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Navarro-Mendoza MI, Pérez-Arques C, Parker J, Xu Z, Kelly S, Heitman J. Alternative ergosterol biosynthetic pathways confer antifungal drug resistance in the human pathogens within the Mucor species complex. mBio 2024:e0166124. [PMID: 38980037 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01661-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Mucormycoses are emerging fungal infections caused by a variety of heterogeneous species within the Mucorales order. Among the Mucor species complex, Mucor circinelloides is the most frequently isolated pathogen in mucormycosis patients and despite its clinical significance, there is an absence of established genome manipulation techniques to conduct molecular pathogenesis studies. In this study, we generated a spontaneous uracil auxotrophic strain and developed a genetic transformation procedure to analyze molecular mechanisms conferring antifungal drug resistance. With this new model, phenotypic analyses of gene deletion mutants were conducted to define Erg3 and Erg6a as key biosynthetic enzymes in the M. circinelloides ergosterol pathway. Erg3 is a C-5 sterol desaturase involved in growth, sporulation, virulence, and azole susceptibility. In other fungal pathogens, erg3 mutations confer azole resistance because Erg3 catalyzes the production of a toxic diol upon azole exposure. Surprisingly, M. circinelloides produces only trace amounts of this toxic diol and yet, it is still susceptible to posaconazole and isavuconazole due to alterations in membrane sterol composition. These alterations are severely aggravated by erg3Δ mutations, resulting in ergosterol depletion and, consequently, hypersusceptibility to azoles. We also identified Erg6a as the main C-24 sterol methyltransferase, whose activity may be partially rescued by the paralogs Erg6b and Erg6c. Loss of Erg6a function diverts ergosterol synthesis to the production of cholesta-type sterols, resulting in resistance to amphotericin B. Our findings suggest that mutations or epimutations causing loss of Erg6 function may arise during human infections, resulting in antifungal drug resistance to first-line treatments against mucormycosis. IMPORTANCE The Mucor species complex comprises a variety of opportunistic pathogens known to cause mucormycosis, a potentially lethal fungal infection with limited therapeutic options. The only effective first-line treatments against mucormycosis consist of liposomal formulations of amphotericin B and the triazoles posaconazole and isavuconazole, all of which target components within the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway. This study uncovered M. circinelloides Erg3 and Erg6a as key enzymes to produce ergosterol, a vital constituent of fungal membranes. Absence of any of those enzymes leads to decreased ergosterol and consequently, resistance to ergosterol-binding polyenes such as amphotericin B. Particularly, losing Erg6a function poses a higher threat as the ergosterol pathway is channeled into alternative sterols similar to cholesterol, which maintain membrane permeability. As a result, erg6a mutants survive within the host and disseminate the infection, indicating that Erg6a deficiency may arise during human infections and confer resistance to the most effective treatment against mucormycoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Isabel Navarro-Mendoza
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Carlos Pérez-Arques
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Josie Parker
- Molecular Biosciences Division, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Ziyan Xu
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Steven Kelly
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph Heitman
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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2
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Navarro-Mendoza MI, Pérez-Arques C, Parker J, Xu Z, Kelly S, Heitman J. Alternative ergosterol biosynthetic pathways confer antifungal drug resistance in the human pathogens within the Mucor species complex. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.12.01.569667. [PMID: 38076934 PMCID: PMC10705545 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.01.569667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Mucormycoses are emerging fungal infections caused by a variety of heterogeneous species within the Mucorales order. Among the Mucor species complex, Mucor circinelloides is the most frequently isolated pathogen in mucormycosis patients and despite its clinical significance, there is an absence of established genome manipulation techniques to conduct molecular pathogenesis studies. In this study, we generated a spontaneous uracil auxotrophic strain and developed a genetic transformation procedure to analyze molecular mechanisms conferring antifungal drug resistance. With this new model, phenotypic analyses of gene deletion mutants were conducted to define Erg3 and Erg6a as key biosynthetic enzymes in the M. circinelloides ergosterol pathway. Erg3 is a C-5 sterol desaturase involved in growth, sporulation, virulence, and azole susceptibility. In other fungal pathogens, erg3 mutations confer azole resistance because Erg3 catalyzes the production of a toxic diol upon azole exposure. Surprisingly, M. circinelloides produces only trace amounts of this toxic diol and yet, it is still susceptible to posaconazole and isavuconazole due to alterations in membrane sterol composition. These alterations are severely aggravated by erg3Δ mutations, resulting in ergosterol depletion and consequently, hypersusceptibility to azoles. We also identified Erg6a as the main C-24 sterol methyltransferase, whose activity may be partially rescued by the paralogs Erg6b and Erg6c. Loss of Erg6a function diverts ergosterol synthesis to the production of cholesta-type sterols, resulting in resistance to amphotericin B. Our findings suggest that mutations or epimutations causing loss of Erg6 function may arise during human infections, resulting in antifungal drug resistance to first-line treatments against mucormycosis.
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3
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Xie J, Rybak JM, Martin-Vicente A, Guruceaga X, Thorn HI, Nywening AV, Ge W, Parker JE, Kelly SL, Rogers PD, Fortwendel JR. The sterol C-24 methyltransferase encoding gene, erg6, is essential for viability of Aspergillus species. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4261. [PMID: 38769341 PMCID: PMC11106247 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48767-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Triazoles, the most widely used class of antifungal drugs, inhibit the biosynthesis of ergosterol, a crucial component of the fungal plasma membrane. Inhibition of a separate ergosterol biosynthetic step, catalyzed by the sterol C-24 methyltransferase Erg6, reduces the virulence of pathogenic yeasts, but its effects on filamentous fungal pathogens like Aspergillus fumigatus remain unexplored. Here, we show that the lipid droplet-associated enzyme Erg6 is essential for the viability of A. fumigatus and other Aspergillus species, including A. lentulus, A. terreus, and A. nidulans. Downregulation of erg6 causes loss of sterol-rich membrane domains required for apical extension of hyphae, as well as altered sterol profiles consistent with the Erg6 enzyme functioning upstream of the triazole drug target, Cyp51A/Cyp51B. Unexpectedly, erg6-repressed strains display wild-type susceptibility against the ergosterol-active triazole and polyene antifungals. Finally, we show that erg6 repression results in significant reduction in mortality in a murine model of invasive aspergillosis. Taken together with recent studies, our work supports Erg6 as a potentially pan-fungal drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhong Xie
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Graduate Health Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Rybak
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Adela Martin-Vicente
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Xabier Guruceaga
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Harrison I Thorn
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Graduate Health Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Ashley V Nywening
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
- Integrated Program in Biomedical Sciences, College of Graduate Health Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Wenbo Ge
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Josie E Parker
- Molecular Biosciences Division, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Steven L Kelly
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, Wales, UK
| | - P David Rogers
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Jarrod R Fortwendel
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA.
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA.
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4
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Qian W, Lu J, Gao C, Liu Q, Li Y, Zeng Q, Zhang J, Wang T, Chen S. Deciphering antifungal and antibiofilm mechanisms of isobavachalcone against Cryptococcus neoformans through RNA-seq and functional analyses. Microb Cell Fact 2024; 23:107. [PMID: 38609931 PMCID: PMC11015616 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-024-02369-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans has been designated as critical fungal pathogens by the World Health Organization, mainly due to limited treatment options and the prevalence of antifungal resistance. Consequently, the utilization of novel antifungal agents is crucial for the effective treatment of C. neoformans infections. This study exposed that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of isobavachalcone (IBC) against C. neoformans H99 was 8 µg/mL, and IBC dispersed 48-h mature biofilms by affecting cell viability at 16 µg/mL. The antifungal efficacy of IBC was further validated through microscopic observations using specific dyes and in vitro assays, which confirmed the disruption of cell wall/membrane integrity. RNA-Seq analysis was employed to decipher the effect of IBC on the C. neoformans H99 transcriptomic profiles. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis was performed to validate the transcriptomic data and identify the differentially expressed genes. The results showed that IBC exhibited various mechanisms to impede the growth, biofilm formation, and virulence of C. neoformans H99 by modulating multiple dysregulated pathways related to cell wall/membrane, drug resistance, apoptosis, and mitochondrial homeostasis. The transcriptomic findings were corroborated by the antioxidant analyses, antifungal drug sensitivity, molecular docking, capsule, and melanin assays. In vivo antifungal activity analysis demonstrated that IBC extended the lifespan of C. neoformans-infected Caenorhabditis elegans. Overall, the current study unveiled that IBC targeted multiple pathways simultaneously to inhibit growth significantly, biofilm formation, and virulence, as well as to disperse mature biofilms of C. neoformans H99 and induce cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Qian
- School of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, 710021, P. R. China.
| | - Jiaxing Lu
- School of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, 710021, P. R. China
| | - Chang Gao
- School of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, 710021, P. R. China
| | - Qiming Liu
- School of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, 710021, P. R. China
| | - Yongdong Li
- Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Ningbo, 315010, P. R. China
| | - Qiao Zeng
- School of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, 710021, P. R. China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Ting Wang
- School of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, 710021, P. R. China
| | - Si Chen
- Department of Immunology, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, 518060, China.
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Gan Q, Cui X, Zhang L, Zhou W, Lu Y. Control Phytophagous Nematodes By Engineering Phytosterol Dealkylation Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model. Mol Biotechnol 2023:10.1007/s12033-023-00869-x. [PMID: 37843756 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-023-00869-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant-parasitic nematodes ingest and convert host phytosterols via dealkylation to cholesterol for both structural and hormonal requirements. The insect 24-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR24) was shown in vitro as a committed enzyme in the dealkylation via chemical blocking. However, an increased brood size and ovulation rate, instead compromised development, were observed in the engineered nematode Caenorhabditis elegans where the DHCR24 gene was knocked down, indicating the relationship between DHCR24 and dealkylation and their function in nematodes remains illusive. In this study, a defect in C. elegans DHCR24 causes impaired growth of the nematode with sitosterol (a major component of phytosterols) as a sole sterol source. Plant sterols with rationally designed structure (null substrates for dealkylation) can't be converted to cholesterol in wild-type worms, and their development was completely halted. This study underpins the essential function of DHCR24 in nematodes and would be beneficial for the development of novel nematocidal strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinhua Gan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, School of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Hainan University, Hainan Province, 570228, Hainan, China
- School of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Haikou Province, 570228, Hainan, China
| | - Xinyu Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, School of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Hainan University, Hainan Province, 570228, Hainan, China
| | - Lin Zhang
- Shandong Rongchen Pharmaceuticals Inc, Qingdao, 266061, China
| | - Wenxu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, School of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Hainan University, Hainan Province, 570228, Hainan, China.
| | - Yandu Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, School of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Hainan University, Hainan Province, 570228, Hainan, China.
