-inducing CNS compound, inhibits lymphocyte proliferation. RESEARCH IN IMMUNOLOGY 1996; 147:389-96. [PMID: 8903105 DOI: 10.1016/0923-2494(96)82047-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the immunoregulatory effects of cis-9,10-octadecenoamide (CODA), a recently identified endogenous sleep-inducing brain lipid. CODA displays structural and functional similarities to anandamide, the endogenous ligand for the cannabinoid receptors. CODA proved to be immunosuppressive. It inhibited proliferation of anti-CD3- and ConA-activated primary lymphocytes and proliferation of T- and B-cell lines. Complete inhibition occurred at concentrations of 100 microM. This effect was stereospecific, since the trans-stereo isomer of CODA did not inhibit proliferation at identical concentrations. A further control compound, octadecanamide, identical to cis-9,10-octadecenoamide, besides lacking the 9,10 carbon double bond, also did not affect proliferation. The antiproliferative effects of CODA occurred rapidly, since 24-h exposure to CODA was sufficient for complete inhibition of proliferation. CODA and anandamide worked synergistically in inhibiting lymphocyte proliferation. No significant effects of CODA on monocyte functions, as assessed by LPS-induced TNF alpha secretion, could be detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Langstein
- Department of Pathology, University of Regensburg, Germany
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41
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Zheng ZM, Specter S. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: an inhibitor of STAT1 alpha protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Biochem Pharmacol 1996; 51:967-73. [PMID: 8651947 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(95)02434-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Tyrosine-phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 alpha (STAT1 alpha) is a 91-kDa protein responsible for interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma)-dependent transcription. The present study demonstrates that activation by IFN-gamma of murine macrophages resulted in tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha identified by immunoprecipitation. The tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha was found highly sensitive to treatment by delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a major marijuana component. Subsequently, the isoform formation of p91 due to tyrosine phosphorylation was reduced in THC-treated macrophages. Although inhibition by THC of the tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha induced by IFN-gamma was in a THC concentration-related manner, the tyrosine phosphorylation of other proteins induced by lipopolysaccharide/IFN-gamma treatment of macrophages appeared insensitive to THC treatment. Our data suggest that blockade by THC of tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha may be an important mechanism involved in the broad immunosuppressive effects of THC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z M Zheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, USA
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42
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Zheng ZM, Specter S. Dynamic production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) messenger RNA, intracellular and extracellular TNF-alpha by murine macrophages and possible association with protein tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha and ERK2 as an early signal. Immunology 1996; 87:544-50. [PMID: 8675207 PMCID: PMC1384131 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1996.513591.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), an important mediator in both immune and inflammation responses, is one of the major cytokines released by activated macrophages. The present study shows that, during macrophage activation, protein tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha and ERK2 occurred as an immediate early signal, whereas maximum TNF-alpha mRNA transcription appeared at 3 hr, precursor TNF-alpha formation at 3 to 4 hr, and TNF-alpha release at 5 to 6 hr after stimulation of an RPMI-1640-based induction medium containing lipopolysaccharide (100 ng/ml), interferon-gamma (100 U/ml), and 0.5% bovine serum albumin. Herbimycin A, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, suppresses protein tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha and ERK2 and also blocks TNF-alpha production by resident peritoneal macrophages from BALB/c mice, suggesting a possible association between protein tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 alpha and ERK2 and macrophage activation resulting in TNF-alpha production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z M Zheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, FL, USA
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43
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Zheng ZM, Specter SC. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol suppresses tumor necrosis factor alpha maturation and secretion but not its transcription in mouse macrophages. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1996; 18:53-68. [PMID: 8732433 DOI: 10.1016/0192-0561(95)00107-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Various in vitro studies have shown that delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoactive component of marijuana, has a variety of inhibitory effects on immune functions including effects on macrophages. The present studies have examined the mechanism of THC's effects on tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), a major macrophage-produced cytokine and an important mediator involved in cytokine networks and in host defense mechanisms. Exposure of macrophages to medium containing THC has resulted in low levels of soluble TNF-alpha protein and reduced TNF-alpha bioactivity in the culture supernatant. However, THC did not inhibit the levels of LPS-induced TNF-alpha mRNA and intracellular TNF-alpha precursor protein, had only a weak effect on expression of membrane-bound TNF-alpha, but suppressed TNF-alpha maturation/secretion by macrophages. The higher the THC concentration in the medium during TNF-alpha induction, the greater the amount of intracellular TNF-alpha precursors that accumulated in the activated macrophages and the less mature TNF-alpha was released from the cells. Data suggest that TNF-alpha production by macrophages was altered greatly by exposure to THC at the levels of TNF-alpha precursor maturation and secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z M Zheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida, College of Medicine, Tampa 33612, USA
