1
|
Zhang Y, Jin J, Wang N, Sun Q, Feng D, Zhu S, Wang Z, Li S, Ye J, Chai L, Xie Z, Deng X. Cytochrome P450 CitCYP97B modulates carotenoid accumulation diversity by hydroxylating β-cryptoxanthin in Citrus. PLANT COMMUNICATIONS 2024; 5:100847. [PMID: 38379285 PMCID: PMC11211522 DOI: 10.1016/j.xplc.2024.100847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Carotenoids in plant foods provide health benefits by functioning as provitamin A. One of the vital provitamin A carotenoids, β-cryptoxanthin, is typically plentiful in citrus fruit. However, little is known about the genetic basis of β-cryptoxanthin accumulation in citrus. Here, we performed a widely targeted metabolomic analysis of 65 major carotenoids and carotenoid derivatives to characterize carotenoid accumulation in Citrus and determine the taxonomic profile of β-cryptoxanthin. We used data from 81 newly sequenced representative accessions and 69 previously sequenced Citrus cultivars to reveal the genetic basis of β-cryptoxanthin accumulation through a genome-wide association study. We identified a causal gene, CitCYP97B, which encodes a cytochrome P450 protein whose substrate and metabolic pathways in land plants were undetermined. We subsequently demonstrated that CitCYP97B functions as a novel monooxygenase that specifically hydroxylates the β-ring of β-cryptoxanthin in a heterologous expression system. In planta experiments provided further evidence that CitCYP97B negatively regulates β-cryptoxanthin content. Using the sequenced Citrus accessions, we found that two critical structural cis-element variations contribute to increased expression of CitCYP97B, thereby altering β-cryptoxanthin accumulation in fruit. Hybridization/introgression appear to have contributed to the prevalence of two cis-element variations in different Citrus types during citrus evolution. Overall, these findings extend our understanding of the regulation and diversity of carotenoid metabolism in fruit crops and provide a genetic target for production of β-cryptoxanthin-biofortified products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingzi Zhang
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiajing Jin
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Nan Wang
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Quan Sun
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Di Feng
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shenchao Zhu
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zexin Wang
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shunxin Li
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Junli Ye
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Lijun Chai
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zongzhou Xie
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xiuxin Deng
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhang Z, Wu QY, Ge Y, Huang ZY, Hong R, Li A, Xu JH, Yu HL. Hydroxylases involved in terpenoid biosynthesis: a review. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2023; 10:39. [PMID: 38647640 PMCID: PMC10992849 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-023-00656-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Terpenoids are pervasive in nature and display an immense structural diversity. As the largest category of plant secondary metabolites, terpenoids have important socioeconomic value in the fields of pharmaceuticals, spices, and food manufacturing. The biosynthesis of terpenoid skeletons has made great progress, but the subsequent modifications of the terpenoid framework are poorly understood, especially for the functionalization of inert carbon skeleton usually catalyzed by hydroxylases. Hydroxylase is a class of enzymes that plays an important role in the modification of terpenoid backbone. This review article outlines the research progress in the identification, molecular modification, and functional expression of this class of enzymes in the past decade, which are profitable for the discovery, engineering, and application of more hydroxylases involved in the plant secondary metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zihan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Centre for Biomanufacturing, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Qing-Yang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Centre for Biomanufacturing, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Yue Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Centre for Biomanufacturing, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Zheng-Yu Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Centre for Biomanufacturing, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Ran Hong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry of Natural Substances, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Aitao Li
- School of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Jian-He Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Centre for Biomanufacturing, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Hui-Lei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Centre for Biomanufacturing, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lautier T, Smith DJ, Yang LK, Chen X, Zhang C, Truan G, Lindley ND. β-Cryptoxanthin Production in Escherichia coli by Optimization of the Cytochrome P450 CYP97H1 Activity. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:4683-4695. [PMID: 36888893 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c08970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cytochromes P450, forming a superfamily of monooxygenases containing heme as a cofactor, show great versatility in substrate specificity. Metabolic engineering can take advantage of this feature to unlock novel metabolic pathways. However, the cytochromes P450 often show difficulty being expressed in a heterologous chassis. As a case study in the prokaryotic host Escherichia coli, the heterologous synthesis of β-cryptoxanthin was addressed. This carotenoid intermediate is difficult to produce, as its synthesis requires a monoterminal hydroxylation of β-carotene whereas most of the classic carotene hydroxylases are dihydroxylases. This study was focused on the optimization of the in vivo activity of CYP97H1, an original P450 β-carotene monohydroxylase. Engineering the N-terminal part of CYP97H1, identifying the matching redox partners, defining the optimal cellular background and adjusting the culture and induction conditions improved the production by 400 times compared to that of the initial strain, representing 2.7 mg/L β-cryptoxanthin and 20% of the total carotenoids produced.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lautier
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138669 Singapore
- TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 31077 Toulouse, France
- CNRS@CREATE, 1 Create Way, #08-01 Create Tower, 138602 Singapore
| | - Derek J Smith
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138669 Singapore
| | - Lay Kien Yang
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138669 Singapore
| | - Xixian Chen
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138669 Singapore
| | - Congqiang Zhang
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138669 Singapore
| | - Gilles Truan
- TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Nic D Lindley
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138669 Singapore
- TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 31077 Toulouse, France
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lautier T, Smith DJ, Yang LK, Chen X, Zhang C, Truan G, Lindley ND. Cytochrome P450 Surface Domains Prevent the β-Carotene Monohydroxylase CYP97H1 of Euglena gracilis from Acting as a Dihydroxylase. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020366. [PMID: 36830734 PMCID: PMC9953315 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular biodiversity results from branched metabolic pathways driven by enzymatic regioselectivities. An additional complexity occurs in metabolites with an internal structural symmetry, offering identical extremities to the enzymes. For example, in the terpene family, β-carotene presents two identical terminal closed-ring structures. Theses cycles can be hydroxylated by cytochrome P450s from the CYP97 family. Two sequential hydroxylations lead first to the formation of monohydroxylated β-cryptoxanthin and subsequently to that of dihydroxylated zeaxanthin. Among the CYP97 dihydroxylases, CYP97H1 from Euglena gracilis has been described as the only monohydroxylase. This study aims to determine which enzymatic domains are involved in this regioselectivity, conferring unique monohydroxylase activity on a substrate offering two identical sites for hydroxylation. We explored the effect of truncations, substitutions and domain swapping with other CYP97 members and found that CYP97H1 harbours a unique N-terminal globular domain. This CYP97H1 N-terminal domain harbours a hydrophobic patch at the entrance of the substrate channel, which is involved in the monohydroxylase activity of CYP97H1. This domain, at the surface of the enzyme, highlights the role of distal and non-catalytic domains in regulating enzyme specificity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lautier
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138669, Singapore
- Toulouse Biotechnolgy Institute, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 31077 Toulouse, France
- CNRS@CREATE, 1 Create Way, #08-01 Create Tower, Singapore 138602, Singapore
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-(0)-567048813
| | - Derek J. Smith
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Lay Kien Yang
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Xixian Chen
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Congqiang Zhang
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Gilles Truan
- Toulouse Biotechnolgy Institute, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Nic D Lindley
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138669, Singapore
- Toulouse Biotechnolgy Institute, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 31077 Toulouse, France
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Yang J, Li H, Ma R, Chang Y, Qin X, Xu J, Fu Y. Genome-wide transcriptome analysis and characterization of the cytochrome P450 flavonoid biosynthesis genes in pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). PLANTA 2022; 255:120. [PMID: 35538269 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-022-03896-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
226 CcCYP450 genes were identified at the genomic level and were classified into 45 clades based on phylogenetic analysis. CcCYP75B165 gene was found that might play important roles in the biosynthesis of flavonoids in pigeon pea, and was significantly induced by methyl jasmonate (MeJA). The cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase (CYP450) superfamily plays a key role in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway and resists different kinds of stresses. Several CYP450 genes have been identified to be involved in the biosynthesis of crop protection agents. However, the CcCYP450 genes from pigeon pea have not been identified. Here, 226 CcCYP450 genes were identified at the genomic level by analysing the gene structure, distribution on chromosomes, gene duplication, and conserved motifs and were classified into 45 clades based on phylogenetic analysis. RNA-seq analysis revealed clear details of CcCYP450 genes that varied with time of MeJA (methyl jasmonate) induction. Among them, six CcCYP450 subfamily genes were found that might play important roles in the biosynthesis of flavonoids in pigeon pea. The overexpression of CcCYP75B165 in pigeon pea significantly induced the accumulation of genistin and downregulated the contents of cajaninstilbene acid, apigenin, isovitexin, and genistein and the expression of flavonoid synthase genes. This study provides theoretical guidance and plant genetic resources for cultivating new pigeon pea varieties with high flavonoid contents and exploring the molecular mechanisms of the biosynthesis of flavonoids under MeJA treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Hongquan Li
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Ruijin Ma
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Yuanhang Chang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Xiangyu Qin
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Jian Xu
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Yujie Fu
- College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Production and structural characterization of the cytochrome P450 enzymes in carotene ring hydroxylation. Methods Enzymol 2022; 671:223-241. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2022.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
7
|
Davis I, Geng J, Liu A. Metalloenzymes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Methods Enzymol 2022; 671:207-222. [PMID: 35878978 PMCID: PMC9315058 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2022.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoids are a family of pigment compounds, a subset of which are precursors for vitamin A biosynthesis. These pigments are derived from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), with geranylgeranyl diphosphate being the first metabolite unique to carotenoid biosynthesis in plants, algae, fungi, some bacteria, and arthropods. This chapter highlights the metal-dependent enzymes involved in synthesizing carotenoids in plants and the current state of knowledge of their cofactors and mechanisms. Emphasis is given to spectroscopic methods used to characterize metal centers. The recently discovered heme-dependent isomerase Z-ISO is presented as a case study in how to interrogate a metalloenzyme. Use of UV-vis, electron paramagnetic resonance, and magnetic circular dichroism spectroscopies of a metal center at various oxidation states and with external small molecule probes (CN-, CO, and NO) can provide information about the nature of the metal center, the identity of its ligands, and its mechanism of action. Z-ISO is a histidine/cysteine ligated heme-dependent enzyme that is only active in the ferrous state and possesses redox-linked ligand switching. The choice and design of experiments are discussed as well as the conclusions that can be drawn.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ian Davis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States.