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Hydrobiotechnology of Hainan Province, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China.
- Haikou Innovation Center for Research and Utilization of Algal Bioresources, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China.
- Hainan Engineering and Research Center of Marine Bioactives & Bioproducts, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China.
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Prasad P, Jain N, Chaudhary J, Thakur RK, Savadi S, Bhardwaj SC, Gangwar OP, Lata C, Adhikari S, Kumar S, Balyan HS, Gupta PK. Candidate effectors for leaf rust resistance gene Lr28 identified through transcriptome and in-silico analysis. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1143703. [PMID: 37789861 PMCID: PMC10543267 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1143703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Puccinia spp. causing rust diseases in wheat and other cereals secrete several specialized effector proteins into host cells. Characterization of these proteins and their interaction with host's R proteins could greatly help to limit crop losses due to diseases. Prediction of effector proteins by combining the transcriptome analysis and multiple in-silico approaches is gaining importance in revealing the pathogenic mechanism. The present study involved identification of 13 Puccinia triticina (Pt) coding sequences (CDSs), through transcriptome analysis, that were differentially expressed during wheat-leaf rust interaction; and prediction of their effector like features using different in-silico tools. NCBI-BLAST and pathogen-host interaction BLAST (PHI-BLAST) tools were used to annotate and classify these sequences based on their most closely matched counterpart in both the databases. Homology between CDSs and the annotated sequences in the NCBI database ranged from 79 to 94% and with putative effectors of other plant pathogens in PHI-BLAST from 24.46 to 54.35%. Nine of the 13 CDSs had effector-like features according to EffectorP 3.0 (≥0.546 probability of these sequences to be effector). The qRT-PCR expression analysis revealed that the relative expression of all CDSs in compatible interaction (HD2329) was maximum at 11 days post inoculation (dpi) and that in incompatible interactions (HD2329 + Lr28) was maximum at 3 dpi in seven and 9 dpi in five CDSs. These results suggest that six CDSs (>0.8 effector probability as per EffectorP 3.0) could be considered as putative Pt effectors. The molecular docking and MD simulation analysis of these six CDSs suggested that candidate Lr28 protein binds more strongly to candidate effector c14094_g1_i1 to form more stable complex than the remaining five. Further functional characterization of these six candidate effectors should prove useful for a better understanding of wheat-leaf rust interaction. In turn, this should facilitate effector-based leaf rust resistance breeding in wheat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod Prasad
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Shimla, India
| | - Neelu Jain
- Division of Genetics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India
| | - Jyoti Chaudhary
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut, India
| | - Rajni Kant Thakur
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Shimla, India
| | | | | | - Om Prakash Gangwar
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Shimla, India
| | - Charu Lata
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Shimla, India
| | - Sneha Adhikari
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Shimla, India
- Division of Genetics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India
| | - Subodh Kumar
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Regional Station, Shimla, India
| | - Harindra Singh Balyan
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut, India
| | - Pushpendra Kumar Gupta
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut, India
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Abraham J, Chauhan N, Ray S. Virtual Screening of Alkaloid and Terpenoid Inhibitors of SMT Expressed in Naegleria sp. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27175727. [PMID: 36080504 PMCID: PMC9457665 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27175727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic form of thermophilic Naegleria sp. i.e., Naegleria fowleri, also known as brain eating amoeba, causes primary amoebic encephalitis (PAM) with a >97% fatality rate. To date, there are no specific drugs identified to treat this disease specifically. The present antimicrobial combinatorial chemotherapy is hard on many patients, especially children. Interestingly, Naegleria fowleri has complex lipid biosynthesis pathways like other protists and also has a strong preference to utilize absorbed host lipids for generating energy. The ergosterol biosynthesis pathway provides a unique drug target opportunity, as some of the key enzymes involved in this pathway are absent in humans. Sterol 24-C Methyltransferase (SMT) is one such enzyme that is not found in humans. To select novel inhibitors for this enzyme, alkaloids and terpenoids inhibitors were screened and tested against two isozymes of SMT identified in N. gruberi (non-pathogenic) as well as its homolog found in yeast, i.e., ERG6. Five natural product derived inhibitors i.e., Cyclopamine, Chelerythrine, Berberine, Tanshinone 2A, and Catharanthine have been identified as potential drug candidates based on multiple criteria including binding affinity, ADME scores, absorption, and, most importantly, its ability to cross the blood brain barrier. This study provides multiple leads for future drug exploration against Naegleria fowleri.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Abraham
- Department of Natural Sciences, Bowie State University, 14000 Jericho Park Rd., Bowie, MD 20715, USA
| | - Neha Chauhan
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Texas El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Supriyo Ray
- Department of Natural Sciences, Bowie State University, 14000 Jericho Park Rd., Bowie, MD 20715, USA
- Correspondence:
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Jayasekara LACB, Poonsawad A, Watchaputi K, Wattanachaisaereekul S, Soontorngun N. Media optimization of antimicrobial activity production and beta-glucan content of endophytic fungi Xylaria sp. BCC 1067. BIOTECHNOLOGY REPORTS 2022; 35:e00742. [PMID: 35677324 PMCID: PMC9168064 DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2022.e00742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Xylaria is an untapped resource for natural product discovery. Xylaria mycelial extract contains antimicrobials and immunomodulator beta-glucan. Achieved high mycelial biomass and antifungal activity using media-type selection. Media replacement approach lowers cultivation time and enhances bioactivity. Additive effect of mycelial extract and salicylic or citric acid against P. acne.
Fungi is a notable asset for drug discovery and production of pharmaceuticals; however, slow growth and poor product yields have hindered industrial utilization. Here, the mycelial biomass of Xylaria sp. BCC 1067 was examined in parallel with the assessment of antimicrobial properties by using media-type selection. To enhance both mycelial content and antifungal activity, the media replacement approach was successfully applied to stimulate fungal growth and successively switched to poorer malt-peptone extract media for metabolite production. This simple optimization reduced fungal cultivation time by 7 days and yielded 4-fold increased mycelial mass (32.59 g/L), with approximately 3-fold increased antifungal activity against the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain. A high level of β-glucan (115.84 mg/g of cell dry weight) and additive antibacterial effect against Propionibacterium acnes were also reported. This simple strategy of culture media optimization allows for investigation of novel and rich source of health-promoting substances for effective microbial utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. A. Channa Bhathiya Jayasekara
- Division of Biochemical Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Bangkok, 10150, Thailand
| | - Attaporn Poonsawad
- Division of Biochemical Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Bangkok, 10150, Thailand
| | - Kwanrutai Watchaputi
- Division of Biochemical Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Bangkok, 10150, Thailand
| | | | - Nitnipa Soontorngun
- Division of Biochemical Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Bangkok, 10150, Thailand
- Corresponding author.
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9
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Transcriptome and Quasi-Targeted Metabolome Analyze Overexpression of 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate Dioxygenase Alleviates Fungal Toxicity of 9-Phenanthrol in Magnaporthe oryzae. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137116. [PMID: 35806121 PMCID: PMC9266922 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnaporthe oryzae, the causal agent of rice blast disease, produces devastating damage to global rice production. It is urgent to explore novel strategies to overcome the losses caused by this disease. 9-phenanthrol is often used as a transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) channel inhibitor for animals, but we found its fungal toxicity to M. oryzae. Thus, we explored the antimicrobial mechanism through transcriptome and metabolome analyses. Moreover, we found that overexpression of a gene encoding 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase involved in the tyrosine degradative pathway enhanced the tolerance of 9-phenanthrol in M. oryzae. Thus, our results highlight the potential fungal toxicity mechanism of 9-phenanthrol at metabolic and transcriptomic levels and identify a gene involving 9-phenanthrol alleviation. Importantly, our results demonstrate the novel mechanism of 9-phenanthrol on fungal toxicity that will provide new insights of 9-phenanthrol for application on other organisms.
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Li W, Yun Z, Ji C, Tu J, Yang W, Li J, Liu N, Sheng C. Discovery of Novel Sertraline Derivatives as Potent Anti- Cryptococcus Agents. J Med Chem 2022; 65:6541-6554. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wang Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Zhaolin Yun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Changjin Ji
- School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Tu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Wanzhen Yang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jian Li
- School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, People’s Republic of China
| | - Na Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Chunquan Sheng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
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11
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Hexanal induces early apoptosis of Aspergillus flavus conidia by disrupting mitochondrial function and expression of key genes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:6871-6886. [PMID: 34477940 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11543-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus flavus is a notorious saprophytic fungus that compromises the quantity and quality of postharvest grains and produces carcinogenic aflatoxins. The natural compound hexanal disrupts cell membrane synthesis and mitochondrial function and induces apoptosis in A. flavus; here, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects. The minimum inhibition and fungicidal concentration (MIC and MFC) of hexanal against A. flavus spores were 3.2 and 9.6 μL/mL, respectively. Hexanal exposure resulted in abnormal spore morphology and early spore apoptosis. These changes were accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species production, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, and DNA fragmentation. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that hexanal treatment greatly altered the metabolism of A. flavus spores, including membrane permeability, mitochondrial function, energy metabolism, DNA replication, oxidative stress, and autophagy. This study provides novel insights into the mechanism underlying the antifungal activity of hexanal, suggesting that hexanal can be used an anti-A. flavus agent for agricultural applications. KEY POINTS: • Hexanal exposure resulted in abnormal spore morphology. • The apoptotic characteristics of A. flavus were induced after hexanal treatment. • Hexanal could change the expression of key A. flavus growth-related genes.
