Regulation of phospholipase C by G proteins

Diacylglycerol kinase is a keystone regulator of signaling relevant to the pathophysiology of asthma

Signal transduction by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and immunoreceptors converge at the activation of phospholipase C (PLC) for the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). This is a point for second-messenger bifurcation where DAG via protein kinase C (PKC) and IP3 via calcium activate distinct protein targets and regulate cellular functions. IP3 signaling is regulated by multiple calcium influx and efflux proteins involved in calcium homeostasis. A family of lipid kinases belonging to DAG kinases (DGKs) converts DAG to phosphatidic acid (PA), negatively regulating DAG signaling and pathophysiological functions. PA, through a series of biochemical reactions, is recycled to produce new molecules of PIP2. Therefore, DGKs act as a central switch in terminating DAG signaling and resynthesis of membrane phospholipids precursor. Interestingly, calcium and PKC regulate the activation of α and ζ isoforms of DGK that are predominantly expressed in airway and immune cells. Thus, DGK forms a feedback and feedforward control point and plays a crucial role in fine-tuning phospholipid stoichiometry, signaling, and functions. In this review, we discuss the previously underappreciated complex and intriguing DAG/DGK-driven mechanisms in regulating cellular functions associated with asthma, such as contraction and proliferation of airway smooth muscle (ASM) cells and inflammatory activation of immune cells. We highlight the benefits of manipulating DGK activity in mitigating salient features of asthma pathophysiology and shed light on DGK as a molecule of interest for heterogeneous diseases such as asthma.

Generation of Comprehensive GPCR-Transducer-Deficient Cell Lines to Dissect the Complexity of GPCR Signaling

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) compose the largest family of transmembrane receptors and are targets of approximately one-third of Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs owing to their involvement in almost all physiologic processes. GPCR signaling occurs through the activation of heterotrimeric G-protein complexes and β-arrestins, both of which serve as transducers, resulting in distinct cellular responses. Despite seeming simple at first glance, accumulating evidence indicates that activation of either transducer is not a straightforward process as a stimulation of a single molecule has the potential to activate multiple signaling branches. The complexity of GPCR signaling arises from the aspects of G-protein-coupling selectivity, biased signaling, interpathway crosstalk, and variable molecular modifications generating these diverse signaling patterns. Numerous questions relative to these aspects of signaling remained unanswered until the recent development of CRISPR genome-editing technology. Such genome editing technology presents opportunities to chronically eliminate the expression of G-protein subunits, β-arrestins, G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), and many other signaling nodes in the GPCR pathways at one's convenience. Here, we review the practicality of using CRISPR-derived knockout (KO) cells in the experimental contexts of unraveling the molecular details of GPCR signaling mechanisms. To mention a few, KO cells have revealed the contribution of β-arrestins in ERK activation, Gα protein selectivity, GRK-based regulation of GPCRs, and many more, hence validating its broad applicability in GPCR studies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review emphasizes the practical application of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) transducer knockout (KO) cells in dissecting the intricate regulatory mechanisms of the GPCR signaling network. Currently available cell lines, along with accumulating KO cell lines in diverse cell types, offer valuable resources for systematically elucidating GPCR signaling regulation. Given the association of GPCR signaling with numerous diseases, uncovering the system-based signaling map is crucial for advancing the development of novel drugs targeting specific diseases.

Isolation and conformational analysis of the Gα α-helical domain

Heterotrimeric G proteins (G proteins), composed of Gα, Gβ, and Gγ subunits, are the major downstream signaling molecules of the G protein-coupled receptors. Upon activation, Gα undergoes conformational changes both in the Ras-like domain (RD) and the α-helical domain (AHD), leading to the dissociation of Gα from Gβγ and subsequent regulation of downstream effector proteins. Gα RD mediate the most of classical functions of Gα. However, the role of Gα AHD is relatively not well elucidated despite its much higher sequence differences between Gα subtypes than those between Gα RD. Here, we isolated AHD from Gαs, Gαi1, and Gαq to provide tools for examining Gα AHD. We investigated the conformational dynamics of the isolated Gα AHD compared to those of the GDP-bound Gα. The results showed higher local conformational dynamics of Gα AHD not only at the domain interfaces but also in regions further away from the domain interfaces. This finding is consistent with the conformation of Gα AHD in the receptor-bound nucleotide-free state. Therefore, the isolated Gα AHD could provide a platform for studying the functions of Gα AHD, such as identification of the Gα AHD-binding proteins.

Structural and Functional Implication of Natural Variants of Gαs

Heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) are among the most important cellular signaling components, especially G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). G proteins comprise three subunits, Gα, Gβ, and Gγ. Gα is the key subunit, and its structural state regulates the active status of G proteins. Interaction of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP) with Gα switches G protein into basal or active states, respectively. Genetic alteration in Gα could be responsible for the development of various diseases due to its critical role in cell signaling. Specifically, loss-of-function mutations of Gαs are associated with parathyroid hormone-resistant syndrome such as inactivating parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTH/PTHrP) signaling disorders (iPPSDs), whereas gain-of-function mutations of Gαs are associated with McCune-Albright syndrome and tumor development. In the present study, we analyzed the structural and functional implications of natural variants of the Gαs subtype observed in iPPSDs. Although a few tested natural variants did not alter the structure and function of Gαs, others induced drastic conformational changes in Gαs, resulting in improper folding and aggregation of the proteins. Other natural variants induced only mild conformational changes but altered the GDP/GTP exchange kinetics. Therefore, the results shed light on the relationship between natural variants of Gα and iPPSDs.

In vitro reconstitution reveals cooperative mechanisms of adapter protein-mediated activation of phospholipase C-γ1 in T cells

Activation of T cells upon engagement of the T cell antigen receptor rapidly leads to a number of phosphorylation and plasma membrane recruitment events. For example, translocation of phospholipase-Cγ1 (PLC−γ1) to the plasma membrane and its association with the transmembrane adapter protein LAT and two other adapter proteins, Gads and SLP-76, are critical events in the early T cell activation process. We have previously characterized the formation of a tetrameric LAT-Gads-SLP-76-PLC−γ1 complex by reconstitution in vitro and have also characterized the thermodynamics of tetramer formation. In the current study, we define how PLC−γ1 recruitment to liposomes, which serve as a plasma membrane surrogate, and PLC−γ1 activation are regulated both independently and additively by recruitment of PLC−γ1 to phosphorylated LAT, by formation of the LAT-Gads-SLP-76-PLC−γ1 tetramer, and by tyrosine phosphorylation of PLC−γ1. The recently solved structure of PLC−γ1 indicates that, in the resting state, several PLC−γ1 domains inhibit its enzymatic activity and contact with the plasma membrane. We propose the multiple cooperative steps that we observed likely lead to conformational alterations in the regulatory domains of PLC−γ1, enabling contact with its membrane substrate, disinhibition of PLC−γ1 enzymatic activity, and production of the phosphoinositide cleavage products necessary for T cell activation.

Endothelial GNAQ p.R183Q Increases ANGPT2 (Angiopoietin-2) and Drives Formation of Enlarged Blood Vessels

OBJECTIVE

Capillary malformation (CM) occurs sporadically and is associated with Sturge-Weber syndrome. The somatic mosaic mutation in GNAQ (c.548G>A, p.R183Q) is enriched in endothelial cells (ECs) in skin CM and Sturge-Weber syndrome brain CM. Our goal was to investigate how the mutant Gαq (G-protein αq subunit) alters EC signaling and disrupts capillary morphogenesis. Approach and Results: We used lentiviral constructs to express p.R183Q or wild-type GNAQ in normal human endothelial colony forming cells (EC-R183Q and EC-WT, respectively). EC-R183Q constitutively activated PLC (phospholipase C) β3, a downstream effector of Gαq. Activated PLCβ3 was also detected in human CM tissue sections. Bulk RNA sequencing analyses of mutant versus wild-type EC indicated constitutive activation of PKC (protein kinase C), NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) and calcineurin signaling in EC-R183Q. Increased expression of downstream targets in these pathways, ANGPT2 (angiopoietin-2) and DSCR (Down syndrome critical region protein) 1.4 were confirmed by quantitative PCR and immunostaining of human CM tissue sections. The Gαq inhibitor YM-254890 as well as siRNA targeted to PLCβ3 reduced mRNA expression levels of these targets in EC-R183Q while the pan-PKC inhibitor AEB071 reduced ANGPT2 but not DSCR1.4. EC-R183Q formed enlarged blood vessels in mice, reminiscent of those found in human CM. shRNA knockdown of ANGPT2 in EC-R183Q normalized the enlarged vessels to sizes comparable those formed by EC-WT.