| | - Jiafeng Geng
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Aimin Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Takemura M, Kubo A, Watanabe A, Sakuno H, Minobe Y, Sahara T, Murata M, Araki M, Harada H, Terada Y, Yaoi K, Ohdan K, Misawa N. Pathway engineering for high-yield production of lutein in Escherichia coli. Synth Biol (Oxf) 2021; 6:ysab012. [PMID: 34712837 PMCID: PMC8546607 DOI: 10.1093/synbio/ysab012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Lutein is an industrially important carotenoid pigment, which is essential for photoprotection and photosynthesis in plants. Lutein is crucial for maintaining human health due to its protective ability from ocular diseases. However, its pathway engineering research has scarcely been performed for microbial production using heterologous hosts, such as Escherichia coli, since the engineering of multiple genes is required. These genes, which include tricky key carotenoid biosynthesis genes typically derived from plants, encode two sorts of cyclases (lycopene ε- and β-cyclase) and cytochrome P450 CYP97C. In this study, upstream genes effective for the increase in carotenoid amounts, such as isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase (IDI) gene, were integrated into the E. coli JM101 (DE3) genome. The most efficient set of the key genes (MpLCYe, MpLCYb and MpCYP97C) was selected from among the corresponding genes derived from various plant (or bacterial) species using E. coli that had accumulated carotenoid substrates. Furthermore, to optimize the production of lutein in E. coli, we introduced several sorts of plasmids that contained some of the multiple genes into the genome-inserted strain and compared lutein productivity. Finally, we achieved 11 mg/l as lutein yield using a mini jar. Here, the high-yield production of lutein was successfully performed using E. coli through approaches of pathway engineering. The findings obtained here should be a base reference for substantial lutein production with microorganisms in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miho Takemura
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Akiko Kubo
- Applied Research Laboratory, Ezaki Glico Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Asuka Watanabe
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Hanayo Sakuno
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Yuka Minobe
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Takehiko Sahara
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | | | | | - Hisashi Harada
- Faculty of Engineering, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
| | - Yoshinobu Terada
- Mechanism-Based Research Laboratory, Ezaki Glico Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Katsuro Yaoi
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kohji Ohdan
- Applied Research Laboratory, Ezaki Glico Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Norihiko Misawa
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Ishikawa, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Takemura M, Sahara T, Misawa N. Violaxanthin: natural function and occurrence, biosynthesis, and heterologous production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:6133-6142. [PMID: 34338805 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11452-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Violaxanthin is biosynthesized from zeaxanthin with zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP) by way of antheraxanthin only in photosynthetic eukaryotes including higher plants and involved in the xanthophyll cycle to eliminate excessive light energy. Violaxanthin and antheraxanthin have commercially been unavailable, in contrast to commercial production of other carotenoids contained in higher plants, e.g., lycopene, β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, and capsanthin. One of the reasons is considered that resource plants or other resource organisms do not exist for enabling efficient supply of the epoxy-carotenoids, which are expected to be produced through (metabolic) pathway engineering with heterologous microbial hosts such as Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this Mini-Review, we show heterologous production of violaxanthin with the two microorganisms that have exhibited significant advances these days. We further describe natural function and occurrence, and biosynthesis involving violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, and their derivatives that include auroxanthin and mutatoxanthin. KEY POINTS: • A comprehensive review on epoxy-carotenoids violaxanthin and antheraxanthin. • Pathway engineering for the epoxy-carotenoids in heterologous microbes. • Our new findings on violaxanthin production with the budding yeast.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miho Takemura
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, 1-308, Suematsu, Nonoichi-shi, 921-8836, Japan
| | - Takehiko Sahara
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1, Higashi, Tsukuba-shi, 305-8566, Japan
| | - Norihiko Misawa
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, 1-308, Suematsu, Nonoichi-shi, 921-8836, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
When Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes Met Escherichia coli : The Early Days and These Days. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021. [PMID: 33783740 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-7360-6_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Nowadays, carotenoid biosynthetic pathways are sufficiently elucidated at gene levels in bacteria, fungi, and higher plants. Also, in pathway engineering for isoprenoid (terpene) production, carotenoids have been one of the most studied targets. However, in 1988 when the author started carotenoid research, almost no carotenoid biosynthesis genes were identified. It was because carotenogenic enzymes are easily inactivated when extracted from their organism sources, indicating that their purification and the subsequent cloning of the corresponding genes were infeasible or difficult. On the other hand, natural product chemistry of carotenoids had advanced a great deal. Thus, those days, carotenoid biosynthetic pathways had been proposed based mainly on the chemical structures of carotenoids without findings on relevant enzymes and genes. This chapter shows what happened on carotenoid research, when carotenoid biosynthesis genes met non-carotenogenic Escherichia coli around 1990, followed by subsequent developments.