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12
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Zhang K. Balancing de novo synthesis and salvage of lipids by Leishmania amastigotes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2021; 63:98-103. [PMID: 34311265 PMCID: PMC8463422 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Leishmania parasites replicate as flagellated, extracellular promastigotes in the sand fly vector and then differentiate into non-flagellated, intracellular amastigotes in the vertebrate host. Promastigotes rely on de novo synthesis to produce the majority of their lipids including glycerophospholipids, sterols and sphingolipids. In contrast, amastigotes acquire most of their lipids from the host although they retain some capacity for de novo synthesis. The switch from de novo synthesis to salvage reflects the transition of Leishmania from fast-replicating promastigotes to slow-growing, metabolically quiescent amastigotes. Future studies will reveal the uptake and remodeling of host lipids by amastigotes at the cellular and molecular levels. Blocking the lipid transfer from host to parasites may present a novel strategy to control Leishmania growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
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13
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Physiological Responses of Aspergillus niger Challenged with Itraconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.02549-20. [PMID: 33820768 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02549-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus niger is an opportunistic pathogen commonly found in a variety of indoor and outdoor environments. An environmental isolate of A. niger from a pig farm was resistant to itraconazole, and in-depth investigations were conducted to better understand cellular responses that occur during growth when this pathogen is exposed to an antifungal. Using a combination of cultivation techniques, antibiotic stress testing, and label-free proteomics, this study investigated the physiological and metabolic responses of A. niger to sublethal levels of antifungal stress. Challenging A. niger with itraconazole inhibited growth, and the MIC was estimated to be > 16 mg · liter-1 Through the proteome analysis, 1,305 unique proteins were identified. During growth with 2 and 8 mg · liter-1 itraconazole, a total of 91 and 50 proteins, respectively, were significantly differentially expressed. When challenged with itraconazole, A. niger exhibited decreased expression of peroxidative enzymes, increased expression of an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter most likely involved as an azole efflux pump, and inhibited ergosterol synthesis; however, several ergosterol biosynthesis proteins increased in abundance. Furthermore, reduced expression of proteins involved in the production of ATP and reducing power from both the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) and glyoxylate cycles was observed. The mode of action of triazoles in A. niger therefore appears more complex than previously anticipated, and these observations may help highlight future targets for antifungal treatment.
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14
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Zu P, Koch H, Schwery O, Pironon S, Phillips C, Ondo I, Farrell IW, Nes WD, Moore E, Wright GA, Farman DI, Stevenson PC. Pollen sterols are associated with phylogeny and environment but not with pollinator guilds. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 230:1169-1184. [PMID: 33484583 PMCID: PMC8653887 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Phytosterols are primary plant metabolites that have fundamental structural and regulatory functions. They are also essential nutrients for phytophagous insects, including pollinators, that cannot synthesize sterols. Despite the well-described composition and diversity in vegetative plant tissues, few studies have examined phytosterol diversity in pollen. We quantified 25 pollen phytosterols in 122 plant species (105 genera, 51 families) to determine their composition and diversity across plant taxa. We searched literature and databases for plant phylogeny, environmental conditions, and pollinator guilds of the species to examine the relationships with pollen sterols. 24-methylenecholesterol, sitosterol and isofucosterol were the most common and abundant pollen sterols. We found phylogenetic clustering of twelve individual sterols, total sterol content and sterol diversity, and of sterol groupings that reflect their underlying biosynthesis pathway (C-24 alkylation, ring B desaturation). Plants originating in tropical-like climates (higher mean annual temperature, lower temperature seasonality, higher precipitation in wettest quarter) were more likely to record higher pollen sterol content. However, pollen sterol composition and content showed no clear relationship with pollinator guilds. Our study is the first to show that pollen sterol diversity is phylogenetically clustered and that pollen sterol content may adapt to environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengjuan Zu
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Natural Capital and Plant Health DepartmentRichmondSurreyTW9 3ABUK
- Department Fish Ecology and EvolutionSwiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and TechnologySeestrasse 79KastanienbaumCH‐6047Switzerland
| | - Hauke Koch
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Natural Capital and Plant Health DepartmentRichmondSurreyTW9 3ABUK
| | - Orlando Schwery
- New Mexico Consortium4200 W. Jemez Rd, Suite 301Los AlamosNM87544USA
| | - Samuel Pironon
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Biodiversity Informatics and Spatial Analysis DepartmentRichmondSurreyTW9 3ABUK
| | - Charlotte Phillips
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Biodiversity Informatics and Spatial Analysis DepartmentRichmondSurreyTW9 3ABUK
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Conservation Science DepartmentWakehurst PlaceArdinglyWest SussexRH17 6TNUK
| | - Ian Ondo
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Biodiversity Informatics and Spatial Analysis DepartmentRichmondSurreyTW9 3ABUK
| | - Iain W. Farrell
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Natural Capital and Plant Health DepartmentRichmondSurreyTW9 3ABUK
| | - W. David Nes
- Department of Chemistry & BiochemistryTexas Tech UniversityLubbockTX79424USA
| | - Elynor Moore
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of Oxford11a Mansfield RoadOxfordOX1 3SZUK
| | | | - Dudley I. Farman
- Natural Resources InstituteUniversity of GreenwichChatham, KentME4 4TBUK
| | - Philip C. Stevenson
- Royal Botanic GardensKew, Natural Capital and Plant Health DepartmentRichmondSurreyTW9 3ABUK
- Natural Resources InstituteUniversity of GreenwichChatham, KentME4 4TBUK
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15
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Oliveira FFM, Paes HC, Peconick LDF, Fonseca FL, Marina CLF, Bocca AL, Homem-de-Mello M, Rodrigues ML, Albuquerque P, Nicola AM, Alspaugh JA, Felipe MSS, Fernandes L. Erg6 affects membrane composition and virulence of the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. Fungal Genet Biol 2020; 140:103368. [PMID: 32201128 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2020.103368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Ergosterol is the most important membrane sterol in fungal cells and a component not found in the membranes of human cells. We identified the ERG6 gene in the AIDS-associated fungal pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans, encoding the sterol C-24 methyltransferase of fungal ergosterol biosynthesis. In this work, we have explored its relationship with high-temperature growth and virulence of C. neoformans by the construction of a loss-of-function mutant. In contrast to other genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis, C. neoformans ERG6 is not essential for growth under permissive conditions in vitro. However, the erg6 mutant displayed impaired thermotolerance and increased susceptibility to osmotic and oxidative stress, as well as to different antifungal drugs. Total lipid analysis demonstrated a decrease in the erg6Δ strain membrane ergosterol content. In addition, this mutant strain was avirulent in an invertebrate model of C. neoformans infection. C. neoformans Erg6 was cyto-localized in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex. Our results demonstrate that Erg6 is crucial for growth at high temperature and virulence, likely due to its effects on C. neoformans membrane integrity and dynamics. These pathogen-focused investigations into ergosterol biosynthetic pathway components reinforce the multiple roles of ergosterol in the response of diverse fungal species to alterations in the environment, especially that of the infected host. These studies open perspectives to understand the participation of ergosterol in mechanism of resistance to azole and polyene drugs. Observed synergistic growth defects with co-inhibition of Erg6 and other components of the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway suggests novel approaches to treatment in human fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Freire M Oliveira
- Faculty of Medicine, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, University of Brasília, Asa Norte, Brasília, Federal District 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Hugo Costa Paes
- Faculty of Medicine, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, University of Brasília, Asa Norte, Brasília, Federal District 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Luísa Defranco F Peconick
- Faculty of Ceilândia, Campus UnB Ceilândia, University of Brasília, Ceilândia Sul, Centro Metropolitano, Brasília, Federal District 72220-275, Brazil
| | - Fernanda L Fonseca
- Center for Technological Development in Health (CDTS), Fiocruz-RJ, Rio de Janeiro 21045-360, Brazil.
| | - Clara Luna Freitas Marina
- Laboratory of Applied Immunology, Institute of Biology, Room J1 28/8, Building J, 2nd Floor, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, University of Brasília, Asa Norte, Brasilia, Federal District 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Anamélia Lorenzetti Bocca
- Laboratory of Applied Immunology, Institute of Biology, Room J1 28/8, Building J, 2nd Floor, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, University of Brasília, Asa Norte, Brasilia, Federal District 70910-900, Brazil.
| | - Mauricio Homem-de-Mello
- Faculty of Health Science, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, University of Brasília, Asa Norte, Brasília, Federal District 70910-900, Brazil.
| | - Márcio Lourenço Rodrigues
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz-PR, Curitiba 81310-020, Brazil; Microbiology Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-590, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Albuquerque
- Faculty of Ceilândia, Campus UnB Ceilândia, University of Brasília, Ceilândia Sul, Centro Metropolitano, Brasília, Federal District 72220-275, Brazil
| | - André Moraes Nicola
- Faculty of Medicine, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, University of Brasília, Asa Norte, Brasília, Federal District 70910-900, Brazil
| | - J Andrew Alspaugh
- Duke University School of Medicine, Dept. of Medicine, Durham, DUMC Box 102359, 303 Sands Building, Research Drive, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
| | - Maria Sueli S Felipe
- Catolic University of Brasilia, Campus Asa Norte, SGAN 916 Módulo B Avenida W5, Asa Norte, Brasília, Federal District 70790-160, Brazil
| | - Larissa Fernandes
- Faculty of Ceilândia, Campus UnB Ceilândia, University of Brasília, Ceilândia Sul, Centro Metropolitano, Brasília, Federal District 72220-275, Brazil; Laboratory of Applied Immunology, Institute of Biology, Room J1 28/8, Building J, 2nd Floor, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, University of Brasília, Asa Norte, Brasilia, Federal District 70910-900, Brazil.
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16
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Scotti MT, Monteiro AFM, de Oliveira Viana J, Bezerra Mendonça Junior FJ, Ishiki HM, Tchouboun EN, De Araújo RSA, Scotti L. Recent Theoretical Studies Concerning Important Tropical Infections. Curr Med Chem 2020; 27:795-834. [DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190711121418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) form a group of diseases that are strongly associated
with poverty, flourish in impoverished environments, and thrive best in tropical areas,
where they tend to present overlap. They comprise several diseases, and the symptoms
vary dramatically from disease to disease, often causing from extreme pain, and untold misery
that anchors populations to poverty, permanent disability, and death. They affect more than 1
billion people worldwide; mostly in poor populations living in tropical and subtropical climates.