CONCLUSIONS

Gαq-R183Q, when expressed in ECs, establishes constitutively active PLCβ3 signaling that leads to increased ANGPT2 and a proangiogenic, proinflammatory phenotype. EC-R183Q are sufficient to form enlarged CM-like vessels in mice, and suppression of ANGPT2 prevents the enlargement. Our study provides the first evidence that endothelial Gαq-R183Q is causative for CM and identifies ANGPT2 as a contributor to CM vascular phenotype.

Autocrine regulation of airway smooth muscle contraction by diacylglycerol kinase

Diacylglycerol kinase (DGK), a lipid kinase, catalyzes the conversion of diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid, thereby terminating DAG-mediated signaling by Gq-coupled receptors that regulate contraction of airway smooth muscle (ASM). A previous study from our laboratory demonstrated that DGK inhibition or genetic ablation leads to reduced ASM contraction and provides protection for allergen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness. However, the mechanism by which DGK regulates contractile signaling in ASM is not well established. Herein, we investigated the role of prorelaxant cAMP-protein kinase A (PKA) signaling in DGK-mediated regulation of ASM contraction. Pretreatment of human ASM cells with DGK inhibitor I activated PKA as demonstrated by the phosphorylation of PKA substrates, VASP, Hsp20, and CREB, which was abrogated when PKA was inhibited pharmacologically or molecularly using overexpression of the PKA inhibitor peptide, PKI. Furthermore, inhibition of DGK resulted in induction of cyclooxygenase (COX) and generation of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂ ) with concomitant activation of Gs-cAMP-PKA signaling in ASM cells in an autocrine/paracrine fashion. Inhibition of protein kinase C (PKC) or extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) attenuated DGK-mediated production of PGE₂ and activation of cAMP-PKA signaling in human ASM cells, suggesting that inhibition of DGK activates the COX-PGE₂ pathway in a PKC-ERK-dependent manner. Finally, DGK inhibition-mediated attenuation of contractile agonist-induced phosphorylation of myosin light chain 20 (MLC-20), a marker of ASM contraction, involves COX-mediated cAMP production and PKA activation in ASM cells. Collectively these findings establish a novel mechanism by which DGK regulates ASM contraction and further advances DGK as a potential therapeutic target to provide effective bronchoprotection in asthma.

Diacylglycerol Kinase Inhibition Reduces Airway Contraction by Negative Feedback Regulation of Gq-signaling

Exaggerated airway smooth muscle (ASM) contraction regulated by the Gq family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) causes airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) in asthma. Activation of Gq-coupled GPCRs leads to phospholipase C (PLC)-mediated generation of inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). DAG signaling is terminated by the action of DAG kinase (DGK) that converts DAG into phosphatidic acid (PA). Our previous study demonstrated that DGKα and ζ isoform knockout mice are protected from the development of allergen-induced AHR. Here we aimed at determining the mechanism by which DGK regulates ASM contraction. Activity of DGK isoforms was inhibited in human ASM cells by siRNA-mediated knockdown of DGKα and ζwhile pharmacological inhibition was achieved by pan DGK inhibitor I (R59022). Effects of DGK inhibition on contractile agonist-induced activation of PLC and myosin light chain (MLC) kinase, elevation of IP3, and calcium levels were assessed. Further, we employed human precision-cut lung slices and assessed the role of DGK in agonist-induced bronchoconstriction. DGK inhibitor I attenuated histamine- and methacholine-induced bronchoconstriction. DGKα and ζ knockdown or pre-treatment with DGK inhibitor I resulted in attenuated agonist-induced phosphorylation of MLC and myosin light chain phosphatase in ASM cells. Further, DGK inhibition decreased Gq agonist-induced calcium elevation, generation of IP3, and increased histamine-induced production of PA. Finally, DGK inhibition or treatment with DAG analog resulted in attenuation of activation of PLC in human ASM cells. Our findings suggest that DGK inhibition perturbed the DAG:PA ratio resulting in inhibition of Gq-PLC activation in a negative feedback manner, resulting in protection against ASM contraction.

Heterotrimeric G Protein Subunit Gαq Is a Master Switch for Gβγ-Mediated Calcium Mobilization by Gi-Coupled GPCRs

Mechanisms that control mobilization of cytosolic calcium [Ca²⁺]_i are key for regulation of numerous eukaryotic cell functions. One such paradigmatic mechanism involves activation of phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ) enzymes by G protein βγ subunits from activated Gα_i-Gβγ heterotrimers. Here, we report identification of a master switch to enable this control for PLCβ enzymes in living cells. We find that the Gα_i-Gβγ-PLCβ-Ca²⁺ signaling module is entirely dependent on the presence of active Gα_q. If Gα_q is pharmacologically inhibited or genetically ablated, Gβγ can bind to PLCβ but does not elicit Ca²⁺ signals. Removal of an auto-inhibitory linker that occludes the active site of the enzyme is required and sufficient to empower "stand-alone control" of PLCβ by Gβγ. This dependence of Gi-Gβγ-Ca²⁺ on Gα_q places an entire signaling branch of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) under hierarchical control of Gq and changes our understanding of how Gi-GPCRs trigger [Ca²⁺]_i via PLCβ enzymes.

Presynaptic Dopamine D2 Receptors Modulate [3H]GABA Release at StriatoPallidal Terminals via Activation of PLC → IP3 → Calcineurin and Inhibition of AC → cAMP → PKA Signaling Cascades

Striatal dopamine D2 receptors activate the PLC → IP3 → Calcineurin-signaling pathway to modulate the neural excitability of En+ Medium-sized Spiny GABAergic neurons (MSN) through the regulation of L-type Ca²⁺ channels. Presynaptic dopaminergic D2 receptors modulate GABA release at striatopallidal terminals through L-type Ca²⁺ channels as well, but their signaling pathway is still undetermined. Since D2 receptors are Gi/o-coupled and negatively modulate adenylyl cyclase (AC), we investigated whether presynaptic D2 receptors modulate GABA release through the same signaling cascade that controls excitability in the striatum or by the inhibition of AC and decreased PKA activity. Activation of D2 receptors stimulated formation of [³H]IP₁ and decreased Forskolin-stimulated [³H]cAMP accumulation in synaptosomes from rat Globus Pallidus. D2 receptor activation with Quinpirole in the presence of L 745,870 decreased, in a dose-dependent manner, K⁺-induced [³H]GABA release in pallidal slices. The effect was prevented by the pharmacological blockade of Gi/o βγ subunit effects with Gallein, PLC with U 73122, IP3 receptor activation with 4-APB, Calcineurin with FK506. In addition, when release was stimulated with Forskolin to activate AC, D2 receptors also decreased K⁺-induced [³H]GABA release, an effect occluded with the effect of the blockade of PKA with H89 or stimulation of release with the cAMP analog 8-Br-cAMP. These data indicate that D2 receptors modulate [³H]GABA release at striatopallidal terminals by activating the PLC → IP3 → Calcineurin-signaling cascade, the same one that modulates excitability in soma. Additionally, D2 receptors inhibit release when AC is active. Both mechanisms appear to converge to regulate the activity of presynaptic L-type Ca²⁺ channels.

Regulation of retinal angiogenesis by phospholipase C-β3 signaling pathway

Angiogenesis has an essential role in many pathophysiologies. Here, we show that phospholipase C-β3 (PLC-β3) isoform regulates endothelial cell function and retinal angiogenesis. Silencing of PLC-β3 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) significantly delayed proliferation, migration and capillary-like tube formation. In addition, mice lacking PLC-β3 showed impaired retinal angiogenesis with delayed endothelial proliferation, reduced endothelial cell activation, abnormal vessel formation and hemorrhage. Finally, tumor formation was significantly reduced in mice lacking PLC-β3 and showed irregular size and shape of blood vessels. These results suggest that regulation of endothelial function by PLC-β3 may contribute to angiogenesis.