Collapse
|
11
|
Liang MH, Xie H, Chen HH, Liang ZC, Jiang JG. Functional Identification of Two Types of Carotene Hydroxylases from the Green Alga Dunaliella bardawil Rich in Lutein. ACS Synth Biol 2020; 9:1246-1253. [PMID: 32408742 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The salt-tolerant unicellular alga Dunaliella bardawil FACHB-847 can accumulate large amounts of lutein, but the underlying cause of massive accumulation of lutein is still unknown. In this study, genes encoding two types of carotene hydroxylases, i.e., β-carotene hydroxylase (DbBCH) and cytochrome P450 carotenoid hydroxylase (DbCYP97s; DbCYP97A, DbCYP97B, and DbCYP97C), were cloned from D. bardawil. Their substrate specificities and enzyme activities were tested through functional complementation assays in Escherichia coli. It was showed that DbBCH could catalyze the hydroxylation of the β-rings of both β- and α-carotene, and displayed a low level of ε-hydroxylase. Unlike CYP97A from higher plants, DbCYP97A could not hydroxylate β-carotene. DbCYP97A and DbCYP97C showed high hydroxylase activity toward the β-ring and ε-ring of α-carotene, respectively. DbCYP97B displayed minor activity toward the β-ring of α-carotene. The high accumulation of lutein in D. bardawil may be due to the multiple pathways for lutein biosynthesis generated from α-carotene with zeinoxanthin or α-cryptoxanthin as intermediates by DbBCH and DbCYP97s. Taken together, this study provides insights for understanding the underlying reason for high production of lutein in the halophilic green alga D. bardawil FACHB-847.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Hua Liang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Hong Xie
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Hao-Hong Chen
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Zhi-Cong Liang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Jian-Guo Jiang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Cao T, Wang L, Huang X, Deng Y, Yang L, Lu S. Manipulation of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 as a platform for functional identification of genes involved in carotenoid metabolism. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2020; 18:605-607. [PMID: 31469498 PMCID: PMC7004913 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tian‐Jun Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical BiotechnologySchool of Life SciencesNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Lin‐Juan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical BiotechnologySchool of Life SciencesNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Xing‐Qi Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical BiotechnologySchool of Life SciencesNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Yin‐Yin Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical BiotechnologySchool of Life SciencesNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
- Jiangsu Marine Fisheries Research InstituteNantongChina
| | - Li‐En Yang
- Jiangsu Marine Fisheries Research InstituteNantongChina
| | - Shan Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical BiotechnologySchool of Life SciencesNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Knudsen C, Gallage NJ, Hansen CC, Møller BL, Laursen T. Dynamic metabolic solutions to the sessile life style of plants. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 35:1140-1155. [PMID: 30324199 PMCID: PMC6254060 DOI: 10.1039/c8np00037a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Plants are sessile organisms. To compensate for not being able to escape when challenged by unfavorable growth conditions, pests or herbivores, plants have perfected their metabolic plasticity by having developed the capacity for on demand dynamic biosynthesis and storage of a plethora of phytochemicals.
Covering: up to 2018 Plants are sessile organisms. To compensate for not being able to escape when challenged by unfavorable growth conditions, pests or herbivores, plants have perfected their metabolic plasticity by having developed the capacity for on demand synthesis of a plethora of phytochemicals to specifically respond to the challenges arising during plant ontogeny. Key steps in the biosynthesis of phytochemicals are catalyzed by membrane-bound cytochrome P450 enzymes which in plants constitute a superfamily. In planta, the P450s may be organized in dynamic enzyme clusters (metabolons) and the genes encoding the P450s and other enzymes in a specific pathway may be clustered. Metabolon formation facilitates transfer of substrates between sequential enzymes and therefore enables the plant to channel the flux of general metabolites towards biosynthesis of specific phytochemicals. In the plant cell, compartmentalization of the operation of specific biosynthetic pathways in specialized plastids serves to avoid undesired metabolic cross-talk and offers distinct storage sites for molar concentrations of specific phytochemicals. Liquid–liquid phase separation may lead to formation of dense biomolecular condensates within the cytoplasm or vacuole allowing swift activation of the stored phytochemicals as required upon pest or herbivore attack. The molecular grid behind plant plasticity offers an endless reservoir of functional modules, which may be utilized as a synthetic biology tool-box for engineering of novel biological systems based on rational design principles. In this review, we highlight some of the concepts used by plants to coordinate biosynthesis and storage of phytochemicals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Knudsen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Science, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Tamaki S, Kato S, Shinomura T, Ishikawa T, Imaishi H. Physiological role of β-carotene monohydroxylase (CYP97H1) in carotenoid biosynthesis in Euglena gracilis. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 278:80-87. [PMID: 30471732 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2018.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Some carotenoids are found in the Euglena gracilis, including β-carotene, diadinoxanthin, diatoxanthins, and neoxanthin as the major species; however, the molecular mechanism underlying carotenoid biosynthesis in E. gracilis is not well understood. To clarify the pathway and regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in this alga, we functionally characterized the cytochrome P450 (CYP)-type carotene hydroxylase gene EgCYP97H1. Heterologous in vivo enzyme assay in E. coli indicated that EgCYP97H1 hydroxylated β-carotene to β-cryptoxanthin. E. gracilis cells suppressing EgCYP97H1 resulted in marked growth inhibition and reductions in total carotenoid and chlorophyll contents. Analysis of carotenoid composition revealed that suppression of EgCYP97H1 resulted in higher level of β-carotene, suggesting that EgCYP97H1 is physiologically essential for carotenoid biosynthesis and thus normal cell growth. To our knowledge, this is the first time EgCYP97H1 has been suggested to be β-carotene monohydroxylase, but not β-carotene dihydroxylase. Moreover, during light adaptation of dark-grown E. gracilis, transcript levels of the carotenoid biosynthetic genes (EgCYP97H1, geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase EgcrtE, and phytoene synthase EgcrtB) remained virtually unchanged. In contrast, carotenoid accumulation in E. gracilis grown under the same conditions was inhibited by treatment with a translational inhibitor but not a transcriptional inhibitor, indicating that photo-responsive carotenoid biosynthesis is regulated post-transcriptionally in this alga.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shun Tamaki
- Division of Signal Responses, Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Shota Kato
- Department of Biosciences, School of Science and Engineering, Teikyo University, 1-1 Toyosatodai, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-8551, Japan
| | - Tomoko Shinomura
- Department of Biosciences, School of Science and Engineering, Teikyo University, 1-1 Toyosatodai, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-8551, Japan
| | - Takahiro Ishikawa
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu, Matsue, Shimane, 690-8504, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Imaishi
- Division of Signal Responses, Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Koizumi J, Takatani N, Kobayashi N, Mikami K, Miyashita K, Yamano Y, Wada A, Maoka T, Hosokawa M. Carotenoid Profiling of a Red Seaweed Pyropia yezoensis: Insights into Biosynthetic Pathways in the Order Bangiales. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:md16110426. [PMID: 30388860 PMCID: PMC6267214 DOI: 10.3390/md16110426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 10/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Carotenoids are natural pigments that contribute to light harvesting and photo-protection in photosynthetic organisms. In this study, we analyzed the carotenoid profiles, including mono-hydroxy and epoxy-carotenoids, in the economically valuable red seaweed Pyropia yezoensis, to clarify the detailed biosynthetic and metabolic pathways in the order Bangiales. P. yezoensis contained lutein, zeaxanthin, α-carotene, and β-carotene, as major carotenoids in both the thallus and conchocelis stages. Monohydroxy intermediate carotenoids for the synthesis of lutein with an ε-ring from α-carotene, α-cryptoxanthin (β,ε-caroten-3’-ol), and zeinoxanthin (β,ε-caroten-3-ol) were identified. In addition, β-cryptoxanthin, an intermediate in zeaxanthin synthesis from β-carotene, was also detected. We also identified lutein-5,6-epoxide and antheraxanthin, which are metabolic products of epoxy conversion from lutein and zeaxanthin, respectively, by LC-MS and 1H-NMR. This is the first report of monohydroxy-carotenoids with an ε-ring and 5,6-epoxy-carotenoids in Bangiales. These results provide new insights into the biosynthetic and metabolic pathways of carotenoids in red seaweeds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiro Koizumi
- Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan.
| | - Naoki Takatani
- Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan.
| | - Noritoki Kobayashi
- Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan.
| | - Koji Mikami
- Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan.
| | - Kazuo Miyashita
- Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan.
| | - Yumiko Yamano
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry for Life Science, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, Kobe 658-8558, Japan.
| | - Akimori Wada
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry for Life Science, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, Kobe 658-8558, Japan.
| | - Takashi Maoka
- Research Institute for Production Development, 15 Shimogamo, Morimoto Cho, Sakyoku, Kyoto 606-0805, Japan.