In this review, several complementary in silico approaches are presented; including
identification of new therapeutic targets, novel mechanisms of activity, high-throughput
screening of small-molecule libraries, as well as in silico quantitative structure-activity relationship
and recent molecular docking studies. Current and active research against Sleeping
Sickness, American trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniasis and Schistosomiasis infections will hopefully
lead to safer, more effective, less costly and more widely available treatments against
these parasitic forms of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Tullius Scotti
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba, Joao Pessoa - PB, Brazil
| | - Alex France Messias Monteiro
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba, Joao Pessoa - PB, Brazil
| | - Jéssika de Oliveira Viana
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba, Joao Pessoa - PB, Brazil
| | | | - Hamilton M. Ishiki
- University of Western Sao Paulo (Unoeste), Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Rodrigo Santos A. De Araújo
- Laboratory of Synthesis and Drug Delivery, Department of Biological Science, State University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Luciana Scotti
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba, Joao Pessoa - PB, Brazil
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17
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Inhibition of Phytosterol Biosynthesis by Azasterols. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25051111. [PMID: 32131509 PMCID: PMC7179204 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25051111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitors of enzymes in essential cellular pathways are potent probes to decipher intricate physiological functions of biomolecules. The analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana sterol profiles upon treatment with a series of azasterols reveals a specific in vivo inhibition of SMT2, a plant sterol-C-methyltransferase acting as a branch point between the campesterol and sitosterol biosynthetic segments in the pathway. Side chain azasteroids that modify sitosterol homeostasis help to refine its particular function in plant development.
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18
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Li B, Kuang Y, He JB, Tang R, Xu LL, Leung CH, Ma DL, Qiao X, Ye M. Antcamphorols A-K, Cytotoxic and ROS Scavenging Triterpenoids from Antrodia camphorata. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2020; 83:45-54. [PMID: 31891260 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Antrodia camphorata is a rare and valuable medicinal mushroom. In this work, 11 new triterpenoids, namely, antcamphorols A-K (1-11), together with 10 known triterpenoids, 12-21, were isolated from dish-cultured A. camphorata. Compound 1 is an unprecedented C31 lanostane-type triterpenoid featuring a methyl group at C-15 and a C-21-O-C-24 tetrahydropyran ring at C-17. Compounds 2-11 are ergostane-type triterpenoids, and they include two pairs of norergostanes 2-5. The structures of the new compounds were identified by NMR, 2D NMR, and HRESIMS data analyses. The absolute configurations of 1 and 6 were defined by X-ray diffraction data, and the absolute configuration at C-25 of 4 was determined by the modified Mosher's method. Compounds 7, 9, 10, 16, and 19 showed significant ROS scavenging activities (63.9-70.5% at 20 μM) in high-glucose-induced HUVECs. Compounds 3 and 8 exhibited moderate cytotoxic activities against U251 (IC50, 9.2 μM) and MCF-7 (IC50, 8.1 μM) human cancer cell lines, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs & Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University , 38 Xueyuan Road , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Kuang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs & Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University , 38 Xueyuan Road , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Jun-Bin He
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs & Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University , 38 Xueyuan Road , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs & Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University , 38 Xueyuan Road , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Lu-Lu Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs & Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University , 38 Xueyuan Road , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Chung-Hang Leung
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences , University of Macau , Macau , People's Republic of China
| | - Dik-Lung Ma
- Department of Chemistry , Hong Kong Baptist University , Kowloon Tong SWT 802 , Hong Kong , People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs & Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University , 38 Xueyuan Road , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Min Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs & Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University , 38 Xueyuan Road , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
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19
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Westrick NM, Ranjan A, Jain S, Grau CR, Smith DL, Kabbage M. Gene regulation of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum during infection of Glycine max: on the road to pathogenesis. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:157. [PMID: 30808300 PMCID: PMC6390599 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5517-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a broad-host range necrotrophic pathogen which is the causative agent of Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR), and a major disease of soybean (Glycine max). A time course transcriptomic analysis was performed in both compatible and incompatible soybean lines to identify pathogenicity and developmental factors utilized by S. sclerotiorum to achieve pathogenic success. RESULTS A comparison of genes expressed during early infection identified the potential importance of toxin efflux and nitrogen metabolism during the early stages of disease establishment. The later stages of infection were characterized by an apparent shift to survival structure formation. Analysis of genes highly upregulated in-planta revealed a temporal regulation of hydrolytic and detoxification enzymes, putative secreted effectors, and secondary metabolite synthesis genes. Redox regulation also appears to play a key role during the course of infection, as suggested by the high expression of genes involved in reactive oxygen species production and scavenging. Finally, distinct differences in early gene expression were noted based on the comparison of S. sclerotiorum infection of resistant and susceptible soybean lines. CONCLUSIONS Although many potential virulence factors have been noted in the S. sclerotiorum pathosystem, this study serves to highlight soybean specific processes most likely to be critical in successful infection. Functional studies of genes identified in this work are needed to confirm their importance to disease development, and may constitute valuable targets of RNAi approaches to improve resistance to SSR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ashish Ranjan
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Sachin Jain
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Craig R. Grau
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Damon L. Smith
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Mehdi Kabbage
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
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20
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Synthesis and Biological Activity of Sterol 14α-Demethylase and Sterol C24-Methyltransferase Inhibitors. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23071753. [PMID: 30018257 PMCID: PMC6099924 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23071753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterol 14α-demethylase (SDM) is essential for sterol biosynthesis and is the primary molecular target for clinical and agricultural antifungals. SDM has been demonstrated to be a valid drug target for antiprotozoal therapies, and much research has been focused on using SDM inhibitors to treat neglected tropical diseases such as human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis. Sterol C24-methyltransferase (24-SMT) introduces the C24-methyl group of ergosterol and is an enzyme found in pathogenic fungi and protozoa but is absent from animals. This difference in sterol metabolism has the potential to be exploited in the development of selective drugs that specifically target 24-SMT of invasive fungi or protozoa without adversely affecting the human or animal host. The synthesis and biological activity of SDM and 24-SMT inhibitors are reviewed herein.
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21
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Ishita K, Stefanopoulos S, Khalil A, Cheng X, Tjarks W, Rappleye CA. Synthesis and biological evaluation of aminothiazoles against Histoplasma capsulatum and Cryptococcus neoformans. Bioorg Med Chem 2018; 26:2251-2261. [PMID: 29580849 PMCID: PMC5935597 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The design and synthesis of a library of forty novel 2-aminoazole analogues as well as their evaluation as antifungal compounds against Histoplasma capsulatum and Cryptococcus neoformans is described. These structures were derived from N-[5-(1-naphthalenylmethyl)-2-thiazolyl]cyclohexanecarboxamide (41F5), a fungistatic agent previously identified through phenotypic screening (Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:4349). Modifications to improve potency and water-solubility of 41F5 focused primarily on the 5-naphthalenyl group, the thiazole core, and the methylene linker between these two structural elements. In general, compounds with lipophilic [5+6] bicyclic ring systems, such as the 7-benzothiophenyl- and 4-indanyl groups, at the 5-position were 2-3 times more active against both fungal species as compared to 41F5. Also, introduction of a carbonyl group at the methylene linker of 41F5 resulted in a 2-3-fold increase in potency. These highly active compounds also showed generally low toxicities against murine P388D1 macrophages resulting in selectivity indices ranging from 63 to >200. Compounds that were highly active against fluconazole-sensitive C. neoformans strains had almost identical activity against fluconazole-resistant variants of this fungus indicating that 14α-demethylase is not their molecular target. Highly active compounds also retained activity against H. capsulatum phagocytosed into P388D1 macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Ishita
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry & Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | | | - Ahmed Khalil
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry & Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | - Xiaolin Cheng
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry & Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | - Werner Tjarks
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry & Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | - Chad A Rappleye
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States; Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.
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22
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Targeting Candida spp. to develop antifungal agents. Drug Discov Today 2018; 23:802-814. [PMID: 29353694 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2017] [Revised: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Invasive fungal infections are a complex challenge throughout the world because of their high incidence, mainly in critically ill patients, and high mortality rates. The antifungal agents currently available are limited; thus, there is a need for the rapid development of new drugs. In silico methods are a modern strategy to explore interactions between new compounds and specific fungal targets, but they depend on precise genetic information. Here, we discuss the main Candida spp. target genes, including information about null mutants, virulence, cytolocalization, co-regulatory genes, and compounds that are related to protein expression. These data will provide a basis for the future in silico development of antifungal drugs.
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23
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Molecular cloning and functional identification of sterol C24-methyltransferase gene from Tripterygium wilfordii. Acta Pharm Sin B 2017; 7:603-609. [PMID: 28924554 PMCID: PMC5595292 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterol C24-methyltransferase (SMT) plays multiple important roles in plant growth and development. SMT1, which belongs to the family of transferases and transforms cycloartenol into 24-methylene cycloartenol, is involved in the biosynthesis of 24-methyl sterols. Here, we report the cloning and characterization of a cDNA encoding a sterol C24-methyltransferase from Tripterygium wilfordii (TwSMT1). TwSMT1 (GenBank access number KU885950) is a 1530 bp cDNA with a 1041 bp open reading frame predicted to encode a 346-amino acid, 38.62 kDa protein. The polypeptide encoded by the SMT1 cDNA was expressed and purified as a recombinant protein from Escherichia coli (E. coli) and showed SMT activity. The expression of TwSMT1 was highly up-regulated in T. wilfordii cell suspension cultures treated with methyl jasmonate (MeJA). Tissue expression pattern analysis showed higher expression in the phellem layer compared to the other four organs (leaf, stem, xylem and phloem), which is about ten times that of the lowest expression in leaf. The results are meaningful for the study of sterol biosynthesis of T. wilfordii and will further lay the foundations for the research in regulating both the content of other main compounds and growth and development of T. wilfordii.