Apelin-13 enhances arcuate POMC neuron activity via inhibiting M-current

The hypothalamus is a key element of the neural circuits that control energy homeostasis. Specific neuronal populations within the hypothalamus are sensitive to a variety of homeostatic indicators such as circulating nutrient levels and hormones that signal circulating glucose and body fat content. Central injection of apelin secreted by adipose tissues regulates feeding and glucose homeostasis. However, the precise neuronal populations and cellular mechanisms involved in these physiological processes remain unclear. Here we examine the electrophysiological impact of apelin-13 on proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neuron activity. Approximately half of POMC neurons examined respond to apelin-13. Apelin-13 causes a dose-dependent depolarization. This effect is abolished by the apelin (APJ) receptor antagonist. POMC neurons from animals pre-treated with pertussis toxin still respond to apelin, whereas the Gβγ signaling inhibitor gallein blocks apelin-mediated depolarization. In addition, the effect of apelin is inhibited by the phospholipase C and protein kinase inhibitors. Furthermore, single-cell qPCR analysis shows that POMC neurons express the APJ receptor, PLC-β isoforms, and KCNQ subunits (2, 3 and 5) which contribute to M-type current. Apelin-13 inhibits M-current that is blocked by the KCNQ channel inhibitor. Therefore, our present data indicate that apelin activates APJ receptors, and the resultant dissociation of the Gαq heterotrimer triggers a Gβγ-dependent activation of PLC-β signaling that inhibits M-current.

Characterization of [(3) H]LS-3-134, a novel arylamide phenylpiperazine D3 dopamine receptor selective radioligand

LS-3-134 is a substituted N-phenylpiperazine derivative that has been reported to exhibit: (i) high-affinity binding (Ki value 0.2 nM) at human D3 dopamine receptors, (ii) > 100-fold D3 versus D2 dopamine receptor subtype binding selectivity, and (iii) low-affinity binding (Ki  > 5000 nM) at sigma 1 and sigma 2 receptors. Based upon a forskolin-dependent activation of the adenylyl cyclase inhibition assay, LS-3-134 is a weak partial agonist at both D2 and D3 dopamine receptor subtypes (29% and 35% of full agonist activity, respectively). In this study, [(3) H]-labeled LS-3-134 was prepared and evaluated to further characterize its use as a D3 dopamine receptor selective radioligand. Kinetic and equilibrium radioligand binding studies were performed. This radioligand rapidly reaches equilibrium (10-15 min at 37°C) and binds with high affinity to both human (Kd  = 0.06 ± 0.01 nM) and rat (Kd  = 0.2 ± 0.02 nM) D3 receptors expressed in HEK293 cells. Direct and competitive radioligand binding studies using rat caudate and nucleus accumbens tissue indicate that [(3) H]LS-3-134 selectively binds a homogeneous population of binding sites with a dopamine D3 receptor pharmacological profile. Based upon these studies, we propose that [(3) H]LS-3-134 represents a novel D3 dopamine receptor selective radioligand that can be used for studying the expression and regulation of the D3 dopamine receptor subtype.

M3 muscarinic receptor interaction with phospholipase C β3 determines its signaling efficiency

Phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ) enzymes are activated by G protein-coupled receptors through receptor-catalyzed guanine nucleotide exchange on Gαβγ heterotrimers containing Gq family G proteins. Here we report evidence for a direct interaction between M3 muscarinic receptor (M3R) and PLCβ3. Both expressed and endogenous M3R interacted with PLCβ in coimmunoprecipitation experiments. Stimulation of M3R with carbachol significantly increased this association. Expression of M3R in CHO cells promoted plasma membrane localization of YFP-PLCβ3. Deletion of the PLCβ3 C terminus or deletion of the PLCβ3 PDZ ligand inhibited coimmunoprecipitation with M3R and M3R-dependent PLCβ3 plasma membrane localization. Purified PLCβ3 bound directly to glutathione S-transferase (GST)-fused M3R intracellular loops 2 and 3 (M3Ri2 and M3Ri3) as well as M3R C terminus (M3R/H8-CT). PLCβ3 binding to M3Ri3 was inhibited when the PDZ ligand was removed. In assays using reconstituted purified components in vitro, M3Ri2, M3Ri3, and M3R/H8-CT potentiated Gαq-dependent but not Gβγ-dependent PLCβ3 activation. Disruption of key residues in M3Ri3N and of the PDZ ligand in PLCβ3 inhibited M3Ri3-mediated potentiation. We propose that the M3 muscarinic receptor maximizes the efficiency of PLCβ3 signaling beyond its canonical role as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Gα.

Cellular and molecular action of the mitogenic protein-deamidating toxin from Pasteurella multocida

The mitogenic toxin from Pasteurella multocida (PMT) is a member of the dermonecrotic toxin family, which includes toxins from Bordetella, Escherichia coli and Yersinia. Members of the dermonecrotic toxin family modulate G-protein targets in host cells through selective deamidation and/or transglutamination of a critical active site Gln residue in the G-protein target, which results in the activation of intrinsic GTPase activity. Structural and biochemical data point to the uniqueness of PMT among these toxins in its structure and action. Whereas the other dermonecrotic toxins act on small Rho GTPases, PMT acts on the α subunits of heterotrimeric G(q) -, G(i) - and G(12/13) -protein families. To date, experimental evidence supports a model in which PMT potently stimulates various mitogenic and survival pathways through the activation of G(q) and G(12/13) signaling, ultimately leading to cellular proliferation, whilst strongly inhibiting pathways involved in cellular differentiation through the activation of G(i) signaling. The resulting cellular outcomes account for the global physiological effects observed during infection with toxinogenic P. multocida, and hint at potential long-term sequelae that may result from PMT exposure.

Deamidation and transamidation of substance P by tissue transglutaminase revealed by electron-capture dissociation fourier transform mass spectrometry

Tissue transglutaminase (tTGase) catalyzes both deamidation and transamidation of peptides and proteins by using a peptidyl glutamine as primary substrate. A precise consensus sequence for the enzyme is unknown and the ratio between deamidated and transamidated (or cross-linked) reaction products is highly substrate-dependent. Due to its overlapping body distribution with tTGase and ease of manipulation with tandem mass spectrometry, we used the neuropeptide substance P as a model to investigate the associated enzymatic kinetics and reaction products. Online liquid-chromatography Fourier-transform ion-cyclotron-resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) combined with electron-capture dissociation (ECD) was employed to study the tTGase-induced modifications of substance P. A particular strength of ECD for peptide-enzyme reaction product monitoring is its ability to distinguish isomeric amino acids, for example, Glu and iso-Glu, by signature product ions. Our studies show that the primary reaction observed is deamidation, with the two consecutive glutamine residues converted sequentially into glutamate: first Gln(5) , and subsequently Gln(6) . We then applied ECD FT-ICR MS to identify the transamidation site on an enzymatically cross-linked peptide, which turned out to correspond to Gln(5) . Three populations of substance-P dimers were detected that differed by the number of deamidated Gln residues. The higher reactivity of Gln(5) over Gln(6) was further confirmed by cross-linking SP with monodansylcadaverine (MDC). Overall, our approach described herein is of a general importance for mapping both enzymatically induced post-translational protein modifications and cross-linking. Finally, in vitro Ca-signaling assays revealed that the main tTGase reaction product, the singly deamidated SP (RPKPEQFFGLM-NH(2) ), has increased agonist potency towards its natural receptor, thus confirming the biologically relevant role of deamidation.

Recent insights into Pasteurella multocida toxin and other G-protein-modulating bacterial toxins

Over the past few decades, our understanding of the bacterial protein toxins that modulate G proteins has advanced tremendously through extensive biochemical and structural analyses. This article provides an updated survey of the various toxins that target G proteins, ending with a focus on recent mechanistic insights in our understanding of the deamidating toxin family. The dermonecrotic toxin from Pasteurella multocida (PMT) was recently added to the list of toxins that disrupt G-protein signal transduction through selective deamidation of their targets. The C3 deamidase domain of PMT has no sequence similarity to the deamidase domains of the dermonecrotic toxins from Escherichia coli (cytotoxic necrotizing factor [CNF]1-3), Yersinia (CNFY) and Bordetella (dermonecrotic toxin). The structure of PMT-C3 belongs to a family of transglutaminase-like proteins, with active site Cys-His-Asp catalytic triads distinct from E. coli CNF1.