| | - Masashi Hosokawa
- Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Chang Z, Wang X, Wei R, Liu Z, Shan H, Fan G, Hu H. Functional expression and purification of CYP93C20, a plant membrane-associated cytochrome P450 from Medicago truncatula. Protein Expr Purif 2018; 150:44-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2018.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
|
17
|
Berman J, Zorrilla-López U, Sandmann G, Capell T, Christou P, Zhu C. The Silencing of Carotenoid β-Hydroxylases by RNA Interference in Different Maize Genetic Backgrounds Increases the β-Carotene Content of the Endosperm. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E2515. [PMID: 29186806 PMCID: PMC5751118 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18122515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize (Zea mays L.) is a staple food in many parts of Africa, but the endosperm generally contains low levels of the pro-vitamin A carotenoid β-carotene, leading to vitamin A deficiency disease in populations relying on cereal-based diets. However, maize endosperm does accumulate high levels of other carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, which is derived from β-carotene via two hydroxylation reactions. Blocking these reactions could therefore improve the endosperm β-carotene content. Accordingly, we used RNA interference (RNAi) to silence the endogenous ZmBCH1 and ZmBCH2 genes, which encode two non-heme di-iron carotenoid β-hydroxylases. The genes were silenced in a range of maize genetic backgrounds by introgressing the RNAi cassette, allowing us to determine the impact of ZmBCH1/ZmBCH2 silencing in diverse hybrids. The β-carotene content of the endosperm increased substantially in all hybrids in which ZmBCH2 was silenced, regardless of whether or not ZmBCH1 was silenced simultaneously. However, the β-carotene content did not change significantly in C17 hybrids (M7 × C17 and M13 × C17) compared to C17 alone, because ZmBCH2 is already expressed at negligible levels in the C17 parent. Our data indicate that ZmBCH2 is primarily responsible for the conversion of β-carotene to zeaxanthin in maize endosperm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Judit Berman
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain; (J.B.); (U.Z.-L.); (T.C.); (P.C.)
| | - Uxue Zorrilla-López
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain; (J.B.); (U.Z.-L.); (T.C.); (P.C.)
| | - Gerhard Sandmann
- Biosynthesis Group, Molecular Biosciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität, 60054 Frankfurt, Germany;
| | - Teresa Capell
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain; (J.B.); (U.Z.-L.); (T.C.); (P.C.)
| | - Paul Christou
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain; (J.B.); (U.Z.-L.); (T.C.); (P.C.)
- ICREA, Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies, Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Changfu Zhu
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain; (J.B.); (U.Z.-L.); (T.C.); (P.C.)
- School of Life Sciences, Changchun Normal University, Changchun 130032, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Simon DP, Anila N, Gayathri K, Sarada R. Heterologous expression of β-carotene hydroxylase in Dunaliella salina by Agrobacterium -mediated genetic transformation. ALGAL RES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
19
|
Ma G, Zhang L, Yungyuen W, Tsukamoto I, Iijima N, Oikawa M, Yamawaki K, Yahata M, Kato M. Expression and functional analysis of citrus carotene hydroxylases: unravelling the xanthophyll biosynthesis in citrus fruits. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 16:148. [PMID: 27358074 PMCID: PMC4928310 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0840-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xanthophylls are oxygenated carotenoids and fulfill critical roles in plant growth and development. In plants, two different types of carotene hydroxylases, non-heme di-iron and heme-containing cytochrome P450, were reported to be involved in the biosynthesis of xanthophyll. Citrus fruits accumulate a high amount of xanthophylls, especially β,β-xanthophylls. To date, however, the roles of carotene hydroxylases in regulating xanthophyll content and composition have not been elucidated. RESULTS In the present study, the roles of four carotene hydroxylase genes (CitHYb, CitCYP97A, CitCYP97B, and CitCYP97C) in the biosynthesis of xanthophyll in citrus fruits were investigated. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the four citrus carotene hydroxylases presented in four distinct clusters which have been identified in higher plants. CitHYb was a non-heme di-iron carotene hydroxylase, while CitCYP97A, CitCYP97B, and CitCYP97C were heme-containing cytochrome P450-type carotene hydroxylases. Gene expression results showed that the expression of CitHYb increased in the flavedo and juice sacs during the ripening process, which was well consistent with the accumulation of β,β-xanthophyll in citrus fruits. The expression of CitCYP97A and CitCYP97C increased with a peak in November, which might lead to an increase of lutein in the juice sacs during the ripening process. The expression level of CitCYP97B was much lower than that of CitHYb, CitCYP97A, and CitCYP97C in the juice sacs during the ripening process. Functional analysis showed that the CitHYb was able to catalyze the hydroxylation of the β-rings of β-carotene and α-carotene in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) cells. Meanwhile, when CitHYb was co-expressed with CitCYP97C, α-carotene was hydroxylated on the β-ring and ε-ring sequentially to produce lutein. CONCLUSIONS CitHYb was a key gene for β,β-xanthophyll biosynthesis in citrus fruits. CitCYP97C functioned as an ε-ring hydroxylase to produce lutein using zeinoxanthin as a substrate. The results will contribute to elucidating xanthophyll biosynthesis in citrus fruits, and provide new strategies to improve the nutritional and commercial qualities of citrus fruits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gang Ma
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| | - Lancui Zhang
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| | - Witchulada Yungyuen
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
- />The United Graduate school of Agricultural Science, Gifu University (Shizuoka University), Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1193 Japan
| | - Issei Tsukamoto
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| | - Natsumi Iijima
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| | - Michiru Oikawa
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| | - Kazuki Yamawaki
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| | - Masaki Yahata
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| | - Masaya Kato
- />Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Shizuoka, Suruga 422-8529 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Chang S, Berman J, Sheng Y, Wang Y, Capell T, Shi L, Ni X, Sandmann G, Christou P, Zhu C. Cloning and Functional Characterization of the Maize (Zea mays L.) Carotenoid Epsilon Hydroxylase Gene. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128758. [PMID: 26030746 PMCID: PMC4452274 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The assignment of functions to genes in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway is necessary to understand how the pathway is regulated and to obtain the basic information required for metabolic engineering. Few carotenoid ε-hydroxylases have been functionally characterized in plants although this would provide insight into the hydroxylation steps in the pathway. We therefore isolated mRNA from the endosperm of maize (Zea mays L., inbred line B73) and cloned a full-length cDNA encoding CYP97C19, a putative heme-containing carotenoid ε hydroxylase and member of the cytochrome P450 family. The corresponding CYP97C19 genomic locus on chromosome 1 was found to comprise a single-copy gene with nine introns. We expressed CYP97C19 cDNA under the control of the constitutive CaMV 35S promoter in the Arabidopsis thaliana lut1 knockout mutant, which lacks a functional CYP97C1 (LUT1) gene. The analysis of carotenoid levels and composition showed that lutein accumulated to high levels in the rosette leaves of the transgenic lines but not in the untransformed lut1 mutants. These results allowed the unambiguous functional annotation of maize CYP97C19 as an enzyme with strong zeinoxanthin ε-ring hydroxylation activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shu Chang
- School of Life Sciences, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Judit Berman
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Lleida, 25198, Spain
| | - Yanmin Sheng
- School of Life Sciences, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
| | - Yingdian Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Teresa Capell
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Lleida, 25198, Spain
| | - Lianxuan Shi
- School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130024, China
| | - Xiuzhen Ni
- School of Life Sciences, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
| | - Gerhard Sandmann
- Biosynthesis Group, Molecular Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, D-60438, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Paul Christou
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Lleida, 25198, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avancats, Barcelona, 08010, Spain
| | - Changfu Zhu
- School of Life Sciences, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Lleida, 25198, Spain
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Takemura M, Maoka T, Misawa N. Biosynthetic routes of hydroxylated carotenoids (xanthophylls) in Marchantia polymorpha, and production of novel and rare xanthophylls through pathway engineering in Escherichia coli. PLANTA 2015; 241:699-710. [PMID: 25467956 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-014-2213-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