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24
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Singh A, MacKenzie A, Girnun G, Del Poeta M. Analysis of sphingolipids, sterols, and phospholipids in human pathogenic Cryptococcus strains. J Lipid Res 2017; 58:2017-2036. [PMID: 28811322 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m078600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus species cause invasive infections in humans. Lipids play an important role in the progression of these infections. Independent studies done by our group and others provide some detail about the functions of these lipids in Cryptococcus infections. However, the pathways of biosynthesis and the metabolism of these lipids are not completely understood. To thoroughly understand the physiological role of these Cryptococcus lipids, a proper structure and composition analysis of Cryptococcus lipids is demanded. In this study, a detailed spectroscopic analysis of lipid extracts from Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus grubii strains is presented. Sphingolipid profiling by LC-ESI-MS/MS was used to analyze sphingosine, dihydrosphingosine, sphingosine-1-phosphate, dihydrosphingosine-1-phosphate, ceramide, dihydroceramide, glucosylceramide, phytosphingosine, phytosphingosine-1-phosphate, phytoceramide, α-hydroxy phytoceramide, and inositolphosphorylceramide species. A total of 13 sterol species were identified using GC-MS, where ergosterol is the most abundant species. The 31P-NMR-based phospholipid analysis identified phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidyl-N,N-dimethylethanolamine, phosphatidyl-N-monomethylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidic acid, and lysophosphatidylethanolamine. A comparison of lipid profiles among different Cryptococcus strains illustrates a marked change in the metabolic flux of these organisms, especially sphingolipid metabolism. These data improve our understanding of the structure, biosynthesis, and metabolism of common lipid groups of Cryptococcus and should be useful while studying their functional significance and designing therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Singh
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology and Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794
| | | | - Geoffrey Girnun
- Department of Pathology, Stony Brook School of Medicine, Stony Brook, NY 11794
| | - Maurizio Del Poeta
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology and Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794 .,Veterans Administration Medical Center, Northport, NY 11768.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794
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In Vitro Antibiofilm Activity of Eucarobustol E against Candida albicans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.02707-16. [PMID: 28584159 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02707-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Formyl-phloroglucinol meroterpenoids (FPMs) are important types of natural products with various bioactivities. Our antifungal susceptibility assay showed that one of the Eucalyptus robusta-derived FPMs, eucarobustol E (EE), exerted a strong inhibitory effect against Candida albicans biofilms at a concentration of 16 μg/ml. EE was found to block the yeast-to-hypha transition and reduce the cellular surface hydrophobicity of the biofilm cells. RNA sequencing and real-time reverse transcription-PCR analysis showed that exposure to 16 μg/ml of EE resulted in marked reductions in the levels of expressions of genes involved in hyphal growth (EFG1, CPH1, TEC1, EED1, UME6, and HGC1) and cell surface protein genes (ALS3, HWP1, and SAP5). Interestingly, in response to EE, genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis were downregulated, while the farnesol-encoding gene (DPP3) was upregulated, and these findings were in agreement with those from the quantification of ergosterol and farnesol. Combined with the obvious elevation of negative regulator genes (TUP1, NRG1), we speculated that EE's inhibition of carbon flow to ergosterol triggered the mechanisms of the negative regulation of hyphal growth and eventually led to biofilm inhibition.
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26
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Kim JH, Singh A, Del Poeta M, Brown DA, London E. The effect of sterol structure upon clathrin-mediated and clathrin-independent endocytosis. J Cell Sci 2017; 130:2682-2695. [PMID: 28655854 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.201731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ordered lipid domains (rafts) in plasma membranes have been hypothesized to participate in endocytosis based on inhibition of endocytosis by removal or sequestration of cholesterol. To more carefully investigate the role of the sterol in endocytosis, we used a substitution strategy to replace cholesterol with sterols that show various raft-forming abilities and chemical structures. Both clathrin-mediated endocytosis of transferrin and clathrin-independent endocytosis of clustered placental alkaline phosphatase were measured. A subset of sterols reversibly inhibited both clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent endocytosis. The ability of a sterol to support lipid raft formation was necessary for endocytosis. However, it was not sufficient, because a sterol lacking a 3β-OH group did not support endocytosis even though it had the ability to support ordered domain formation. Double bonds in the sterol rings and an aliphatic tail structure identical to that of cholesterol were neither necessary nor sufficient to support endocytosis. This study shows that substitution using a large number of sterols can define the role of sterol structure in cellular functions. Hypotheses for how sterol structure can similarly alter clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent endocytosis are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyun Kim
- Dept. of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Ashutosh Singh
- Dept. of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Maurizio Del Poeta
- Dept. of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Deborah A Brown
- Dept. of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Erwin London
- Dept. of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
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Catharina L, Lima CR, Franca A, Guimarães ACR, Alves-Ferreira M, Tuffery P, Derreumaux P, Carels N. A Computational Methodology to Overcome the Challenges Associated With the Search for Specific Enzyme Targets to Develop Drugs Against Leishmania major. Bioinform Biol Insights 2017. [PMID: 28638238 PMCID: PMC5470852 DOI: 10.1177/1177932217712471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We present an approach for detecting enzymes that are specific of Leishmania major compared with Homo sapiens and provide targets that may assist research in drug development. This approach is based on traditional techniques of sequence homology comparison by similarity search and Markov modeling; it integrates the characterization of enzymatic functionality, secondary and tertiary protein structures, protein domain architecture, and metabolic environment. From 67 enzymes represented by 42 enzymatic activities classified by AnEnPi (Analogous Enzymes Pipeline) as specific for L major compared with H sapiens, only 40 (23 Enzyme Commission [EC] numbers) could actually be considered as strictly specific of L major and 27 enzymes (19 EC numbers) were disregarded for having ambiguous homologies or analogies with H sapiens. Among the 40 strictly specific enzymes, we identified sterol 24-C-methyltransferase, pyruvate phosphate dikinase, trypanothione synthetase, and RNA-editing ligase as 4 essential enzymes for L major that may serve as targets for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Catharina
- Laboratório de Modelagem de Sistemas Biológicos, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Inovação em Doenças de Populações Negligenciadas (INCT-IDPN), Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Carlyle Ribeiro Lima
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (UPR 9080), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris 7, Paris, France.,Molécules Thérapeutiques in silico (UMR-S 973), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Alexander Franca
- Laboratório de Genômica Funcional e Bioinformática, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Ramos Guimarães
- Laboratório de Genômica Funcional e Bioinformática, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Alves-Ferreira
- Laboratório de Modelagem de Sistemas Biológicos, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Inovação em Doenças de Populações Negligenciadas (INCT-IDPN), Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Pierre Tuffery
- Molécules Thérapeutiques in silico (UMR-S 973), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Derreumaux
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (UPR 9080), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris 7, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Carels
- Laboratório de Modelagem de Sistemas Biológicos, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Inovação em Doenças de Populações Negligenciadas (INCT-IDPN), Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Hu W, Pan X, Abbas HMK, Li F, Dong W. Metabolites contributing to Rhizoctonia solani AG-1-IA maturation and sclerotial differentiation revealed by UPLC-QTOF-MS metabolomics. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177464. [PMID: 28489938 PMCID: PMC5425210 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhizoctonia solani is a causative agent of sheath blight, which results in huge economic losses every year. During its life cycle, the formation of sclerotia helps Rhizoctonia solani withstand a variety of unfavorable factors. Oxidative stress is a key factor that induces sclerotium formation. The differentiated and undifferentiated phenotypes of R. solani AG-1-IA were obtained by controlling aerial conditions. Metabolomics based on the mass spectrometry technique combined with multivariate and univariate analyses was used to investigate the metabolic variation in vegetative, differentiated and undifferentiated mycelia. Our results revealed that during maturation, the metabolic levels of N2-acetyl-L-ornithine, 3,1'-(OH)2-Gamma-carotene, (5Z,7E)-(1S,3R)-24,24-difluoro-24a-homo-9,10-seco-5,7,10(19)-cholestatrien-1,3,25-triol, stoloniferone O, PA(O-18:0/12:0), PA(P-16:0/14:0), PA(P-16:0/16:(19Z)) and PA(P-16:0/17:2(9Z,12Z)) were suppressed in both differentiated and undifferentiated mycelia. The concentrations of PE(20:1(11Z)/14:1(9Z)), PE(P-16:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,13E)(15OH[S])) and PS(12:0/18:1(9Z)) were increased in the differentiated group, while increased levels of N(gamma)-nitro-L-arginine, tenuazonic acid and 9S,10S,11R-trihydroxy-12Z,15Z-octadecadienoic acid were found in the undifferentiated group. Our results suggest that different levels of these metabolites may act as biomarkers for the developmental stages of R. solani AG-1-IA. Moreover, the mechanisms of sclerotium formation and mycelium differentiation were elucidated at the metabolic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjin Hu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Science and Technology and the Key Lab of Crop Disease Monitoring & Safety Control in Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Xinli Pan
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Technische Universität Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Hafiz Muhammad Khalid Abbas
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Science and Technology and the Key Lab of Crop Disease Monitoring & Safety Control in Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Fengfeng Li
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Science and Technology and the Key Lab of Crop Disease Monitoring & Safety Control in Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Wubei Dong
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Science and Technology and the Key Lab of Crop Disease Monitoring & Safety Control in Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
- * E-mail:
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29