Distinct role of PLCbeta3 in VEGF-mediated directional migration and vascular sprouting

Endothelial cell proliferation and migration is essential to angiogenesis. Typically, proliferation and chemotaxis of endothelial cells is driven by growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). VEGF activates phospholipases (PLCs) - specifically PLCgamma1 - that are important for tubulogenesis, differentiation and DNA synthesis. However, we show here that VEGF, specifically through VEGFR2, induces phosphorylation of two serine residues on PLCbeta3, and this was confirmed in an ex vivo embryoid body model. Knockdown of PLCbeta3 in HUVEC cells affects IP3 production, actin reorganization, migration and proliferation; whereas migration is inhibited, proliferation is enhanced. Our data suggest that enhanced proliferation is precipitated by an accelerated cell cycle, and decreased migration by an inability to activate CDC42. Given that PLCbeta3 is typically known as an effector of heterotrimeric G-proteins, our data demonstrate a unique crosstalk between the G-protein and receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) axes and reveal a novel molecular mechanism of VEGF signaling and, thus, angiogenesis.

A self-scaffolding model for G protein signaling

Activation of heterotrimeric G proteins is generally believed to induce dissociation of Galpha and Gbetagamma subunits, which are then free to bind to and change the catalytic activity of a variety of intracellular enzymes. We have previously found that in cells, Galphaq subunits remain complexed with its major effector, phospholipase Cbeta1, through the activation cycle. To determine whether this behavior may be operative in other systems, we carried out Förster resonance energy transfer studies and found that eYFP-Galphai and eCFP-Gbetagamma remain associated after stimulation in HEK293 cells. We also found that the level of Forster resonance energy transfer between Alexa546-phospholipase Cbeta2 and eGFP-Gbetagamma is significant and unchanged upon activation in HEK293 cells, thus showing that these proteins can localize into stable signaling complexes. To understand the basis for this stabilization, we carried out in vitro studies using a series of single-Cys mutants labeled with fluorescence tags and monitored their interaction with Gbetagamma subunits and changes in their fluorescence properties and accessibility upon activation and Gbetagamma binding. Our studies suggest a significant change in the orientation between G protein subunits upon activation that allows the G proteins to remain complexed while activating effectors.

Kaposi's sarcoma virally encoded, G-protein-coupled receptor: a paradigm for paracrine transformation

Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is an angioproliferative disease caused by infection with human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), also known as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). This virus encodes 84 open-reading frames (ORFs), many of which represent pirated versions of human genes. One of them, ORF74, encodes a predicted seven-span transmembrane receptor termed vGPCR that is similar to the human IL8 receptor CXCR2, which displays strong oncogenic activity in vitro and in vivo by a complex interplay of direct and autocrine/paracrine mechanisms. vGPCR has been shown to be both necessary and sufficient for the formation and progression of KS-like lesions in experimental model systems. Due to the fundamental role of vGPCR in the pathogenesis of KS, understanding the molecular mechanisms elicited by this unique chemokine receptor can be exploited to devise new strategies for KS management, as well as to gain novel insights into how KSHV subverts key physiological processes such as cell proliferation, chemotaxis, angiogenesis, and immunomodulation for its replicative advantage. Here we describe multiple techniques and strategies that have been used to study the unique properties and functions of vGPCR and its role in oncogenesis.

G proteins in signal transduction: the regulation of phospholipase C

The hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate by specific phospholipase C (PLC) enzymes produces two second messengers, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and diacylglycerol. Heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins (G proteins) of the Gq subfamily activate the PLC beta 1 isoform of PLC. We have purified three isozymes of PLC beta: PLC beta 1 and PLC beta 3 from rat brain and PLC beta 2 from HL-60 cells. Whereas the beta 1 and beta 2 isozymes appear restricted to a few cell types, beta 3 is broadly distributed. Gq alpha (the alpha subunit of the Gq subfamily) can activate all three isoforms but PLC beta 2 is much less sensitive. Thus all three enzymes are potential effectors for pertussis toxin-insensitive regulation by hormones. The three beta isozymes can also be activated by purified beta gamma subunits. The PLC beta 3 isoform gives the greatest activation with beta gamma; PLC beta 1 is least responsive. The results indicate that all the known isoforms of mammalian PLC beta can be regulated at unique sites by both Gq alpha and beta gamma subunits. The effect of beta gamma subunits may provide a pathway for the regulation of PLC beta isozymes by pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins or may indicate that the alpha subunit of Gq and its associated beta gamma both participate in regulation of the same phospholipase molecule.

Fish somatostatin sst3 receptor: comparison of radioligand and GTPgammaS binding, adenylate cyclase and phospholipase C activities reveals different agonist-dependent pharmacological signatures

1 The fish somatostatin receptor 3 (fsst3) is one of the few somatostatin (SRIF) receptors cloned from a non-mammalian species so far. Here we extended our earlier characterization of this receptor by investigating the guanine nucleotide sensitivity of agonist radioligand binding at the fsst3 receptor recombinantly expressed in CCL39 (Chinese hamster lung fibroblast) cells. Further, we measured somatostatin (SRIF) and cortistatin (CST) analogues stimulated GTPgammaS binding, inhibition of forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase (FSAC) and stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC) activities. The present transductional data were then compared with previous radioligand binding and/or second messenger features determined for fsst3 and/or human SRIF receptors (hsst2, hsst3 and hsst5). 2 The GTP analogue guanylylimidodiphosphate (GppNHp) inhibited binding of [125I]CGP 23996 and [125I][Tyr3octreotide by 72 and 83% suggesting preferential labelling of G-protein-coupled fsst3 receptors. By contrast, [125I]LTT-SRIF28 and [125I][Tyr10]CST14 binding was rather GppNHp insensitive (42 and 35% inhibition) suggesting labelling of both coupled and non-coupled receptor states. These results might explain the apparent higher receptor densities determined in saturation experiments with [125I]LTT-SRIF28 and [125I][Tyr10]CST14 (4470 and 4030 fmol mg(-1)) compared with [125I]CGP 23996 and [125I][Tyr3]octreotide (3420 and 1520 fmol mg(-1)). 3 SRIF14 (10 microm)-stimulated specific [35S]GTPgammaS binding by three-fold; SRIF28 and octreotide displayed full agonism, whereas most other ligands displayed 60-80% intrinsic activity compared with SRIF14. SRIF14 and SRIF28 inhibited forskolin-stimulated AC (FSAC) activity by 60%; all tested ligands except BIM 23056 inhibited FSAC with comparable high intrinsic activities. SRIF14 stimulated PLC activity five- to six-fold, as determined by measuring total [3H] IP(x) accumulation; it was rather insensitive to pertussis toxin (PTX, 100 ng ml(-1), 21% inhibition), which suggests the G(q)-family proteins couple to PLC activity. SRIF14, SRIF28 and [Tyr10]CST14 showed full agonism at PLC, whereas all other ligands behaved as partial agonists (20-70% intrinsic activity). BIM 23056, which showed weak partial or no agonism, antagonized SRIF14-induced total [3H]-IP(x) production (pK(B) = 6.83), but failed to block competitively agonist-stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS binding or agonist-induced inhibition of FSAC activity. 4 Comparison of the pharmacological profiles of fsst3 receptors established in GTPgammaS binding, FSAC inhibition and PLC stimulation resulted in low correlations (r = 0.410-0.594). Both rank orders of potency and rank orders of relative efficacy varied in the three second messenger experiments. Significant, although variable correlations were obtained comparing GTPgammaS binding and inhibition of FSAC activity with previously reported affinity profiles of [125I]LTT-SRIF28, [125I][Tyr10]CST14, [125I]CGP 23996, [125I][Tyr3]octreotide (r = 0.75-0.83; 0.68-0.89). By contrast, the PLC stimulation and radioligand-binding profiles did not correlate. 5 Comparison of the functional data (GTPgammaS binding, FSAC inhibition, PLC stimulation) of fsst3 receptors with those of human sst2, sst3, sst5 receptors expressed in CCL39 cells resulted in highest correlation with the hsst5 receptor (r = 0.94, 0.97, 0.49) > hsst2 (0.80, 0.50, n.d.) > hsst3 (0.25, 0.19, 0.17). 6 In summary, fsst3 receptors expressed in CCL39 cells are involved in signalling cascades similar to those reported for mammalian SRIF receptors, suggesting SRIF receptors to be highly conserved in evolution. Binding and functional data showed highest similarity of fsst3 receptors with the human sst5 receptor subtype. Different affinities, receptor densities and GppNHp-sensitivities determined with the four radioligands (agonists) are assumed to results from ligand-specific states of the fsst3-ligand complex. The differences in the rank orders of potency and relative efficacy in the various signalling cascades may be explained by agonist-induced receptor trafficking.