MpBHY codes for a carotene β-ring 3(,3')-hydroxylase responsible for both zeaxanthin and lutein biosynthesis in liverwort. MpCYP97C functions as an ε-ring hydroxylase (zeinoxanthin 3'-hydroxylase) to produce lutein in liverwort. Xanthophylls are oxygenated or hydroxylated carotenes that are most abundant in the light-harvesting complexes of plants. The plant-type xanthophylls consist of α-xanthophyll (lutein) and β-xanthophylls (zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin and neoxanthin). The α-xanthophyll and β-xanthophylls are derived from α-carotene and β-carotene by carotene hydroxylase activities, respectively. β-Ring 3,3'-hydroxylase that mediates the route of zeaxanthin from β-carotene via β-cryptoxanthin is present in higher plants and is encoded by the BHY (BCH) gene. On the other hand, CYP97A (or BHY) and CYP97C genes are responsible for β-ring 3-hydroxylation and ε-ring 3'-hydroxylation, respectively, in routes from α-carotene to lutein. To elucidate the evolution of the biosynthetic routes of such hydroxylated carotenoids from carotenes in land plants, we identified and functionally analyzed carotenoid hydroxylase genes of liverwort Marchantia polymorpha L. Three genes homologous to higher plants, BHY, CYP97A, and CYP97C, were isolated and named MpBHY, MpCYP97A, and MpCYP97C, respectively. MpBHY was found to code for β-ring hydroxylase, which is responsible for both routes starting from β-carotene and α-carotene. MpCYP97C functioned as an ε-ring hydroxylase not for α-carotene but for zeinoxanthin, while MpCYP97A showed no hydroxylation activity for β-carotene or α-carotene. These findings suggest the original functions of the hydroxylation enzymes of carotenes in land plants, which are thought to diversify in higher plants. In addition, we generated recombinant Escherichia coli cells, which produced rare and novel carotenoids such as α-echinenone and 4-ketozeinoxanthin, through pathway engineering using bacterial carotenogenic genes that include crtW, in addition to the liverwort MpLCYb, MpLCYe and MpBHY genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miho Takemura
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, 1-308, Suematsu, Nonoichi, Ishikawa, 921-8836, Japan,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Chen J, Yuan H, Zhang L, Pan H, Xu R, Zhong Y, Chen J, Nan P. Cloning, expression and purification of isoflavone-2'-hydroxylase from Astragalus membranaceus Bge. Var. mongolicus (Bge.) Hsiao. Protein Expr Purif 2014; 107:83-9. [PMID: 25462811 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2014.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Plant cytochrome P450 enzymes play vital roles in the biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites, including phenylpropanoids and phytoalexins. Isoflavone-2'-hydroxylase (AmI2'H) from Astragalus membranaceus Bge. Var. mongolicus (Bge.) Hsiao is a membrane protein and an eukaryotic cytochrome P450 enzyme involved in isoflavonoid biosynthesis. We cloned the AmI2'H gene by employing RACE methods and modified the gene sequence to facilitate protein expression and increase protein solubility. Two vectors, pET-28a(+) and pCW ori(+), were used to express AmI2'H in Escherichia coli. The expression efficiency and purity of target protein were analyzed and demonstrated that pET-28a(+) vector containing the AmI2'H gene could produce larger amounts of target proteins with higher purity than pCWori(+). The purified proteins were identified as AmI2'H by LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis and their proper folding was assessed by CO difference spectrum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Chen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Hui Yuan
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Lin Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Microbial Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Haiyun Pan
- Plant Biology Division, Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, 2510 Sam Noble Parkway, Ardmore, OK 73401, USA.
| | - Rongyan Xu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Yang Zhong
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China; Institute of Biodiversity Science and Geobiology, Tibet University, Lhasa 850000, China.
| | - Jiakuan Chen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Peng Nan
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Yang LE, Huang XQ, Hang Y, Deng YY, Lu QQ, Lu S. The P450-type carotene hydroxylase PuCHY1 from Porphyra suggests the evolution of carotenoid metabolism in red algae. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 56:902-915. [PMID: 24942088 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Carotene hydroxylases catalyze the hydroxylation of α- and β-carotene hydrocarbons into xanthophylls. In red algae, β-carotene is a ubiquitously distributed carotenoid, and hydroxylated carotenoids such as zeaxanthin and lutein are also found. However, no enzyme with carotene hydroxylase activity had been previously identified in red algae. Here, we report the isolation of a gene encoding a cytochrome P450-type carotene hydroxylase (PuCHY1) from Porphyra umbilicalis, a red alga with an ancient origin. Sequence comparisons found PuCHY1 belongs to the CYP97B subfamily, which has members from different photosynthetic organisms ranging from red algae to land plants. Functional complementation in Escherichia coli suggested that PuCHY1 catalyzed the conversion from β-carotene to zeaxanthin. When we overexpressed PuCHY1 in the Arabidopsis thaliana chy2 mutant, pigment analysis showed a significant accumulation of hydroxylated carotenoids, including neoxanthin, violaxanthin, and lutein in the leaves of transgenic plants. These results confirmed a β-hydroxylation activity of PuCHY1, and also suggested a possible ϵ-hydroxylation function. The pigment profile and gene expression analyses of the algal thallus under high-light stress suggested that P. umbilicalis is unlikely to operate a partial xanthophyll cycle for photoprotection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li-En Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Affiliation(s)
| | - Salim Al-Babili
- BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Eleanore T. Wurtzel
- The Graduate School and University Center, The City University of New York, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, The City University of New York, Bronx, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Farré G, Maiam Rivera S, Alves R, Vilaprinyo E, Sorribas A, Canela R, Naqvi S, Sandmann G, Capell T, Zhu C, Christou P. Targeted transcriptomic and metabolic profiling reveals temporal bottlenecks in the maize carotenoid pathway that may be addressed by multigene engineering. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 75:441-455. [PMID: 23607313 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/12/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoids are a diverse group of tetraterpenoid pigments found in plants, fungi, bacteria and some animals. They play vital roles in plants and provide important health benefits to mammals, including humans. We previously reported the creation of a diverse population of transgenic maize plants expressing various carotenogenic gene combinations and exhibiting distinct metabolic phenotypes. Here we performed an in-depth targeted mRNA and metabolomic analysis of the pathway to characterize the specific impact of five carotenogenic transgenes and their interactions with 12 endogenous genes in four transgenic lines representing distinct genotypes and phenotypes. We reconstructed the temporal profile of the carotenoid pathway during endosperm development at the mRNA and metabolic levels (for total and individual carotenoids), and investigated the impact of transgene expression on the endogenous pathway. These studies enabled us to investigate the extent of any interactions between the introduced transgenic and native partial carotenoid pathways during maize endosperm development. Importantly, we developed a theoretical model that explains these interactions, and our results suggest genetic intervention points that may allow the maize endosperm carotenoid pathway to be engineered in a more effective and predictable manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Farré
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, School of Agrifood and Forestry Science and Engineering-ETSEA, University of Lleida/Agrotecnio Center, Avenida Alcalde Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Cui H, Yu X, Wang Y, Cui Y, Li X, Liu Z, Qin S. Evolutionary origins, molecular cloning and expression of carotenoid hydroxylases in eukaryotic photosynthetic algae. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:457. [PMID: 23834441 PMCID: PMC3728230 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xanthophylls, oxygenated derivatives of carotenes, play critical roles in photosynthetic apparatus of cyanobacteria, algae, and higher plants. Although the xanthophylls biosynthetic pathway of algae is largely unknown, it is of particular interest because they have a very complicated evolutionary history. Carotenoid hydroxylase (CHY) is an important protein that plays essential roles in xanthophylls biosynthesis. With the availability of 18 sequenced algal genomes, we performed a comprehensive comparative analysis of chy genes and explored their distribution, structure, evolution, origins, and expression. RESULTS Overall 60 putative chy genes were identified and classified into two major subfamilies (bch and cyp97) according to their domain structures. Genes in the bch subfamily were found in 10 green algae and 1 red alga, but absent in other algae. In the phylogenetic tree, bch genes of green algae and higher plants share a common ancestor and are of non-cyanobacterial origin, whereas that of red algae is of cyanobacteria. The homologs of cyp97a/c genes were widespread only in green algae, while cyp97b paralogs were seen in most of algae. Phylogenetic analysis on cyp97 genes supported the hypothesis that cyp97b is an ancient gene originated before the formation of extant algal groups. The cyp97a gene is more closely related to cyp97c in evolution than to cyp97b. The two cyp97 genes were isolated from the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis, and transcriptional expression profiles of chy genes were observed under high light stress of different wavelength. CONCLUSIONS Green algae received a β-xanthophylls biosynthetic pathway from host organisms. Although red algae inherited the pathway from cyanobacteria during primary endosymbiosis, it remains unclear in Chromalveolates. The α-xanthophylls biosynthetic pathway is a common feature in green algae and higher plants. The origination of cyp97a/c is most likely due to gene duplication before divergence of green algae and higher plants. Protein domain structures and expression analyses in green alga H. pluvialis indicate that various chy genes are in different manners response to light. The knowledge of evolution of chy genes in photosynthetic eukaryotes provided information of gene cloning and functional investigation of chy genes in algae in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongli Cui