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44
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Derocq JM, Ségui M, Marchand J, Le Fur G, Casellas P. Cannabinoids enhance human B-cell growth at low nanomolar concentrations. FEBS Lett 1995; 369:177-82. [PMID: 7544292 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(95)00746-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the effect of cannabinoid ligands on human tonsillar B-cells activated either through cross-linking of surface immunoglobulins or ligation of the CD40 antigen. The two synthetic cannabinoids, CP55,940 and WIN55212-2, as well as delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component of marijuana, caused a dose-dependent increase of B-cell proliferation and displayed EC50 at low nanomolar concentrations. This cannabinoid-induced enhancing activity was inhibited by pertussis toxin which suggested a G-protein-coupled receptor process. In addition, the absence of antagonistic effect of SR141716A, a specific CB1 receptor antagonist, together with the demonstration that human B-cells displayed large amount of CB2 receptor mRNAs, led us to assume that the growth enhancing activity observed on B-cells at very low concentrations of cannabinoids could be mediated through the CB2 receptor.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, B-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- B-Lymphocytes/cytology
- B-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- Base Sequence
- Benzoxazines
- CD40 Antigens
- Cannabinoids/chemical synthesis
- Cannabinoids/pharmacology
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cyclohexanols/pharmacology
- DNA/biosynthesis
- Dronabinol/pharmacology
- Humans
- Ligands
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Morpholines/pharmacology
- Naphthalenes/pharmacology
- Palatine Tonsil
- Pertussis Toxin
- Piperidines/pharmacology
- Pyrazoles/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell/metabolism
- Receptors, Cannabinoid
- Receptors, Drug/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Drug/physiology
- Rimonabant
- Virulence Factors, Bordetella/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Derocq
- Department of Immunology, Sanofi Recherche, Montpellier, France
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45
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Zheng ZM, Specter SC, Lancz G. Bovine serum albumin preparations enhance in vitro production of tumor necrosis factor alpha by murine macrophages. Immunol Invest 1995; 24:737-56. [PMID: 8543338 DOI: 10.3109/08820139509060702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) is most commonly produced by macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The present study shows that BSA in place of FBS in RPMI 1640 medium accelerated the rate of LPS-induced TNF-alpha production by resident peritoneal macrophages from BALB/c mice when compared to LPS in serum free medium. Using 10 or 100 ng LPS/ml and 100 U IFN-gamma/ml in RPMI 1640 medium plus 0.5% BSA, both cytoplasmic TNF-alpha mRNA and TNF-alpha precursor and extracellular TNF-alpha production by mouse macrophages were increased when compared to stimulation by LPS plus IFN-gamma in medium without BSA and FBS. The level of TNF-alpha produced was shown to be related to the BSA concentration. Medium containing BSA but no LPS also stimulated macrophages to produce TNF-alpha, but BSA's TNF-alpha inducing activity varied among different lots and was not blocked by polyclonal antibody to BSA. This effect appeared to be associated with the presence of immunoglobulin in BSA products. Confirmation that BSA activity was not due to LPS contamination was achieved by testing macrophages from LPS-nonresponder C3H/HeJ mice, as well as testing TNF-alpha induction in the presence of polymyxin B (10 micrograms/ml), an LPS inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z M Zheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa 33612, USA
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46
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Daaka Y, Klein TW, Friedman H. Expression of cannabinoid receptor mRNA in murine and human leukocytes. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1995; 373:91-6. [PMID: 7545349 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1951-5_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the major psychoactive cannabinoid of marijuana modulates immune cells in vivo and in vitro. It is possible that the drug exerts it's effect either by inserting into and disrupting the cell membrane (nonreceptor mechanism) or by binding to a cannabinoid receptor moiety and thus altering cell function through some form of signal transduction. In the present study, we confirm and extend the findings that mouse and human immune cells express specific cannabinoid binding sites and cannabinoid receptor mRNA. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed the presence of receptor mRNA not only in the neuroblastoma cell line (N18TG-2), but also in mouse splenocytes and in cell lines such as NKB61A2 (a mouse natural killer-like), CTLL2 (a mouse IL2-dependent T cell), THP-1 (a human monocytic cell) and Raji (a human B cell) but not in Jurkat (a human T cell). Furthermore, the receptor mRNA was expressed in purified populations of resting splenic T and B lymphocytes but not in resting populations of enriched splenic macrophages. Finally, LPS-stimulated Raji and PMA-stimulated THP-1 human cell lines showed increased levels of the cannabinoid receptor mRNA. These results suggest cannabinoid receptors have biological relevance in lymphoid cells because: receptor mRNA is detected in some resting immune cells but not others and the mRNA increases during cell activation. The major psychoactive component of marijuana, delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), has been shown to modulate human and mouse immune responses both in vitro and in vivo (1,2).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Daaka
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa 33612, USA
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47
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Friedman H, Klein TW, Newton C, Daaka Y. Marijuana, receptors and immunomodulation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1995; 373:103-13. [PMID: 7668140 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1951-5_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