Prolactin in the brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula): development of homologous radioimmunoassay using recombinant possum prolactin

We report the production of recombinant possum prolactin (posPrl), and its use in the development and validation of a highly specific homologous radioimmunoassay for the measurement of prolactin (Prl) in brushtail possums. This enabled the subsequent investigation of some basic mechanisms involved in the regulation of Prl secretion in this species. Recombinant posPrl spanning the entire coding region was expressed in Escherichia coli, resulting in a 199 amino acid protein with a molecular weight approximately 23 kDa. The potency of posPrl was 45.3 +/- 4.8% that of ovine Prl in a radioreceptor assay using possum mammary gland receptors and induced a 3.4 +/- 0.8-fold increase in progesterone secretion in primary possum granulosa cells. Antiserum (G27) was raised against recombinant posPrl and was highly specific for possum Prl (approximately 30% binding at 1:60,000 final dilution), and exhibited negligible cross-reactivity (<0.0001%) with possum growth hormone. Serial dilutions of pituitary gland extracts, and plasma samples from male and female possums gave parallel inhibition curves to recombinant posPrl standards in the assay. Biological validation of the RIA included treating possums with drugs known to alter Prl secretion in other mammals. In seasonally anoestrous female possums, administration of 20 microg thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) resulted in a 15-fold increase (P < 0.01) in plasma Prl concentrations. In mid-late lactating female possums, a bolus of cabergoline (dopamine agonist; 75 microg) reduced (P < 0.05) plasma Prl levels to baseline for 24 h, while repeated administration (6 x 75 microg at 12 h intervals) suppressed (P < 0.01) plasma Prl concentrations until 24h after the last injection. Prolonged inhibition of Prl levels subsequently caused marked (P < 0.01) attenuation in rate of bodyweight increase of pouch young. The amplitude of the Prl surge in response to a bolus of TRH (15 microg) was 5-fold lower in cabergoline-treated, compared to control mid-late lactating possums. In conclusion, we report the development and validation of a robust and sensitive RIA for measuring Prl concentrations in the plasma of brushtail possums.

Characterization of interactions of Na+/H+ exchanger regulatory factor-1 with the parathyroid hormone receptor and phospholipase C

The Na(+)/H(+) exchanger regulatory factor-1 (NHERF1) is a molecular scaffold important for the signaling of the G-protein coupled receptor for the parathyroid hormone (PTH1R). The two PDZ (PSD-95, Discs-large, ZO1) domains of NHERF1 through association with the C-termini of PTH1R and phospholipase C enhance the signaling pathway associated with PTH. To examine these interactions, we have produced the individual PDZ1 and PDZ2 domains as well as the tandem PDZ1-PDZ2 domains (PDZ12) of NHERF1 and have characterized the binding affinities of the C-terminal motifs of PTH1R and PLCbeta using fluorescence anisotropy. Circular dichroism indicates that the PDZ1 and PDZ2 are properly folded. Based on fluorescence anisotropy we find that the C-terminus of PTH1R, containing ETVM, has similar affinities (approximately 10 microm) for both PDZ1 and PDZ2. The PTH1R displayed reduced binding affinity for the tandem PDZ12 (16 microm) compared with the individual domains or a solution of equal molar concentrations of PDZ1 and PDZ2 (5.8 microm), suggesting negative cooperativity between the PDZ domains or intervening region. The C-termini of PLCbeta (both beta1 and beta2 isozymes were examined, containing DTPL and ESRL, respectively) displayed a diminished affinity for PDZ2 (approximately 30 microm) over that of PDZ1 (approximately 8 microm). Finally, we demonstrate trans PDZ1-PDZ2 association that is enhanced in the presence of the C-terminus of PTH1R or PLCbeta, suggesting oligomerization of NHERF as a mode for enhancing the signaling associated with PTH.

Regulation of KCNQ2/KCNQ3 current by G protein cycling: the kinetics of receptor-mediated signaling by Gq

Receptor-mediated modulation of KCNQ channels regulates neuronal excitability. This study concerns the kinetics and mechanism of M₁ muscarinic receptor–mediated regulation of the cloned neuronal M channel, KCNQ2/KCNQ3 (Kv7.2/Kv7.3). Receptors, channels, various mutated G-protein subunits, and an optical probe for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) were coexpressed by transfection in tsA-201 cells, and the cells were studied by whole-cell patch clamp and by confocal microscopy. Constitutively active forms of Gα_q and Gα₁₁, but not Gα₁₃, caused a loss of the plasma membrane PIP₂ and a total tonic inhibition of the KCNQ current. There were no further changes upon addition of the muscarinic agonist oxotremorine-M (oxo-M). Expression of the regulator of G-protein signaling, RGS2, blocked PIP₂ hydrolysis and current suppression by muscarinic stimulation, confirming that the G_q family of G-proteins is necessary. Dialysis with the competitive inhibitor GDPβS (1 mM) lengthened the time constant of inhibition sixfold, decreased the suppression of current, and decreased agonist sensitivity. Removal of intracellular Mg²⁺ slowed both the development and the recovery from muscarinic suppression. When combined with GDPβS, low intracellular Mg²⁺ nearly eliminated muscarinic inhibition. With nonhydrolyzable GTP analogs, current suppression developed spontaneously and muscarinic inhibition was enhanced. Such spontaneous suppression was antagonized by GDPβS or GTP or by expression of RGS2. These observations were successfully described by a kinetic model representing biochemical steps of the signaling cascade using published rate constants where available. The model supports the following sequence of events for this G_q-coupled signaling: A classical G-protein cycle, including competition for nucleotide-free G-protein by all nucleotide forms and an activation step requiring Mg²⁺, followed by G-protein–stimulated phospholipase C and hydrolysis of PIP₂, and finally PIP₂ dissociation from binding sites for inositol lipid on the channels so that KCNQ current was suppressed. Further experiments will be needed to refine some untested assumptions.

Dopamine-glutamate interactions controlling prefrontal cortical pyramidal cell excitability involve multiple signaling mechanisms

Although the importance of dopamine (DA) for prefrontal cortical (PFC) cognitive functions is widely recognized, the nature of DA actions in the PFC remains controversial. A critical component in DA actions is its modulation of glutamate transmission, which can be different when specific receptors are activated. To obtain a clear picture of cellular mechanisms involved in these interactions, we studied the effects of DA-glutamate coactivation on pyramidal cell excitability in brain slices obtained from developmentally mature rats using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. Bath application of NMDA, AMPA, and the D1 agonist SKF38393 induced concentration-dependent excitability increases, whereas bath application of the D2 receptor agonist quinpirole induced a concentration-dependent excitability decrease. The NMDA-mediated response was potentiated by SKF38393. This NMDA-D1 synergism required postsynaptic intracellular Ca2+ and protein kinase A (PKA) and was independent of membrane depolarization. On the other hand, the excitatory effects of both NMDA and AMPA were attenuated by a D2 agonist. Surprisingly, the D2-NMDA interaction was also blocked by the GABA(A) antagonists bicuculline and picrotoxin, suggesting that the inhibitory action of D2 receptors on NMDA-induced responses in the PFC may be mediated by GABAergic interneurons. In contrast, the D2-AMPA interaction involves inhibition of PKA and activation of phospholipase lipase C-IP3 and intracellular Ca2+ at a postsynaptic level. Thus, the modulatory actions of D1 and D2 receptors on PFC pyramidal cell excitability are mediated by multiple intracellular mechanisms and by activation of GABA(A) receptors, depending on the glutamate receptor subtypes involved.