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Biology and Biological Resources Utilization, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Quinlan RF, Shumskaya M, Bradbury LM, Beltrán J, Ma C, Kennelly EJ, Wurtzel ET. Synergistic interactions between carotene ring hydroxylases drive lutein formation in plant carotenoid biosynthesis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 160:204-14. [PMID: 22786888 PMCID: PMC3440199 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.198556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 07/01/2012] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant carotenoids play essential roles in photosynthesis, photoprotection, and as precursors to apocarotenoids. The plastid-localized carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is mediated by well-defined nucleus-encoded enzymes. However, there is a major gap in understanding the nature of protein interactions and pathway complexes needed to mediate carotenogenesis. In this study, we focused on carotene ring hydroxylation, which is performed by two structurally distinct classes of enzymes, the P450 CYP97A and CYP97C hydroxylases and the nonheme diiron HYD enzymes. The CYP97A and HYD enzymes both function in the hydroxylation of β-rings in carotenes, but we show that they are not functionally interchangeable. The formation of lutein, which involves hydroxylation of both β- and ε-rings, was shown to require the coexpression of CYP97A and CYP97C enzymes. These enzymes were also demonstrated to interact in vivo and in vitro, as determined using bimolecular fluorescence complementation and a pull-down assay, respectively. We discuss the role of specific hydroxylase enzyme interactions in promoting pathway flux and preventing the formation of pathway dead ends. These findings will facilitate efforts to manipulate carotenoid content and composition for improving plant adaptation to climate change and/or for enhancing nutritionally important carotenoids in food crops.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jesús Beltrán
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, Bronx, New York 10468 (R.F.Q., M.S., L.M.T.B., J.B., C.M., E.J.K., E.T.W.); and Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York, New York, New York 10016 (R.F.Q., J.B., E.J.K., E.T.W.)
| | | | - Edward J. Kennelly
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, Bronx, New York 10468 (R.F.Q., M.S., L.M.T.B., J.B., C.M., E.J.K., E.T.W.); and Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York, New York, New York 10016 (R.F.Q., J.B., E.J.K., E.T.W.)
| | - Eleanore T. Wurtzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, Bronx, New York 10468 (R.F.Q., M.S., L.M.T.B., J.B., C.M., E.J.K., E.T.W.); and Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York, New York, New York 10016 (R.F.Q., J.B., E.J.K., E.T.W.)
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Bradbury LMT, Shumskaya M, Tzfadia O, Wu SB, Kennelly EJ, Wurtzel ET. Lycopene cyclase paralog CruP protects against reactive oxygen species in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:E1888-97. [PMID: 22706644 PMCID: PMC3390835 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1206002109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In photosynthetic organisms, carotenoids serve essential roles in photosynthesis and photoprotection. A previous report designated CruP as a secondary lycopene cyclase involved in carotenoid biosynthesis [Maresca J, et al. (2007) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:11784-11789]. However, we found that cruP KO or cruP overexpression plants do not exhibit correspondingly reduced or increased production of cyclized carotenoids, which would be expected if CruP was a lycopene cyclase. Instead, we show that CruP aids in preventing accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby reducing accumulation of β-carotene-5,6-epoxide, a ROS-catalyzed autoxidation product, and inhibiting accumulation of anthocyanins, which are known chemical indicators of ROS. Plants with a nonfunctional cruP accumulate substantially higher levels of ROS and β-carotene-5,6-epoxide in green tissues. Plants overexpressing cruP show reduced levels of ROS, β-carotene-5,6-epoxide, and anthocyanins. The observed up-regulation of cruP transcripts under photoinhibitory and lipid peroxidation-inducing conditions, such as high light stress, cold stress, anoxia, and low levels of CO(2), fits with a role for CruP in mitigating the effects of ROS. Phylogenetic distribution of CruP in prokaryotes showed that the gene is only present in cyanobacteria that live in habitats characterized by large variation in temperature and inorganic carbon availability. Therefore, CruP represents a unique target for developing resilient plants and algae needed to supply food and biofuels in the face of global climate change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Louis M. T. Bradbury
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, West, Bronx, NY 10468; and
| | - Maria Shumskaya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, West, Bronx, NY 10468; and
| | - Oren Tzfadia
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, West, Bronx, NY 10468; and
- Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10016-4309
| | - Shi-Biao Wu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, West, Bronx, NY 10468; and
| | - Edward J. Kennelly
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, West, Bronx, NY 10468; and
- Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10016-4309
| | - Eleanore T. Wurtzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, West, Bronx, NY 10468; and
- Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10016-4309
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Lv MZ, Chao DY, Shan JX, Zhu MZ, Shi M, Gao JP, Lin HX. Rice carotenoid β-ring hydroxylase CYP97A4 is involved in lutein biosynthesis. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 53:987-1002. [PMID: 22470056 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcs041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
Lutein is the most abundant plant carotenoid and plays essential roles in photosystem assembly and stabilization, as well as protection against photostress. To date, only a few lutein biosynthesis genes have been identified in crop plants. In this study, the rice Cyt P450 gene CYP97A4 encoding a carotenoid β-ring hydroxylase was shown to be involved in lutein biosynthesis. The results revealed that CYP97A4 was preferentially expressed in leaf compared with spikelet, sheath, stalk and root, and encoded a protein localized at the subcellular level to the chloroplasts. Compared with the wild type, the three allelic mutants of CYP97A4 displayed lutein reductions of 12-24% with substantially increased α-carotene, while Chl a/b levels were unaltered. The increased α-carotene in the mutants led to greater sensitivity under high light stress. Similarly, reactive oxygen species (ROS) imaging of leaves treated with intense light showed that the mutants generally accumulated greater levels of ROS compared with wild-type plants, which probably caused detrimental effects to the plant photosystem. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the important role of CYP97A4 in α-carotene hydroxylation in rice, and knock-out of the gene reduced lutein and increased α-carotene, contributing to sensitivity to intense light.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Zhu Lv
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Shanghai), Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 300 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Ruiz-Sola MÁ, Rodríguez-Concepción M. Carotenoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis: a colorful pathway. THE ARABIDOPSIS BOOK 2012; 10:e0158. [PMID: 22582030 PMCID: PMC3350171 DOI: 10.1199/tab.0158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 311] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant carotenoids are a family of pigments that participate in light harvesting and are essential for photoprotection against excess light. Furthermore, they act as precursors for the production of apocarotenoid hormones such as abscisic acid and strigolactones. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the genes and enzymes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway (which is now almost completely elucidated) and on the regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. We also discuss the relevance of Arabidopsis as a model system for the study of carotenogenesis and how metabolic engineering approaches in this plant have taught important lessons for carotenoid biotechnology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. Águila Ruiz-Sola
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuel Rodríguez-Concepción
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Stigliani AL, Giorio G, D'Ambrosio C. Characterization of P450 Carotenoid β- and ε-Hydroxylases of Tomato and Transcriptional Regulation of Xanthophyll Biosynthesis in Root, Leaf, Petal and Fruit. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 52:851-65. [DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcr037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
32
|
Walter MH, Strack D. Carotenoids and their cleavage products: biosynthesis and functions. Nat Prod Rep 2011; 28:663-92. [PMID: 21321752 DOI: 10.1039/c0np00036a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 309] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on plant carotenoids, but it also includes progress made on microbial and animal carotenoid metabolism to better understand the functions and the evolution of these structurally diverse compounds with a common backbone. Plants have evolved isogenes for specific key steps of carotenoid biosynthesis with differential expression profiles, whose characteristic features will be compared. Perhaps the most exciting progress has been made in studies of carotenoid cleavage products (apocarotenoids) with an ever-expanding variety of novel functions being discovered. This review therefore covers structural, molecular genetic and functional aspects of carotenoids and apocarotenoids alike. Apocarotenoids are specifically tailored from carotenoids by a family of oxidative cleavage enzymes, but whether there are contributions to their generation from chemical oxidation, photooxidation or other mechanisms is largely unknown. Control of carotenoid homeostasis is discussed in the context of biosynthetic and degradative reactions but also in the context of subcellular environments for deposition and sequestration within and outside of plastids. Other aspects of carotenoid research, including metabolic engineering and synthetic biology approaches, will only be covered briefly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Walter
- Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie, Abteilung Sekundärstoffwechsel, Weinberg 3, 06120, Halle, Saale, Germany.