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Jahanshiri Z, Shams-Ghahfarokhi M, Asghari-Paskiabi F, Saghiri R, Razzaghi-Abyaneh M. α-Bisabolol inhibits Aspergillus fumigatus Af239 growth via affecting microsomal ∆24-sterol methyltransferase as a crucial enzyme in ergosterol biosynthesis pathway. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 33:55. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-017-2214-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Miller MB, Patkar P, Singha UK, Chaudhuri M, David Nes W. 24-Methylenecyclopropane steroidal inhibitors: A Trojan horse in ergosterol biosynthesis that prevents growth of Trypanosoma brucei. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2016; 1862:305-313. [PMID: 27939999 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
A new class of steroidal therapeutics based on phylogenetic-guided design of covalent inhibitors that target parasite-specific enzymes of ergosterol biosynthesis is shown to prevent growth of the protozoan-Trypanosoma brucei, responsible for sleeping sickness. In the presence of approximately 15±5μM 26,27-dehydrolanosterol, T. brucei procyclic or blood stream form growth is inhibited by 50%. This compound is actively converted by the parasite to an acceptable substrate of sterol C24-methyl transferase (SMT) that upon position-specific side chain methylation at C26 inactivates the enzyme. Treated cells show dose-dependent depletion of ergosterol and other 24β-methyl sterols with no accumulation of intermediates in contradistinction to profiles typical of tight binding inhibitor treatments to azoles showing loss of ergosterol accompanied by accumulation of toxic 14-methyl sterols. HEK cells accumulate 26,27-dehydrolanosterol without effect on cholesterol biosynthesis. During exposure of cloned TbSMT to 26,27-dehydrozymosterol, the enzyme is gradually inactivated (kcat/kinact=0.13min-1/0.08min-1; partition ratio of 1.6) while 26,27-dehydrolanosterol binds nonproductively. GC-MS analysis of the turnover product and bound intermediate released as a C26-methylated diol (C3-OH and C24-OH) confirmed substrate recognition and covalent binding to TbSMT. This study has potential implications for design of a novel class of chemotherapeutic leads functioning as mechanism-based inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis to treat neglected tropical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Miller
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Chemical Biology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Presheet Patkar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Chemical Biology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Ujjal K Singha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
| | - Minu Chaudhuri
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
| | - W David Nes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Chemical Biology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
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Borba-Santos LP, Visbal G, Gagini T, Rodrigues AM, de Camargo ZP, Lopes-Bezerra LM, Ishida K, de Souza W, Rozental S. Δ(24)-Sterol Methyltransferase Plays an Important Role in the Growth and Development of Sporothrix schenckii and Sporothrix brasiliensis. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:311. [PMID: 27014234 PMCID: PMC4786573 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of Δ24-sterol methyltransferase (24-SMT) in Sporothrix schenckii sensu stricto and Sporothrix brasiliensis was investigated in vitro. The effects on fungal growth and sterol composition of the 24-SMT inhibitor 22-hydrazone-imidazolin-2-yl-chol-5-ene-3β-ol (H3) were compared to those of itraconazole. MIC and MFC analysis showed that H3 was more effective than itraconazole against both species in both their filamentous and yeast forms. H3 showed fungistatic activity in a time-kill assay, with inhibitory activity stronger than that of itraconazole. GC analysis of cell sterol composition showed that sterols present in control cells (ergosterol and precursors) were completely replaced by 14α-methylated sterols after H3 exposure. Itraconazole only partially inhibited ergosterol synthesis but completely arrested synthesis of other sterols found in control cells, promoting accumulation of nine 14α-methyl sterols. Based on these results, we propose a schematic model of sterol biosynthesis pathways in S. schenckii and S. brasiliensis. Effects on cell morphology due to 24-SMT inhibition by H3 as analyzed by SEM and TEM included irregular cell shape, reduced cytoplasmic electron-density, and reduced thickness of the microfibrillar cell wall layer. Moreover, 24-SMT inhibition by H3 promoted mitochondrial disturbance, as demonstrated by alterations in MitoTracker® Red CMXRos fluorescence intensity evaluated by flow cytometry. When used in conjunction with itraconazole, H3 enhanced the effectiveness of itraconazole against all tested strains, reducing at least half (or more) the MIC values of itraconazole. In addition, cytotoxicity assays revealed that H3 was more selective toward these fungi than was itraconazole. Thus, 24-SMT inhibition by H3 was an effective antifungal strategy against S. schenckii and S. brasiliensis. Inhibition of the methylation reaction catalyzed by 24-SMT has a strong antiproliferative effect via disruption of ergosterol homeostasis, suggesting that this enzyme is a promising target for novel antifungal therapies against sporotrichosis, either as sole treatments or in combination with itraconazole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana P Borba-Santos
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular de Fungos, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gonzalo Visbal
- Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e TecnologiaDuque de Caxias, Brazil; Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones CientíficasCaracas, Venezuela
| | - Thalita Gagini
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular de Fungos, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anderson M Rodrigues
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zoilo P de Camargo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leila M Lopes-Bezerra
- Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Kelly Ishida
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Sonia Rozental
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular de Fungos, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Assato PA, da Silva JDF, de Oliveira HC, Marcos CM, Rossi D, Valentini SR, Mendes-Giannini MJS, Zanelli CF, Fusco-Almeida AM. Functional analysis of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis 14-3-3 adhesin expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. BMC Microbiol 2015; 15:256. [PMID: 26537993 PMCID: PMC4634143 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-015-0586-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 14-3-3 proteins comprise a family of eukaryotic multifunctional proteins involved in several cellular processes. The Pb14-3-3 of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis seems to play an important role in the Paracoccidioides-host interaction. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is an etiological agent of paracoccidioidomycosis, which is a systemic mycosis that is endemic in Latin America. In the initial steps of the infection, Paracoccidioides spp. synthetizes adhesins that allow it to adhere and invade host cells. Therefore, the aim of this work was to perform a functional analysis of Pb14-3-3 using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model. RESULTS The functional analysis of Pb14-3-3 was performed in S. cerevisiae, and it was found that Pb14-3-3 partially complemented S. cerevisiae proteins Bmh1p and Bmh2p, which are recognized as two yeast 14-3-3 homologues. When we evaluated the adhesion profile of S. cerevisiae transformants, Pb14-3-3 acted as an adhesin in S. cerevisiae; however, Bmh1p did not show this function. The influence of Pb14-3-3 in S. cerevisiae ergosterol pathway was also evaluated and our results showed that Pb14-3-3 up-regulates genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis. CONCLUSIONS Our data showed that Pb14-3-3 was able to partially complement Bmh1p and Bmh2p proteins in S. cerevisiae; however, we suggest that Pb14-3-3 has a differential role as an adhesin. In addition, Pb-14-3-3 may be involved in Paracoccidioides spp. ergosterol biosynthesis which makes it an interest as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Akemi Assato
- Laboratório de Micologia Clínica - Núcleo de Proteômica - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Julhiany de Fátima da Silva
- Laboratório de Micologia Clínica - Núcleo de Proteômica - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Haroldo Cesar de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Micologia Clínica - Núcleo de Proteômica - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Caroline Maria Marcos
- Laboratório de Micologia Clínica - Núcleo de Proteômica - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Danuza Rossi
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Sandro Roberto Valentini
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Maria José Soares Mendes-Giannini
- Laboratório de Micologia Clínica - Núcleo de Proteômica - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Cleslei Fernando Zanelli
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
| | - Ana Marisa Fusco-Almeida
- Laboratório de Micologia Clínica - Núcleo de Proteômica - Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas- Unesp - Campus Araraquara, Rodovia Araraquara - Jaú Km 1, 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
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Abstract
Enzymes play key roles in fungal pathogenesis. Manipulation of enzyme expression or activity can significantly alter the infection process, and enzyme expression profiles can be a hallmark of disease. Hence, enzymes are worthy targets for better understanding pathogenesis and identifying new options for combatting fungal infections. Advances in genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and mass spectrometry have enabled the identification and characterization of new fungal enzymes. This review focuses on recent developments in the virulence-associated enzymes from Cryptococcus neoformans. The enzymatic suite of C. neoformans has evolved for environmental survival, but several of these enzymes play a dual role in colonizing the mammalian host. We also discuss new therapeutic and diagnostic strategies that could be based on the underlying enzymology.
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O'Keeffe R, Kenny O, Brunton NP, Hossain MB, Rai DK, Jones PW, O'Brien N, Maguire AR, Collins SG. Synthesis of novel 24-amino-25,26,27-trinorlanost-8-enes: cytotoxic and apoptotic potential in U937 cells. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:2270-80. [PMID: 25800433 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Revised: 01/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, the synthesis of a range of novel 24-amino-25,26,27-trinorlanost-8-ene derivatives including 24-piperadino-trinorlanost-8-enes, 24-piperazino-trinorlanost-8-enes, 24-morpholino-trinorlanost-8-enes, and 24-diethylamino-trinorlanost-8-enes is reported and their cytotoxic and apoptotic potential evaluated in U937 cell lines. Excellent IC₅₀ results for piperidine and 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine derivatives have been observed (IC₅₀ values of 1.9 μM and 2.7 μM in U937 cells, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Roisin O'Keeffe
- Department of Chemistry, Analytical and Biological Chemistry Research Facility, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Olivia Kenny
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Nigel P Brunton
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Mohammad B Hossain
- Food Biosciences Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland
| | - Dilip K Rai
- Food Biosciences Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland
| | - Peter W Jones
- Department of Zoology, Ecology and Plant Science, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Nora O'Brien
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland.
| | - Anita R Maguire
- Department of Chemistry and School of Pharmacy, Analytical and Biological Chemistry Research Facility, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, University College Cork, Ireland.
| | - Stuart G Collins
- Department of Chemistry, Analytical and Biological Chemistry Research Facility, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, University College Cork, Ireland.