Pasteurella multocida toxin as a tool for studying Gq signal transduction

Pasteurella multocida toxin (PMT) stimulates and subsequently uncouples phospholipase C (PLC) signal transduction through its selective action on the Galphaq subunit. This review summarizes what is currently known about the molecular action of PMT on Gq and the resulting cellular effects. Examples are presented illustrating the use of PMT as a powerful tool for dissecting the molecular mechanisms involving pertussis toxin (PT)-insensitive heterotrimeric G proteins.

Mutation and activation of Galpha s similarly alters pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms modulating neurotransmission

Constitutive activation of Galphas in the Drosophila brain abolishes associative learning, a behavioral disruption far worse than that observed in any single cAMP metabolic mutant, suggesting that Galphas is essential for synaptic plasticity. The intent of this study was to examine the role of Galphas in regulating synaptic function by targeting constitutively active Galphas to either pre- or postsynaptic cells and by examining loss-of-function Galphas mutants (dgs) at the glutamatergic neuromuscular junction (NMJ) model synapse. Surprisingly, both loss of Galphas and activation of Galphas in either pre- or postsynaptic compartment similarly increased basal neurotransmission, decreased short-term plasticity (facilitation and augmentation), and abolished posttetanic potentiation. Elevated synaptic function was specific to an evoked neurotransmission pathway because both spontaneous synaptic vesicle fusion frequency and amplitude were unaltered in all mutants. In the postsynaptic cell, the glutamate receptor field was regulated by Galphas activity; based on immunocytochemical studies, GluRIIA receptor subunits were dramatically downregulated (>75% decrease) in both loss and constitutive active Galphas genotypes. In the presynaptic cell, the synaptic vesicle cycle was regulated by Galphas activity; based on FM1-43 dye imaging studies, evoked vesicle fusion rate was increased in both loss and constitutively active Galphas genotypes. An important conclusion of this study is that both increased and decreased Galphas activity very similarly alters pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms. A second important conclusion is that Galphas activity induces transynaptic signaling; targeted Galphas activation in the presynapse downregulates postsynaptic GluRIIA receptors, whereas targeted Galphas activation in the postsynapse enhances presynaptic vesicle cycling.

Regulation of hematopoietic-specific G-protein Galpha15 and Galpha16 by protein kinase C

Heterotrimeric G proteins mediate cell growth and differentiation by coupling cell surface receptors to intracellular effector enzymes. The G-protein alpha subunit, Galpha(16), and its murine homologue Galpha(15), are expressed specifically in hematopoietic cells and their expression is highly regulated during differentiation of normal and leukemic cells. In this study, we examined the phosphorylation of Galpha(15)/Galpha(16) and its role in receptor and effector coupling. We observed a PMA-stimulated intact cell phosphorylation of Galpha(15) in COS7 cells transfected with Galpha(15) and protein kinase Calpha (PKCalpha), and phosphorylation of endogenous Galpha(16) in HL60 cells. We also showed that peptides derived from the two G-proteins were phosphorylated in vitro using purified brain PKC. Furthermore, we identified the putative phosphorylation site and showed that mutation or deletion of this PKC phosphorylation site inhibited phospholipase C (PLC) activation. The behavior of double mutants with the constitutively active G-protein mutation (QL-mutant) and mutation in the putative phosphorylation site suggests that the phosphorylation site of Galpha(15/16) is essential for receptor-coupled activation of PLC, but not for direct interaction of the G-protein with PLC-beta.

Involvement of G(q/11) in signal transduction in the mammalian vomeronasal organ

Social behaviors of most mammals are profoundly affected by pheromones. Pheromones are detected by G-protein coupled receptors in the vomeronasal organ (VNO). To investigate the role of G alpha(q/11) in vomeronasal signal transduction pathways, microvillar membranes from murine VNO were prepared. Incubation of such membranes from prepubertal females with adult male urine results in an increase in production of inositol-(1,4,5)-trisphosphate (IP(3)). This stimulation is mimicked by GTP gamma S, blocked by GDP beta S and is tissue specific. Furthermore, use of bacterial toxins such as pertussis that lead to ADP-ribosylation of the G-protein alpha subunits of G(o) and G(i2) do not block the increase in IP(3) levels but U-73122, a PLC inhibitor, blocks the production of IP(3). Studies with monospecific antibodies revealed the presence of three G-proteins, G alpha(o), G alpha(i2) and G alpha(q/11)-related protein, in vomeronasal neurons, concentrated on their microvilli. Our observations indicate that pheromones in male urine act on vomeronasal neurons in the female VNO via a receptor-mediated, G alpha(q/11)-protein-dependent increase in IP(3) levels.

Activated Galphaq family members induce Rho GTPase activation and Rho-dependent actin filament assembly

Rho GTPase is required for actin filament assembly and serum response element (SRE)-dependent gene transcription. Certain G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) induce Rho-dependent responses, but the intermediary signaling steps are poorly understood. The heterotrimeric Galpha12 family can induce Rho-dependent responses. In contrast, there are conflicting reports on the role of the Galphaq family in Rho signaling. We report that expression of activated Galphaq members, or activation of endogenous Galphaq via GPCR stimulation, induces SRE reporter activation via Rho, and increased GTP-Rho levels. Moreover, microinjection of activated Galphaq in fibroblasts induces actin stress fiber formation via Rho. Galphaq functionally cooperates with Lbc Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor. Overall, these findings indicate that Galphaq family signals are sufficient to induce Rho-dependent cellular responses.

Does the coronary risk factor low density lipoprotein alter growth and signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells?

There is increasing evidence that hypertension promotes low density lipoprotein (LDL) transportation into the subendothelial space of the vascular wall. Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation plays an important role in the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. Recently, several studies have demonstrated that LDL acts as a classic growth factor promoting VSMC growth via mitogenic signals normally elicited by classic growth factors. The present work summarizes current nontraditional concepts regarding possible cellular mechanisms through which hypertension and LDL may promote the development of atherosclerosis. Especially addressed are the possible effects of an elevated blood pressure in combination with LDL on VSMC growth. The new research concept concerning LDL as a growth factor and carrier for biological active phospholipids such as sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosylphosphorylcholine may contribute to an understanding of the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis by elevated high blood pressure.

Somatostatin-induced paradoxical increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration and insulin release in the presence of arginine vasopressin in clonal HIT-T15 beta-cells

Somatostatin, a hormone that signals via G(i)/G(o), usually inhibits increases in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) and insulin release from beta-cells. We have found that in the presence of arginine vasopressin (AVP), which signals via G(q), somatostatin increased [Ca(2+)](i), leading to insulin release in HIT-T15 cells. The increase in [Ca(2+)](i) by somatostatin was observed even after 60 min of AVP treatment. Somatostatin alone failed to increase [Ca(2+)](i) and insulin release. Somatostatin induced changes in [Ca(2+)](i) in a biphasic pattern, characterized by a sharp and transient increase followed by a rapid decline to sub-basal levels. Pretreatment with pertussis toxin, which inactivates G(i)/G(o), abolished the effects of somatostatin. U-73122, an inhibitor of phospholipase C, antagonized the somatostatin-induced increase in [Ca(2+)](i). In Ca(2+)-free medium, somatostatin still increased [Ca(2+)](i). Depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) stores with thapsigargin, a microsomal Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor, abolished somatostatin's effect. In the presence of bradykinin, another G(q)-coupled receptor agonist, somatostatin also increased [Ca(2+)](i), but not in the presence of isoproterenol (a G(s)-coupled receptor agonist) or medetomidine (a G(i)/G(o)-coupled receptor agonist). Our findings suggest that somatostatin signals through G(i)/G(o), and involves phospholipase C and Ca(2+) release from the endoplasmic reticulum. The increase in [Ca(2+)](i) by somatostatin leads to insulin release. This cross-talk is specific to G(q) and G(i)/G(o), and is not limited to the AVP and somatostatin receptors.