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Zhu C, Bai C, Sanahuja G, Yuan D, Farré G, Naqvi S, Shi L, Capell T, Christou P. The regulation of carotenoid pigmentation in flowers. Arch Biochem Biophys 2010; 504:132-41. [PMID: 20688043 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2010.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoids fulfill many processes that are essential for normal growth and development in plants, but they are also responsible for the breathtaking variety of red-to-yellow colors we see in flowers and fruits. Although such visual diversity helps to attract pollinators and encourages herbivores to distribute seeds, humans also benefit from the aesthetic properties of flowers and an entire floriculture industry has developed on the basis that new and attractive varieties can be produced. Over the last decade, much has been learned about the impact of carotenoid metabolism on flower color development and the molecular basis of flower color. A number of different regulatory mechanisms have been described ranging from the transcriptional regulation of genes involved in carotenoid synthesis to the control of carotenoid storage in sink organs. This means we can now explain many of the natural colorful varieties we see around us and also engineer plants to produce flowers with novel and exciting varieties that are not provided by nature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Changfu Zhu
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, Lleida 25198, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Kim JE, Cheng KM, Craft NE, Hamberger B, Douglas CJ. Over-expression of Arabidopsis thaliana carotenoid hydroxylases individually and in combination with a beta-carotene ketolase provides insight into in vivo functions. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2010; 71:168-78. [PMID: 19939422 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2008] [Revised: 02/11/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoids represent a group of widely distributed pigments derived from the general isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway that possess diverse functions in plant primary and secondary metabolism. Modification of alpha- and beta-carotene backbones depends in part on ring hydroxylation. Two ferredoxin-dependent non-heme di-iron monooxygenases (AtB1 and AtB2) that mainly catalyze in vivo beta-carotene hydroxylations of beta,beta-carotenoids, and two heme-containing cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenases (CYP97A3 and CYP97C1) that preferentially hydroxylate the epsilon-ring of alpha-carotene or the beta-ring of beta,epsilon-carotenoids, have been characterized in Arabidopsis by analysis of loss-of-function mutant phenotypes. We further investigated functional roles of both hydroxylase classes in modification of the beta- and epsilon-rings of alpha-carotene and beta-carotene through over-expression of AtB1, CYP97A3, CYP97C1, and the hydroxylase candidate CYP97B3. Since carotenoid hydroxylation is required for generation of ketocarotenoids by the bkt1(CrtO) beta-carotene ketolase, all hydroxylase constructs were also introduced into an Arabidopsis line expressing the Haematococcus pluvalis bkt1 beta-carotene ketolase. Analysis of foliar carotenoid profiles in lines overexpressing the individual hydroxylases indicate a role for CYP97B3 in carotenoid biosynthesis, confirm and extend previous findings of hydroxylase activities based on knock-out mutants, and suggest functions of the multifunctional enzymes in carotenoid biosynthesis. Hydroxylase over-expression in combination with bkt1 did not result in ketocarotenoid accumulation, but instead unexpected patterns of alpha-carotene derivatives, accompanied by a reduction of alpha-carotene, were observed. These data suggest possible interactions between the beta-carotene ketolase bkt1 and the hydroxylases that impact partitioning of carbon flux into different carotenoid branch pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Eun Kim
- Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T1Z4
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Chaudhary N, Nijhawan A, Khurana JP, Khurana P. Carotenoid biosynthesis genes in rice: structural analysis, genome-wide expression profiling and phylogenetic analysis. Mol Genet Genomics 2009; 283:13-33. [PMID: 19890663 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-009-0495-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2009] [Accepted: 10/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoids, important lipid-soluble antioxidants in photosynthetic tissues, are known to be completely absent in rice endosperm. Many studies, involving transgenic manipulations of carotenoid biosynthesis genes, have been performed to get carotenoid-enriched rice grain. Study of genes involved in their biosynthesis can provide further information regarding the abundance/absence of carotenoids in different tissues. We have identified 16 and 34 carotenoid biosynthesis genes in rice and Populus genomes, respectively. A detailed analysis of the domain structure of carotenoid biosynthesis enzymes in rice, Populus and Arabidopsis has shown that highly conserved catalytic domains, along with other domains, are present in these proteins. Phylogenetic analysis of rice genes with Arabidopsis and other characterized carotenoid biosynthesis genes has revealed that homologous genes exist in these plants, and the duplicated gene copies probably adopt new functions. Expression of rice and Populus genes has been analyzed by full-length cDNA- and EST-based expression profiling. In rice, this analysis was complemented by real-time PCR, microarray and signature-based expression profiling, which reveal that carotenoid biosynthesis genes are highly expressed in light-grown tissues, have differential expression pattern during vegetative/reproductive development and are responsive to stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neetu Chaudhary
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Plant Genomics, Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Vallabhaneni R, Gallagher CE, Licciardello N, Cuttriss AJ, Quinlan RF, Wurtzel ET. Metabolite sorting of a germplasm collection reveals the hydroxylase3 locus as a new target for maize provitamin A biofortification. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 151:1635-45. [PMID: 19767386 PMCID: PMC2773064 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.145177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 09/08/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin A deficiency, a global health burden, can be alleviated through provitamin A carotenoid biofortification of major crop staples such as maize (Zea mays) and other grasses in the Poaceae. If regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis was better understood, enhancement could be controlled by limiting beta-carotene hydroxylation to compounds with lower or no nonprovitamin A activity. Natural maize genetic diversity enabled identification of hydroxylation genes associated with reduced endosperm provitamin A content. A novel approach was used to capture the genetic and biochemical diversity of a large germplasm collection, representing 80% of maize genetic diversity, without having to sample the entire collection. Metabolite data sorting was applied to select a 10-line genetically diverse subset representing biochemical extremes for maize kernel carotenoids. Transcript profiling led to discovery of the Hydroxylase3 locus that coincidently mapped to a carotene quantitative trait locus, thereby prompting investigation of allelic variation in a broader collection. Three natural alleles in 51 maize lines explained 78% of variation and approximately 11-fold difference in beta-carotene relative to beta-cryptoxanthin and 36% of the variation and 4-fold difference in absolute levels of beta-carotene. A simple PCR assay to track and identify Hydroxylase3 alleles will be valuable for predicting nutritional content in genetically diverse cultivars found worldwide.