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Azam SS, Abro A, Raza S. Binding pattern analysis and structural insight into the inhibition mechanism of Sterol 24-C methyltransferase by docking and molecular dynamics approach. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2015; 33:2563-77. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2014.1002423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Haubrich BA, Singha UK, Miller MB, Nes CR, Anyatonwu H, Lecordier L, Patkar P, Leaver DJ, Villalta F, Vanhollebeke B, Chaudhuri M, Nes WD. Discovery of an ergosterol-signaling factor that regulates Trypanosoma brucei growth. J Lipid Res 2014; 56:331-41. [PMID: 25424002 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m054643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ergosterol biosynthesis and homeostasis in the parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma brucei was analyzed by RNAi silencing and inhibition of sterol C24β-methyltransferase (TbSMT) and sterol 14α-demethylase [TbSDM (TbCYP51)] to explore the functions of sterols in T. brucei growth. Inhibition of the amount or activity of these enzymes depletes ergosterol from cells at <6 fg/cell for procyclic form (PCF) cells or <0.01 fg/cell for bloodstream form (BSF) cells and reduces infectivity in a mouse model of infection. Silencing of TbSMT expression by RNAi in PCF or BSF in combination with 25-azalanosterol (AZA) inhibited parasite growth and this inhibition was restored completely by adding synergistic cholesterol (7.8 μM from lipid-depleted media) with small amounts of ergosterol (1.2 μM) to the medium. These observations are consistent with the proposed requirement for ergosterol as a signaling factor to spark cell proliferation while imported cholesterol or the endogenously formed cholesta-5,7,24-trienol act as bulk membrane components. To test the potential chemotherapeutic importance of disrupting ergosterol biosynthesis using pairs of mechanism-based inhibitors that block two enzymes in the post-squalene segment, parasites were treated with AZA and itraconazole at 1 μM each (ED50 values) resulting in parasite death. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the ergosterol pathway is a prime drug target for intervention in T. brucei infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad A Haubrich
- Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
| | - Ujjal K Singha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208
| | - Matthew B Miller
- Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
| | - Craigen R Nes
- Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
| | - Hosanna Anyatonwu
- Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
| | - Laurence Lecordier
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie Moléculaire, IBMM, Université Libre de Bruxelles, B6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Presheet Patkar
- Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
| | - David J Leaver
- Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409 Institute of Chemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208
| | - Benoit Vanhollebeke
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie Moléculaire, IBMM, Université Libre de Bruxelles, B6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Minu Chaudhuri
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208
| | - W David Nes
- Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
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Chang YC, Khanal Lamichhane A, Garraffo HM, Walter PJ, Leerkes M, Kwon-Chung KJ. Molecular mechanisms of hypoxic responses via unique roles of Ras1, Cdc24 and Ptp3 in a human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004292. [PMID: 24762475 PMCID: PMC3998916 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans encounters a low oxygen environment when it enters the human host. Here, we show that the conserved Ras1 (a small GTPase) and Cdc24 (the guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Cdc42) play an essential role in cryptococcal growth in hypoxia. Suppressor studies indicate that PTP3 functions epistatically downstream of both RAS1 and CDC24 in regulating hypoxic growth. Ptp3 shares sequence similarity to the family of phosphotyrosine-specific protein phosphatases and the ptp3Δ strain failed to grow in 1% O2. We demonstrate that RAS1, CDC24 and PTP3 function in parallel to regulate thermal tolerance but RAS1 and CDC24 function linearly in regulating hypoxic growth while CDC24 and PTP3 reside in compensatory pathways. The ras1Δ and cdc24Δ strains ceased to grow at 1% O2 and became enlarged but viable single cells. Actin polarization in these cells, however, was normal for up to eight hours after transferring to hypoxic conditions. Double deletions of the genes encoding Rho GTPase Cdc42 and Cdc420, but not of the genes encoding Rac1 and Rac2, caused a slight growth retardation in hypoxia. Furthermore, growth in hypoxia was not affected by the deletion of several central genes functioning in the pathways of cAMP, Hog1, or the two-component like phosphorylation system that are critical in the cryptococcal response to osmotic and genotoxic stresses. Interestingly, although deletion of HOG1 rescued the hypoxic growth defect of ras1Δ, cdc24Δ, and ptp3Δ, Hog1 was not hyperphosphorylated in these three mutants in hypoxic conditions. RNA sequencing analysis indicated that RAS1, CDC24 and PTP3 acted upon the expression of genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis, chromosome organization, RNA processing and protein translation. Moreover, growth of the wild-type strain under low oxygen conditions was affected by sub-inhibitory concentrations of the compounds that inhibit these biological processes, demonstrating the importance of these biological processes in the cryptococcal hypoxia response. When Cryptococcus neoformans, an environmental fungal pathogen, enters the human host, it encounters a low oxygen condition. The well conserved Ras1 and Cdc24 proteins are known for their key roles in maintenance of the actin cytoskeletal integrity in eukaryotic cells. In this work, we show a unique role of RAS1 and CDC24 in the growth of C. neoformans in a low oxygen environment. Actin polarization, however, appeared normal in the ras1Δ and cdc24Δ strains under hypoxic conditions for up to eight hours. We show that PTP3 is required for hypoxic growth and it can rescue the hypoxic growth defect in ras1Δ and cdc24Δ. Genetic analysis suggested that RAS1 and CDC24 function linearly while CDC24 and PTP3 function parallelly in regulating hypoxic growth. RNA sequencing combined with analysis by small molecular inhibitors revealed that RAS1, CDC24 and PTP3 regulate several biological processes such as ergosterol biosynthesis, chromosome organization, RNA processing and protein translation which are required in the cryptococcal response to hypoxic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun C. Chang
- Molecular Microbiology Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Ami Khanal Lamichhane
- Molecular Microbiology Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - H. Martin Garraffo
- Clinical Mass Spectrometry Core, NIDDK, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Peter J. Walter
- Clinical Mass Spectrometry Core, NIDDK, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Maarten Leerkes
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biosciences Branch, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kyung J. Kwon-Chung
- Molecular Microbiology Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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Structure and dynamics studies of sterol 24-C-methyltransferase with mechanism based inactivators for the disruption of ergosterol biosynthesis. Mol Biol Rep 2014; 41:4279-93. [DOI: 10.1007/s11033-014-3299-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Krojer M, Müller C, Bracher F. Steroidomimetic Aminomethyl Spiroacetals as Novel Inhibitors of the Enzyme Δ8,7-Sterol Isomerase in Cholesterol Biosynthesis. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2013; 347:108-22. [DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201300296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Krojer
- Department of Pharmacy - Center for Drug Research; Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich; Munich Germany
| | - Christoph Müller
- Department of Pharmacy - Center for Drug Research; Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich; Munich Germany
| | - Franz Bracher
- Department of Pharmacy - Center for Drug Research; Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich; Munich Germany
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Patkar P, Haubrich BA, Qi M, Nguyen TTM, Thomas CD, Nes WD. C-24-methylation of 26-fluorocycloartenols by recombinant sterol C-24-methyltransferase from soybean: evidence for channel switching and its phylogenetic implications. Biochem J 2013; 456:253-62. [PMID: 23984880 DOI: 10.1042/bj20121818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The tightly coupled nature of the electrophilic alkylation reaction sequence catalysed by 24-SMT (sterol C-24-methyltransferase) of land plants and algae can be distinguished by the formation of cationic intermediates that yield phyla-specific product profiles. C-24-methylation of the cycloartenol substrate by the recombinant Glycine max (soybean) 24-SMT proceeds to a single product 24(28)-methylenecycloartanol, whereas the 24-SMT from green algae converts cycloartenol into two products cyclolaudenol [∆(25(27))-olefin] and 24(28)-methylenecycloartanol [(∆24(28))-olefin]. Substrate analogues that differed in the steric-electronic features at either end of the molecule, 26-homocycloartenol or 3β-fluorolanostadiene, were converted by G. max SMT into a single 24(28)-methylene product. Alternatively, incubation of the allylic 26-fluoro cyclosteroid with G. max SMT afforded a bound intermediate that converted in favour of the ∆(25(27))-olefin product via the cyclolaudenol cation formed initially during the C-24-methylation reaction. A portion of the 26-fluorocycloartenol substrate was also intercepted by the enzyme and the corresponding hydrolysis product identified by GC-MS as 26-fluoro-25-hydroxy-24-methylcycloartanol. Finally, the 26-fluorocycloartenols are competitive inhibitors for the methylation of cycloartenol and 26-monofluorocycloartenol generated timedependent inactivation kinetics exhibiting a kinact value of 0.12 min(-1). The ability of soybean 24-SMT to generate a 25-hydroxy alkylated sterol and fluorinated ∆(25(27))-olefins is consistent with our hypothesis that (i) achieving the cyclolaudenyl cation intermediate by electrophilic alkylation of cycloartenol is significant to the overall reaction rate, and (ii) the evolution of variant sterol C-24-methylation patterns is driven by competing reaction channels that have switched in algae from formation of primarily ∆(25(27)) products that convert into ergosterol to, in land plants, formation of ∆(24(28)) products that convert into sitosterol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Presheet Patkar
- *Center for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, U.S.A
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Loto I, Gutiérrez MS, Barahona S, Sepúlveda D, Martínez-Moya P, Baeza M, Cifuentes V, Alcaíno J. Enhancement of carotenoid production by disrupting the C22-sterol desaturase gene (CYP61) in Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous. BMC Microbiol 2012; 12:235. [PMID: 23075035 PMCID: PMC3552872 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-12-235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous is a basidiomycetous yeast that synthesizes astaxanthin, which is a carotenoid with a great biotechnological impact. The ergosterol and carotenoid synthesis pathways are derived from the mevalonate pathway, and in both pathways, cytochrome P450 enzymes are involved. RESULTS In this study, we isolated and described the X. dendrorhous CYP61 gene, which encodes a cytochrome P450 involved in ergosterol biosynthesis. This gene is composed of nine exons and encodes a 526 amino acid polypeptide that shares significant percentages of identity and similitude with the C22-sterol desaturase, CYP61, from other fungi. Mutants derived from different parental strains were obtained by disrupting the CYP61 gene with an antibiotic selection marker. These mutants were not able to produce ergosterol and accumulated ergosta-5,8,22-trien-3-ol and ergosta-5,8-dien-3-ol. Interestingly, all of the mutants had a more intense red color phenotype than their respective parental strains. The carotenoid composition was qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed by RP-HPLC, revealing that the carotenoid content was higher in the mutant strains without major changes in their composition. The expression of the HMGR gene, which encodes an enzyme involved in the mevalonate pathway (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase), was analyzed by RT-qPCR showing that its transcript levels are higher in the CYP61 mutants. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that in X. dendrorhous, ergosterol regulates HMGR gene expression by a negative feedback mechanism and in this way; it contributes in the regulation of the carotenoid biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Loto
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
| | - María Soledad Gutiérrez
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
| | - Salvador Barahona
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
| | - Dionisia Sepúlveda
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
| | - Pilar Martínez-Moya
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
| | - Marcelo Baeza
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
| | - Víctor Cifuentes
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
| | - Jennifer Alcaíno
- Laboratorio de Genética. Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago Casilla 653, Chile
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Miller MB, Haubrich BA, Wang Q, Snell WJ, Nes WD. Evolutionarily conserved Delta(25(27))-olefin ergosterol biosynthesis pathway in the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. J Lipid Res 2012; 53:1636-45. [PMID: 22591742 PMCID: PMC3540834 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m027482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2012] [Revised: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ergosterol is the predominant sterol of fungi and green algae. Although the biosynthetic pathway for sterol synthesis in fungi is well established and is known to use C24-methylation-C24 (28)-reduction (Δ(24(28))-olefin pathway) steps, little is known about the sterol pathway in green algae. Previous work has raised the possibility that these algae might use a novel pathway because the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was shown to possess a mevalonate-independent methylerythritol 4-phosphate not present in fungi. Here, we report that C. reinhardtii synthesizes the protosterol cycloartenol and converts it to ergosterol (C24β-methyl) and 7-dehydroporiferasterol (C24β-ethyl) through a highly conserved sterol C24- methylation-C25-reduction (Δ(25(27))-olefin) pathway that is distinct from the well-described acetate-mevalonate pathway to fungal lanosterol and its conversion to ergosterol by the Δ(24(28))-olefin pathway. We isolated and characterized 23 sterols by a combination of GC-MS and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis from a set of mutant, wild-type, and 25-thialanosterol-treated cells. The structure and stereochemistry of the final C24-alkyl sterol side chains possessed different combinations of 24β-methyl/ethyl groups and Δ(22(23))E and Δ(25(27))-double bond constructions. When incubated with [methyl-(2)H(3)]methionine, cells incorporated three (into ergosterol) or five (into 7-dehydroporiferasterol) deuterium atoms into the newly biosynthesized 24β-alkyl sterols, consistent only with a Δ(25(27))-olefin pathway. Thus, our findings demonstrate that two separate isoprenoid-24-alkyl sterol pathways evolved in fungi and green algae, both of which converge to yield a common membrane insert ergosterol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B. Miller
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409; and
| | - Brad A. Haubrich
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409; and
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - William J. Snell
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - W. David Nes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409; and
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Kristan K, Rižner TL. Steroid-transforming enzymes in fungi. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2012; 129:79-91. [PMID: 21946531 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Revised: 07/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fungal species are a very important source of many different enzymes, and the ability of fungi to transform steroids has been used for several decades in the production of compounds with a sterane skeleton. Here, we review the characterised and/or purified enzymes for steroid transformations, dividing them into two groups: (i) enzymes of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway, including data for, e.g. ERG11 (14α-demethylase), ERG6 (C-24 methyltransferase), ERG5 (C-22 desaturase) and ERG4 (C-24 reductase); and (ii) the other steroid-transforming enzymes, including different hydroxylases (7α-, 11α-, 11β-, 14α-hydroxylase), oxidoreductases (5α-reductase, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase, 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, C-1/C-2 dehydrogenase) and C-17-C-20 lyase. The substrate specificities of these enzymes, their cellular localisation, their association with protein super-families, and their potential applications are discussed. Article from a special issue on steroids and microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Kristan
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Identification of a Cryptococcus neoformans cytochrome P450 lanosterol 14α-demethylase (Erg11) residue critical for differential susceptibility between fluconazole/voriconazole and itraconazole/posaconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 56:1162-9. [PMID: 22155829 DOI: 10.1128/aac.05502-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans strains resistant to azoles due to mutations causing alterations in the ERG11 gene, encoding lanosterol 14α-demethylase, have rarely been reported. In this study, we have characterized a C. neoformans serotype A strain that is resistant to high concentrations of fluconazole (FLC). This strain, which was isolated from an FLC-treated patient, contained five missense mutations in the ERG11 gene compared to the sequence of reference strain H99. Molecular manipulations of the ERG11 gene coupled with susceptibility to triazole revealed that a single missense mutation resulting in the replacement of tyrosine by phenylalanine at amino acid 145 was sufficient to cause the high FLC resistance of the strain. Importantly, this newly identified point mutation in the ERG11 gene of C. neoformans afforded resistance to voriconazole (VRC) but increased susceptibility to itraconazole (ITC) and posaconazole (PSC), which are structurally similar to each other but distinct from FLC/VRC. The in vitro susceptibility/resistance of the strains with or without the missense mutation was reflected in the therapeutic efficacy of FLC versus ITC in the animals infected with the strains. This study shows the importance of the Y145F alteration of Erg11 in C. neoformans for manifestation of differential susceptibility toward different triazoles. It underscores the necessity of in vitro susceptibility testing for each FLC-resistant C. neoformans clinical isolate against different groups of azoles in order to assist patient management.