Characterization of bradykinin receptors in canine cultured corneal epithelial cells: pharmacological and functional studies

The pharmacological properties of bradykinin (BK) receptors were characterized in canine cultured corneal epithelial cells (CECs) using [(3)H]-BK as a radioligand. Analysis of binding isotherms gave an apparent equilibrium dissociation constant of 0.34 +/- 0.07 nM and a maximum receptor density of 179 +/- 23 fmol/mg protein. Neither a B(1) receptor-selective agonist (des-Arg(9)-BK) nor antagonist ([Leu(8), des-Arg(9)]-BK) significantly inhibited [(3)H]-BK binding to CECs, thus excluding the presence of B(1) receptors in canine CECs. The specific binding of [(3)H]-BK to CECs was inhibited by B(2) receptor-selective agonists (BK and kallidin) and antagonists (Hoe 140 and [D-Arg(0), Hyp(3), Thi(5,8), D-Phe(7)]-BK), with a best fit using a one-binding-site model. The order of potency for the inhibition of [(3)H]-BK binding was BK = Hoe 140 > kallidin > [D-Arg(0), Hyp(3), Thi(5,8), D-Phe(7)]-BK. Stimulation of CECs by BK produced a concentration-dependent accumulation of inositol phosphates (IP) and an initial transient peak of intracellular Ca(2+). B(2) receptor-selective antagonist ([D-Arg(0), Hyp(3), Thi(5,8), D-Phe(7)]-BK) significantly antagonized the BK-induced responses with dissociation constants of 6.0-6.1. Pretreatment of CECs with pertussis toxin (PTX) or cholera toxin did not alter the BK-induced IP accumulation. Incubation of CECs in the absence of external Ca(2+) led to a significant attenuation of the IP accumulation induced by BK. These results demonstrate that BK directly stimulates phospholipase C-mediated signal transduction through BK B(2) receptors via a PTX-insensitive G protein in canine CECs. This effect may function as the transducing mechanism for BK-mediated cellular responses.

P-Rex1, a PtdIns(3,4,5)P3- and Gbetagamma-regulated guanine-nucleotide exchange factor for Rac

Rac, a member of the Rho family of monomeric GTPases, is an integrator of intracellular signaling in a wide range of cellular processes. We have purified a PtdIns(3,4,5)P3-sensitive activator of Rac from neutrophil cytosol. It is an abundant, 185 kDa guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), which we cloned and named P-Rex1. The recombinant enzyme has Rac-GEF activity that is directly, substantially, and synergistically activated by PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 and Gbetagammas both in vitro and in vivo. P-Rex1 antisense oligonucleotides reduced endogenous P-Rex1 expression and C5a-stimulated reactive oxygen species formation in a neutrophil-like cell line. P-Rex1 appears to be a coincidence detector in PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 and Gbetagamma signaling pathways that is particularly adapted to function downstream of heterotrimeric G proteins in neutrophils.

Mechanisms of bradykinin-mediated Ca(2+) signalling in canine cultured corneal epithelial cells

Experiments were designed to differentiate the mechanisms of bradykinin receptors mediating the changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in canine cultured corneal epithelial cells (CECs). Bradykinin and Lys-bradykinin caused an initial transient peak of [Ca(2+)](i) in a concentration-dependent manner, with half-maximal stimulation (pEC(50)) obtained at 6.9 and 7.1, respectively. Pretreatment of CECs with pertussis toxin (PTX) or cholera toxin (CTX) for 24 h did not affect the bradykinin-induced [Ca(2+)](i) changes. Application of Ca(2+) channel blockers, diltiazem and Ni(2+), inhibited the bradykinin-induced Ca(2+) mobilization, indicating that Ca(2+) influx was required for the bradykinin-induced responses. Addition of thapsigargin (TG), which is known to deplete intracellular Ca(2+) stores, transiently increased [Ca(2+)](i) in Ca(2+)-free buffer, and subsequently induced Ca(2+) influx when Ca(2+) was readded to this buffer. Pretreatment of CECs with TG completely abolished bradykinin-induced initial transient [Ca(2+)](i), but had slight effect on bradykinin-induced Ca(2+) influx. Pretreatment of CECs with 1-[beta-[3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propoxy]-4-methoxyphenethyl]-1H-imidazole (SKF96365) and 1-(6-((17beta-3-methoxyestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-yl)amino)hexyl)-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione (U73122) inhibited the bradykinin-induced Ca(2+) release and Ca(2+) influx, consistent with the inhibition of receptor-gated Ca(2+) channels and phospholipase C (PLC) in CECs, respectively. These results demonstrate that bradykinin directly stimulates B(2) receptors and subsequently Ca(2+) mobilization via a PTX-insensitive G protein in canine CECs. These results suggest that bradykinin-induced Ca(2+) influx into the cells is not due to depletion of these Ca(2+) stores, as prior depletion of these pools by TG has no effect on the bradykinin-induced Ca(2+) influx that is dependent on extracellular Ca(2+) in CECs.

G-protein signaling through tubby proteins

Dysfunction of the tubby protein results in maturity-onset obesity in mice. Tubby has been implicated as a transcription regulator, but details of the molecular mechanism underlying its function remain unclear. Here we show that tubby functions in signal transduction from heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptors. Tubby localizes to the plasma membrane by binding phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate through its carboxyl terminal "tubby domain." X-ray crystallography reveals the atomic-level basis of this interaction and implicates tubby domains as phosphorylated-phosphatidyl- inositol binding factors. Receptor-mediated activation of G protein alphaq (Galphaq) releases tubby from the plasma membrane through the action of phospholipase C-beta, triggering translocation of tubby to the cell nucleus. The localization of tubby-like protein 3 (TULP3) is similarly regulated. These data suggest that tubby proteins function as membrane-bound transcription regulators that translocate to the nucleus in response to phosphoinositide hydrolysis, providing a direct link between G-protein signaling and the regulation of gene expression.

New thoughts on the role of the beta-gamma subunit in G-protein signal transduction

Heterotrimeric G proteins are involved in numerous biological processes, where they mediate signal transduction from agonist-bound G-protein-coupled receptors to a variety of intracellular effector molecules and ion channels. G proteins consist of two signaling moieties: a GTP-bound alpha subunit and a beta-gamma heterodimer. The beta-gamma dimer, recently credited as a significant modulator of G-protein-mediated cellular responses, is postulated to be a major determinant of signaling fidelity between G-protein-coupled receptors and downstream effectors. In this review we have focused on the role of beta-gamma signaling and have included examples to demonstrate the heterogeneity in the heterodimer composition and its implications in signaling fidelity. We also present an overview of some of the effectors regulated by beta-gamma and draw attention to the fact that, although G proteins and their associated receptors play an instrumental role in development, there is rather limited information on beta-gamma signaling in embryogenesis.

Neurotensin excites periaqueductal gray neurons projecting to the rostral ventromedial medulla

Microinjection of neurotensin into the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) produces a potent and naloxone-insensitive analgesic effect. To test the hypothesis that neurotensin induces the analgesic effect by activating the PAG-rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) descending antinociceptive pathway, PAG neurons that project to RVM (PAG-RVM) were identified by microinjecting DiI(C18), a retrograde tracing dye, into the rat RVM. Subsequently, fluorescently labeled PAG-RVM projection neurons were acutely dissociated and selected for whole cell patch-clamp recordings. During current-clamp recordings, neurotensin depolarized retrogradely labeled PAG-RVM neurons and evoked action potentials. Voltage-clamp recordings indicated that neurotensin excited PAG-RVM neurons by opening the voltage-insensitive and nonselective cation channels. Both SR 48692, a selective NTR-1 antagonist, and SR 142948A, a nonselective antagonist of NTR-1 and NTR-2, failed to prevent neurotensin from exciting PAG-RVM neurons. Neurotensin failed to evoke cationic currents after internally perfusing PAG-RVM projection neurons with GDP-beta-S or anti-G(alpha q/11) antiserum. Cellular Ca(2+) fluorescence measurement using fura-2 indicated that neurotensin rapidly induced Ca(2+) release from intracellular stores of PAG-RVM neurons. Neurotensin-evoked cationic currents were blocked by heparin, an IP(3) receptor antagonist, and 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA), a fast chelator of Ca(2+). These results suggest that by activating a novel subtype of neurotensin receptors, neurotensin depolarizes and excites PAG-RVM projection neurons through enhancing Ca(2+)-dependent nonselective cationic conductance. The coupling mechanism via G(alpha q/11) proteins is likely to involve the production of IP(3), and subsequent IP(3)-evoked Ca(2+) release leads to the opening of nonselective cation channels.