Collapse
|
37
|
Mandai T, Fujiwara S, Imaoka S. A novel electron transport system for thermostable CYP175A1 fromThermus thermophilusHB27. FEBS J 2009; 276:2416-29. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.06974.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
38
|
Kim J, Smith JJ, Tian L, DellaPenna D. The Evolution and Function of Carotenoid Hydroxylases in Arabidopsis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 50:463-79. [DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcp005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
|
39
|
Li F, Vallabhaneni R, Yu J, Rocheford T, Wurtzel ET. The maize phytoene synthase gene family: overlapping roles for carotenogenesis in endosperm, photomorphogenesis, and thermal stress tolerance. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 147:1334-46. [PMID: 18508954 PMCID: PMC2442542 DOI: 10.1104/pp.108.122119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2008] [Accepted: 05/20/2008] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoids are essential for photosynthesis and photoprotection; they also serve as precursors to signaling molecules that influence plant development and biotic/abiotic stress responses. With potential to improve plant yield and nutritional quality, carotenoids are targets for metabolic breeding/engineering, particularly in the Poaceae (grass family), which includes the major food crops. Depending on genetic background, maize (Zea mays) endosperm carotenoid content varies, and therefore breeding-enhanced carotenoid levels have been of ongoing interest. The first committed step in the plastid-localized biosynthetic pathway is mediated by the nuclear-encoded phytoene synthase (PSY). The gene family in maize and other grasses contains three paralogs with specialized roles that are not well understood. Maize endosperm carotenoid accumulation requires PSY1 expression. A maize antibody was used to localize PSY1 to amyloplast envelope membranes and to determine PSY1 accumulation in relation to carotenoid accumulation in developing endosperm. To test when and if PSY transcript levels correlated with carotenoid content, advantage was taken of a maize germplasm diversity collection that exhibits genetic and chemical diversity. Total carotenoid content showed statistically significant correlation with endosperm transcript levels at 20 d after pollination for PSY1 but not PSY2 or PSY3. Timing of PSY1 transcript abundance, previously unknown, provides critical information for choosing breeding alleles or properly controlling introduced transgenes. PSY1 was unexpectedly found to have an additional role in photosynthetic tissue, where it was required for carotenogenesis in the dark and for heat stress tolerance. Leaf carotenogenesis was shown to require phytochrome-dependent and phytochrome-independent photoregulation of PSY2 plus nonphotoregulated PSY1 expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Faqiang Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, The City University of New York, Bronx, New York 10468, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Li F, Vallabhaneni R, Wurtzel ET. PSY3, a new member of the phytoene synthase gene family conserved in the Poaceae and regulator of abiotic stress-induced root carotenogenesis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 146:1333-45. [PMID: 18162592 PMCID: PMC2259096 DOI: 10.1104/pp.107.111120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2007] [Accepted: 12/23/2007] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Abscisic acid (ABA) plays a vital role in mediating abiotic stress responses in plants. De novo ABA biosynthesis involves cleavage of carotenoid precursors by 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), which is rate controlling in leaves and roots; however, additional bottlenecks in roots must be overcome, such as biosynthesis of upstream carotenoid precursors. Phytoene synthase (PSY) mediates the first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis; with PSY3 described here, maize (Zea mays) and other members of the Poaceae have three paralogous genes, in contrast to only one in Arabidopsis thaliana. PSY gene duplication has led to subfunctionalization, with each paralog exhibiting differential gene expression. We showed that PSY3 encodes a functional enzyme for which maize transcript levels are regulated in response to abiotic stresses, drought, salt, and ABA. Drought-stressed roots showed elevated PSY3 transcripts and ABA, responses reversed by rehydration. By blocking root carotenoid biosynthesis with the maize y9 mutation, we demonstrated that PSY3 mRNA elevation correlates with carotenoid accumulation and that blocking carotenoid biosynthesis interferes with stress-induced ABA accumulation. In parallel, we observed elevated NCED transcripts and showed that, in contrast to dicots, root zeaxanthin epoxidase transcripts were unchanged. PSY3 was the only paralog for which transcripts were induced in roots and abiotic stress also affected leaf PSY2 transcript levels; PSY1 mRNA was not elevated in any tissues tested. Our results suggest that PSY3 expression influences root carotenogenesis and defines a potential bottleneck upstream of NCED; further examination of PSY3 in the grasses is of value for better understanding root-specific stress responses that impact plant yield.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Faqiang Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, The City University of New York, Bronx, NY 10468, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Giuliano G, Tavazza R, Diretto G, Beyer P, Taylor MA. Metabolic engineering of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Trends Biotechnol 2008; 26:139-45. [PMID: 18222560 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2007] [Revised: 12/02/2007] [Accepted: 12/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoids are one of the most diverse classes of natural compounds. Plant carotenoids are composed of a C40 isoprenoid skeleton with or without epoxy, hydroxy and keto groups. They have fundamental roles in human nutrition as antioxidants and vitamin A precursors and their consumption is increasingly associated with protection from a range of diseases. They are also used commercially as safe food, feed and cosmetic colorants and they protect plants from photooxidative stress. In the past six years many metabolic engineering efforts have been undertaken in plants aiming to improve the nutritional value of staple crops, to enable the use of plants as 'cell factories' for producing specialty carotenoids and to improve plant resistance to abiotic stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Giuliano
- Ente per le Nuove tecnologie, l'Energia e l'Ambiente (ENEA), Casaccia Research Center, PO Box 2400, 00123 S.M. di Galeria (Roma), Italy.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Li F, Murillo C, Wurtzel ET. Maize Y9 encodes a product essential for 15-cis-zeta-carotene isomerization. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 144:1181-9. [PMID: 17434985 PMCID: PMC1914175 DOI: 10.1104/pp.107.098996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoids are a diverse group of pigments found in plants, fungi, and bacteria. They serve essential functions in plants and provide health benefits for humans and animals. In plants, it was thought that conversion of the C40 carotenoid backbone, 15-cis-phytoene, to all-trans-lycopene, the geometrical isomer required by downstream enzymes, required two desaturases (phytoene desaturase and zeta-carotene desaturase [ZDS]) plus a carotene isomerase (CRTISO), in addition to light-mediated photoisomerization of the 15-cis-double bond; bacteria employ only a single enzyme, CRTI. Characterization of the maize (Zea mays) pale yellow9 (y9) locus has brought to light a new isomerase required in plant carotenoid biosynthesis. We report that maize Y9 encodes a factor required for isomerase activity upstream of CRTISO, which we term Z-ISO, an activity that catalyzes the cis- to trans-conversion of the 15-cis-bond in 9,15,9'-tri-cis-zeta-carotene, the product of phytoene desaturase, to form 9,9'-di-cis-zeta-carotene, the substrate of ZDS. We show that recessive y9 alleles condition accumulation of 9,15,9'-tri-cis-zeta-carotene in dark tissues, such as roots and etiolated leaves, in contrast to accumulation of 9,9'-di-cis-zeta-carotene in a ZDS mutant, viviparous9. We also identify a locus in Euglena gracilis, which is similarly required for Z-ISO activity. These data, taken together with the geometrical isomer substrate requirement of ZDS in evolutionarily distant plants, suggest that Z-ISO activity is not unique to maize, but will be found in all higher plants. Further analysis of this new gene-controlled step is critical to understanding regulation of this essential biosynthetic pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Faqiang Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, City University of New York, Bronx, New York 10468, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Cunningham FX, Gantt E. A portfolio of plasmids for identification and analysis of carotenoid pathway enzymes: Adonis aestivalis as a case study. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2007; 92:245-59. [PMID: 17634749 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-007-9210-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2007] [Accepted: 05/25/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoids are indispensable pigments of the photosynthetic apparatus in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria and are produced, as well, by many bacteria and fungi. Elucidation of biochemical pathways leading to the carotenoids that function in the photosynthetic membranes of land plants has been greatly aided by the use of carotenoid-accumulating strains of Escherichia coli as heterologous hosts for functional assays, in vivo, of the otherwise difficult to study membrane-associated pathway enzymes. This same experimental approach is uniquely well-suited to the discovery and characterization of yet-to-be identified enzymes that lead to carotenoids of the photosynthetic membranes in algal cells, to the multitude of carotenoids found in nongreen plant tissues, and to the myriad flavor and aroma compounds that are derived from carotenoids in plant tissues. A portfolio of plasmids suitable for the production in E. coli of a variety of carotenoids is presented herein. The use of these carotenoid-producing E. coli for the identification of cDNAs encoding enzymes of carotenoid and isoprenoid biosynthesis, for characterization of the enzymes these cDNAs encode, and for the production of specific carotenoids for use as enzyme substrates and reference standards, is described using the flowering plant Adonis aestivalis to provide examples. cDNAs encoding nine different A. aestivalis enzymes of carotenoid and isoprenoid synthesis were identified and the enzymatic activity of their products verified. Those cDNAs newly described include ones that encode phytoene synthase, beta-carotene hydroxylase, deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate synthase, isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase, and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francis X Cunningham
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|