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Visbal G, San-Blas G, Maldonado A, Álvarez-Aular Á, Capparelli MV, Murgich J. Synthesis, in vitro antifungal activity and mechanism of action of four sterol hydrazone analogues against the dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Steroids 2011; 76:1069-81. [PMID: 21605581 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2011.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Revised: 04/18/2011] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The design and synthesis of novel sterol hydrazone analogues (9, 10, 11 and 12) are described, followed by their evaluation as inhibitors of fungal growth, using Paracoccidioides brasiliensis as the biological tester. Compounds 9, 10, 11 and 12 generated a dose-dependent effect in fungal growth, particularly 9, 11 and 12, which were active at nanomolar concentrations (100 nM). When P. brasiliensis in its pathogenic yeast-like phase was treated individually with each of the aforementioned compounds at concentrations that reduced growth rate around 50%, the analysis of sterol composition in the resulting surviving cells demonstrated a 50% reduction of the final sterols brasicasterol and ergosterol, and concomitant increase in the levels of lanosterol. These results indicate that these compounds inhibit the enzyme Δ(24)-sterol methyl transferase (SMT), in a manner dependent on the stereochemical location of the hydrazone group. Compound 12, instead, induced a good antiproliferative activity not associated with blockage of any step in the pathway to sterol biosynthesis, suggesting a different mode of action. The X-ray crystal structure of H1 was determined to obtain information regarding the rings and side chain conformation of the sterol hydrazones. Comparison of the inhibitory effects of sterol hydrazones (9-12) and azasterols (AZA1-AZA3) on SMT with the molecular electrostatic potential, negative isopotential energy surfaces (-10 kcal/mol) and local ionization potential calculated via DFT methods, showed that changes in the electronic moiety introduced by the N and O atoms were not as important as the additional flexibility of the side chain introduced by an extra methylene group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Visbal
- Center of Chemistry, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, P.O. Box 20632, Caracas 1020A, Venezuela.
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Ganapathy K, Kanagasabai R, Nguyen TTM, Nes WD. Purification, characterization and inhibition of sterol C24-methyltransferase from Candida albicans. Arch Biochem Biophys 2011; 505:194-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2010.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2010] [Revised: 10/05/2010] [Accepted: 10/07/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Zhou X, Zhou J, Tian H, Yuan Y. Dynamic Lipidomic Insights into the Adaptive Responses ofSaccharomyces cerevisiaeto the Repeated Vacuum Fermentation. OMICS-A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2010; 14:563-74. [DOI: 10.1089/omi.2010.0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongchi Tian
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingjin Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
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Flórez AF, Park D, Bhak J, Kim BC, Kuchinsky A, Morris JH, Espinosa J, Muskus C. Protein network prediction and topological analysis in Leishmania major as a tool for drug target selection. BMC Bioinformatics 2010; 11:484. [PMID: 20875130 PMCID: PMC2956735 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2105-11-484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Leishmaniasis is a virulent parasitic infection that causes a worldwide disease burden. Most treatments have toxic side-effects and efficacy has decreased due to the emergence of resistant strains. The outlook is worsened by the absence of promising drug targets for this disease. We have taken a computational approach to the detection of new drug targets, which may become an effective strategy for the discovery of new drugs for this tropical disease. Results We have predicted the protein interaction network of Leishmania major by using three validated methods: PSIMAP, PEIMAP, and iPfam. Combining the results from these methods, we calculated a high confidence network (confidence score > 0.70) with 1,366 nodes and 33,861 interactions. We were able to predict the biological process for 263 interacting proteins by doing enrichment analysis of the clusters detected. Analyzing the topology of the network with metrics such as connectivity and betweenness centrality, we detected 142 potential drug targets after homology filtering with the human proteome. Further experiments can be done to validate these targets. Conclusion We have constructed the first protein interaction network of the Leishmania major parasite by using a computational approach. The topological analysis of the protein network enabled us to identify a set of candidate proteins that may be both (1) essential for parasite survival and (2) without human orthologs. These potential targets are promising for further experimental validation. This strategy, if validated, may augment established drug discovery methodologies, for this and possibly other tropical diseases, with a relatively low additional investment of time and resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés F Flórez
- Programa de Estudio y Control de Enfermedades Tropicales-PECET, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 62 No 52-59, Lab. 632, Medellín, Colombia
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Liang Y, Rahman MH, Strelkov SE, Kav NNV. Developmentally induced changes in the sclerotial proteome of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:619-27. [PMID: 20943173 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Revised: 05/07/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary is a necrotrophic fungal phytopathogen with a broad host range. The fungus produces sclerotia, long-term survival and dissemination structures that serve as the primary source of inoculum during seasonal crop infection cycles. Herein, we report the first proteomics-based analysis of sclerotial development. A total of 88 protein spots were observed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) to exhibit significant temporal differences in abundance at three representative stages of sclerotial development, and the identities of these proteins were established using LC-MS/MS. The proteins were classified into several functional categories including metabolism, energy, transcription and protein fate, cell defense, differentiation, and proteins with as of yet unknown functions. In addition, proteins involved in the process of melanogenesis were found to be differentially abundant during sclerotial development, as was the development-specific protein, Ssp. This study provides a starting point towards achieving a comprehensive understanding of the proteins and molecular events associated with sclerotial development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Liang
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P5, Canada
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Neelakandan AK, Song Z, Wang J, Richards MH, Wu X, Valliyodan B, Nguyen HT, Nes WD. Cloning, functional expression and phylogenetic analysis of plant sterol 24C-methyltransferases involved in sitosterol biosynthesis. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2009; 70:1982-98. [PMID: 19818974 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2009] [Revised: 07/20/2009] [Accepted: 09/03/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Sterol 24C-methyltransferases (SMTs) constitute a group of sequence-related proteins that catalyze the distinct patterns of 24-alkyl sterols that occur throughout nature. Two SMT cDNAs (SMT2-1 and SMT2-2) were cloned by homology based PCR methods from young leaves of Glycine max (soybean) and the corresponding enzymes were expressed functionally in Escherichia coli. The full-length cDNA for SMT2-1 and SMT2-2 have open reading frames of 1086 bp and 1092 bp, respectively, and encode proteins of 361 and 363 residues with a calculated molecular mass of 40.3 and 40.4 kDa, respectively. The substrate preference of the two isoforms was similar yet they differed from SMT1; kinetically SMT2-1 and SMT2-2 generated k(cat) values for the optimal substrate 24(28)methylene lophenol of 0.8 min(-1) and 1.34 min(-1), respectively, compared to the activity of SMT1 that generated a k(cat) for the optimal substrate cycloartenol of 0.6 min(-1). SMT2-2 was purified to homogeneity and the subunit organization shown to be tetrameric in similar fashion to other cloned SMTs. Analysis of the accumulated products catalyzed by the recombinant enzymes demonstrated that soybean SMT2-1 and SMT2-2 operate transalkylation activities analogous to the soybean plant SMT1. Metabolite analyses correlated with transcript profiling of the three SMT isoforms during soybean maturation clearly demonstrated that SMT isoform expression determines specific C24-methyl to C24-ethyl ratios to flowering whereas with seed development there is a disconnection such that the SMT transcript levels decrease against an increase in sterol content; generally SMT2-2 is expressed more than SMT2-1 or SMT1. These observations suggest that the genes that encode SMT1 and SMT2 in sitosterol biosynthesis may have undergone divergent evolution. In support of this proposition, the genomic organization for SMT1 of fungi and protozoa align very closely with one another and to those of the plant SMT2; both sets of SMTs lack introns. Unexpectedly, the SMT1 from Glycine max and other embryophytes of diverse origin possess disparate intron-exon characteristics that can be shown relates back to the algae. Our results suggest that the order of SMT1 appearing before SMT2 in phytosterol synthesis arose recently in plant evolution in response to duplication of a more primitive SMT gene likely to have been bifunctional and catalytically promiscuous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjanasree K Neelakandan
- Division of Plant Sciences and National Center for Soybean Biotechnology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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