Adenosine triphosphate activates mitogen-activated protein kinase in human granulosa-luteal cells

ATP has been shown to activate the phospholipase C/diacylglycerol/protein kinase C (PKC) pathway. However, little is known about the downstream signaling events. The present study was designed to examine the effect of ATP on activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and its physiological role in human granulosa-luteal cells. Western blot analysis, using a monoclonal antibody that detected the phosphorylated forms of extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1 and -2 (p42(mapk) and p44 (mapk), respectively), demonstrated that ATP activated MAPK in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Treatment of the cells with suramin (a P2 purinoceptor antagonist), neomycin (a phospholipase C inhibitor), staurosporin (a PKC inhibitor), or PD98059 (an MAPK/ERK kinase inhibitor) significantly attenuated the ATP-induced activation of MAPK. In contrast, ATP-induced MAPK activation was not significantly affected by pertussis toxin (a G(i) inhibitor). To examine the role of G(s) protein, the intracellular cAMP level was determined after treatment with ATP or hCG. No significant elevation of intracellular cAMP was noted after ATP treatment. To determine the role of MAPK in steroidogenesis, human granulosa-luteal cells were treated with ATP, hCG, or ATP plus hCG in the presence or absence of PD98059. RIA revealed that ATP alone did not significantly affect the basal progesterone concentration. However, hCG-induced progesterone production was reduced by ATP treatment. PD98059 reversed the inhibitory effect of ATP on hCG-induced progesterone production. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of ATP-induced activation of the MAPK signaling pathway in the human ovary. These results support the idea that the MAPK signaling pathway is involved in mediating ATP actions in the human ovary.

D2 dopamine receptors in striatal medium spiny neurons reduce L-type Ca2+ currents and excitability via a novel PLC[beta]1-IP3-calcineurin-signaling cascade

In spite of the recognition that striatal D(2) receptors are critical determinants in a variety of psychomotor disorders, the cellular mechanisms by which these receptors shape neuronal activity have remained a mystery. The studies presented here reveal that D(2) receptor stimulation in enkephalin-expressing medium spiny neurons suppresses transmembrane Ca(2+) currents through L-type Ca(2+) channels, resulting in diminished excitability. This modulation is mediated by G(beta)(gamma) activation of phospholipase C, mobilization of intracellular Ca(2+) stores, and activation of the calcium-dependent phosphatase calcineurin. In addition to providing a unifying mechanism to explain the apparently divergent effects of D(2) receptors in striatal medium spiny neurons, this novel signaling linkage provides a foundation for understanding how this pivotal receptor shapes striatal excitability and gene expression.

Pancreastatin, a chromogranin A-derived peptide, activates Galpha(16) and phospholipase C-beta(2) by interacting with specific receptors in rat heart membranes

Pancreastatin (PST) is one of the chromogranin A (CGA)-derived peptides with known biological activity. It has a general inhibitory effect on secretion in many exocrine and endocrine systems including the heart atrium. Besides, a role of PST as a counter-regulatory peptide of insulin action has been proposed in the light of its effects on glucose and lipid metabolism in the liver and adipose tissue, where receptors and signaling have been described. Galpha(q/11) pathway seems to mediate PST action. Since PST has been shown to function as a typical calcium-dependent hormone, and increased plasma levels have been found in essential hypertension correlating with catecholamines, we sought to study its possible interaction and signaling in heart membranes. Here, we are characterizing specific PST binding sites and signaling in rat heart membranes. We have found that PST receptor has a K(d) of 0.5 nM and a B(max) of 34 fmol/mg of protein. The PST binding is inhibited by guanine nucleotides, suggesting the functional coupling of the receptor with GTP binding proteins (G proteins). Moreover, PST dose-dependently increases GTP binding to rat heart membranes. Finally, we have studied PST signaling-effector system by measuring phospholipase C (PLC) activity using blocking antibodies against different G proteins and PLC isoforms. We have found that PST stimulates PLCbeta(2)>PLCbeta(1)>PLCbeta(3) by activating Galpha(16) in rat heart membranes. These data suggest that PST may modulate the cardiac function.

Effects of heavy metals on phospholipase C in gill and digestive gland of the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam

We studied the in vivo and in vitro effects of Hg2+ and Cu2+ on the activity of phospholipase C (PLC), specific for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, in the mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam). The enzyme activity was assayed in tissue homogenates from gills and digestive gland. The toxic effect of Hg2+ appeared to be stronger than that of Cu2+ both in vitro and in vivo, especially for the digestive gland. In in vitro tests, Hg2+ was able to inhibit PLC activity when added directly to the reaction mixture. Conversely, Cu2+ was effective only after preincubation, suggesting that the effect of the metal may be derived from lipid peroxidation due to Cu2+-induced oxyradical production. Treatment of mussels with sublethal concentrations of Hg2+ or Cu2+ in vivo produced significant PLC inhibition after 1 or 4 days, respectively. A recovery was reached after 7 days of in vivo metal incubation. Data indicate that in mussel gills and digestive gland heavy metals impair PLC activity, thereby affecting IP3-dependent Ca2+ signaling.

Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion

Prolactin is a protein hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that was originally named for its ability to promote lactation in response to the suckling stimulus of hungry young mammals. We now know that prolactin is not as simple as originally described. Indeed, chemically, prolactin appears in a multiplicity of posttranslational forms ranging from size variants to chemical modifications such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. It is not only synthesized in the pituitary gland, as originally described, but also within the central nervous system, the immune system, the uterus and its associated tissues of conception, and even the mammary gland itself. Moreover, its biological actions are not limited solely to reproduction because it has been shown to control a variety of behaviors and even play a role in homeostasis. Prolactin-releasing stimuli not only include the nursing stimulus, but light, audition, olfaction, and stress can serve a stimulatory role. Finally, although it is well known that dopamine of hypothalamic origin provides inhibitory control over the secretion of prolactin, other factors within the brain, pituitary gland, and peripheral organs have been shown to inhibit or stimulate prolactin secretion as well. It is the purpose of this review to provide a comprehensive survey of our current understanding of prolactin's function and its regulation and to expose some of the controversies still existing.

Regulation of phospholipase C-beta 3 activity by Na+/H+ exchanger regulatory factor 2

Among the phospholipase C that catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, four mammalian phospholipase C-beta (PLC-beta) isotypes (isotypes 1-4) are activated through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Although the regulation of the PLC-betas by GPCRs and heterotrimeric G proteins has been extensively studied, little is known about the molecular determinants that regulate their activity. The PLC-beta isozymes carry a putative PSD-95/Dlg/ZO-1 (PDZ) binding motif (X(S/T)X(V/L)COOH) at their carboxyl terminus, which is implicated in specific interactions with anchor proteins. Using the yeast two-hybrid system, we identified Na(+)/H(+) exchanger regulatory factor 2 (NHERF2) as a protein that interacted with a C-terminal heptapeptide of PLC-beta3. Immunoprecipitation studies revealed that NHERF2 interacts specifically with PLC-beta3, but not with other PLC-beta isotypes. Furthermore, PLC-beta3 interacted with NHERF2 rather than with other PDZ-containing proteins. This interaction required the COOH-terminal NTQL sequence of PLC-beta3 and the second PDZ domain of NHERF2. Interestingly, NHERF2 potentiated the PLC-beta activation by carbachol in COS7 and HeLa cells, while mutant NHERF2, lacking the second PDZ domain, had no such effect. Taken together, the data suggest that NHERF2 may act as a modulator underlying the process of PLC-beta3-mediated signaling.