THC, the major psychoactive component of marijuana, has been shown both in humans and experimental animals to have immunomodulatory properties. For example, marijuana smokers may show impaired immunological functions, including deficiency of blood leukocyte blastogenesis to mitogens. Detailed studies with mice have shown that animals given THC can show marked immunomodulation, including suppression of antibody formation, deficient cytokine production, etc. However, recent studies have also shown that lymphoid cells evince enhanced production or release or IL1, but suppression of IL2 and interferon production. Such lymphoid cells treated in vitro with THC also show suppressed blastogenesis to antigens and mitogens, suppressed NK activity, etc. In contrast, it has recently been shown that THC can enhance production or release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This includes release of these cytokines from macrophages, including augmented release of IL1, TNF alpha, and IL6 activity. Susceptibility of mice to infection with opportunistic organisms such as L. pneumophila has been found and this increased susceptibility can be modulated by THC. A toxic shock-like death to Legionella has been induced by THC treatment given one day before and one day after infection. Receptors to THC have been detected in the brain as well as in peripheral tissues, including lymphoid cells. Thus, immunomodulation induced by THC may be related to receptor effects as well as unrelated to such receptors. It is clear that THC and other cannabinoids are excellent tools for studying the mechanisms of immune modulation, especially altered susceptibility to microbial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Friedman
- University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, USA
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48
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Zheng ZM, Specter S. Suppression by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol of lipopolysaccharide-induced and intrinsic tyrosine phosphorylation and protein expression in mouse peritoneal macrophages. Biochem Pharmacol 1994; 47:2243-52. [PMID: 8031318 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(94)90262-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 100 ng/mL)-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of four proteins (p41, p42, p77, and p82) in mouse resident peritoneal macrophages was observed using a monoclonal anti-phosphotyrosine antibody PY20 immunoblotting method. Macrophages pretreated for 3 hr with 1 microgram delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)/mL had decreased tyrosine phosphorylation of p77 and p82 after incubation with LPS for 30 min. Simultaneous treatment of macrophages with THC (10 micrograms/mL) plus LPS for 30 min had a similar effect on p77 and p82 tyrosine phosphorylation. When the THC pretreatment protocol was combined with the simultaneous treatment protocol, 0.5 and 5 micrograms THC/mL, respectively, completely blocked LPS-induced p77 and p82 tyrosine phosphorylation. However, neither simultaneous treatment with THC nor pre- and simultaneous treatment had any effect on LPS-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of p41 and p42 in macrophages. Pretreatment with 1 microgram THC/mL followed by simultaneous treatment with 10 micrograms THC/mL induced a p43 protein that showed tyrosine phosphorylation in place of p41 and p42. Further analysis of THC effects on macrophages revealed an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation as an immediate early even after THC treatment. Prolonged treatment of macrophages with THC resulted in a broad suppression of tyrosine phosphorylation and some cellular protein expression. Three cellular proteins (p65, p70, and p72) seemed most susceptible to inhibition by THC. The data suggest that suppression of tyrosine phosphorylation by THC in macrophages may be one of the mechanisms associated with inhibition of cell function, including the suppression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha release from macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z M Zheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa 33612
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Shivers SC, Newton C, Friedman H, Klein TW. delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) modulates IL-1 bioactivity in human monocyte/macrophage cell lines. Life Sci 1994; 54:1281-9. [PMID: 8164509 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(94)00856-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
We have previously observed that delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoactive component of marijuana, increased supernatant interleukin-1 (IL-1) bioactivity in cultures of mouse resident peritoneal macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In this study, experiments were performed to determine whether THC treatment similarly affected phagocytes of human origin. The results showed that THC increased the levels of supernatant IL-1 bioactivity of two human monocytic cell lines, but only if the cells were differentiated with phorbol myristate acetate. Undifferentiated cells displayed decreased IL-1 bioactivity in response to THC. However, under conditions in which THC augmented supernatant IL-1 bioactivity from THP-1 cells, ELISA studies showed that the levels of IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta were unchanged and decreased, respectively. Furthermore, supernatant interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were decreased, but tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) levels were increased by THC treatment. These results show that THC treatment modulates cytokine production and/or release by mouse and human macrophages and the drug effects on IL-1-like bioactivity in the supernatants of the human THP-1 cells are due to increased levels of other cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, rather than IL-1 itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Shivers
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa 33612
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50
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Zheng ZM, Specter S, Friedman H. Serum proteins affect the inhibition by delta-tetrahydrocannabinol of tumor necrosis factor alpha production by mouse macrophages. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1993; 335:89-93. [PMID: 8237613 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-2980-4_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Z M Zheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa 33612
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