A strategy for efficient discovery of new natural compounds by integrating orthogonal column chromatography and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis: Its application in Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolium and Panax notoginseng to characterize 437 potential new ginsenosides

Triterpenoid saponins from the roots of Panax notoginseng with protective effects against APAP-induced liver injury

Five previously undescribed protopanaxatriol-type saponins, notoginsenosides Ta-Te (1-5), together with eighteen known triterpenoid saponins (6-23) were isolated from the roots of Panax notoginseng. The structures of new compounds were determined by HRESIMS and NMR spectroscopic analyses and chemical methods. Compounds 1 and 2 were the first examples of ginsenosides featuring a 6-deoxy-β-d-glucose moiety from Panax species. Compounds 1-4, 7, 10, 12, 21-22 showed protective effects on L02 cells against the injury of acetaminophen (APAP). Among them, notoginsenoside R1 (12), ginsenoside Rg1 (21), and ginsenoside Re (22) were the most potent ones, with cell viabilities >80%. Moreover, compounds 12 and 22 remarkably alleviated APAP-induced liver injury in mice. These saponins are potential hepatoprotective agents.

Strategy strengthens structural identification through hyphenating full collision energy ramp-MS2 and full exciting energy ramp-MS3 spectra: An application for metabolites identification of rosmarinic acid

"MS/MS spectrum to structure" analysis is the most challenging task for MS/MS-relied qualitative characterization. The conventional database- and computation-assisted strategies cannot reach confirmative identification, notably for isomers. Hence, an advanced strategy was proposed here through tackling the two determinant obstacles such as the transformation from elemental compositions to fragment ion structures and the linkage style amongst substructures. As typical conjugated structures, esters were measured for strategy illustration, and metabolite identification of a famous natural antioxidant namely rosmarinic acid (RosA) in rat was undertaken for applicability justification. Through programming online energy-resolved (ER)-MS for the first collision cell of Qtrap-MS device, full collision energy ramp (FCER)-MS2 spectrum was configured for [M-H]- ion of each ester to provide optimal collision energies (OCEs) for all concerned diagnostic fragment ions (DFIs), i.e. a-, b-, c-, y-, and z-type ions. The linear correlations between masses and OCEs were built for each ion type to facilitate DFIs recognition from chaotic MS2 spectrum. To identify 1st-generation fragment ions, full exciting energy ramp (FEER)-MS3 spectra were configured for key DFIs via programming the second ER-MS in the latter collision chamber. FEER-MS3 spectrum of 1st-generation fragment ion for ester was demonstrated to be identical with FEER-MS2 spectrum of certain hydrolysis product when sharing the same structure. After applying the advanced strategy to recognize DFIs and identify 1st-generation fragment ions, a total of forty metabolites (M1-M40), resulted from hydrolysis, methylation, sulfation, and glucuronidation, were unambiguously identified for RosA after oral administration. Together, the advanced bottom-up strategy hyphenating FCER-MS2 and FEER-MS3 spectra, is meaningful to strengthen "MS/MS spectrum to structure" analysis through recognizing and identifying fragment ions.

Mass spectrometry-based ginsenoside profiling: Recent applications, limitations, and perspectives

Ginseng, the roots of Panax species, is an important medicinal herb used as a tonic. As ginsenosides are key bioactive components of ginseng, holistic chemical profiling of them has provided many insights into understanding ginseng. Mass spectrometry has been a major methodology for profiling, which has been applied to realize numerous goals in ginseng research, such as the discrimination of different species, geographical origins, and ages, and the monitoring of processing and biotransformation. This review summarizes the various applications of ginsenoside profiling in ginseng research over the last three decades that have contributed to expanding our understanding of ginseng. However, we also note that most of the studies overlooked a crucial factor that influences the levels of ginsenosides: genetic variation. To highlight the effects of genetic variation on the chemical contents, we present our results of untargeted and targeted ginsenoside profiling of different genotypes cultivated under identical conditions, in addition to data regarding genome-level genetic diversity. Additionally, we analyze the other limitations of previous studies, such as imperfect variable control, deficient metadata, and lack of additional effort to validate causation. We conclude that the values of ginsenoside profiling studies can be enhanced by overcoming such limitations, as well as by integrating with other -omics techniques.

Spatial metabolomics method to reveal differential metabolomes in microregions of Panax quinquefolius roots by using ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole/time of flight-mass spectrometry and desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging

Panax quinquefolius is a natural homology medicine and food that is rich in bioactive ingredients, such as ginsenosides and polysaccharides. The combination of ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole/time of flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) and desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) was used for the first time in a spatial metabolomics analysis to comprehensively evaluate the differential components in different microregions of P. quinquefolius. UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and DESI-MSI combined with principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis were used to screen differential metabolites. UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and DESI-MSI screened 27 and 23 differential metabolites, respectively, among which 15 differential metabolites were identified by both methods. It was found that some components, such as ginsenoside Rg1 and malonyl-ginsenoside Rc, were mainly distributed in P of the transverse slice of P. quinquefolius roots, while ginsenoside Ro and malonyl-ginsenoside Rd were mainly distributed in C. The methods and results of this study could be used to understand the precise localization, biosynthesis, and biological functions of special metabolites in P. quinquefolius.

Suspension cell cultures of Panax vietnamensis as a biotechnological source of ginsenosides: growth, cytology, and ginsenoside profile assessment

Introduction

Panax vietnamensis is a valuable medicinal plant and a source of a broad spectrum of biologically active ginsenosides of different structural groups. Overexploitation and low adaptability to planation cultivation have made this species vulnerable to human pressure and prompted the development of cell cultivation in vitro as a sustainable alternative to harvesting wild plants for their bioactive components. Despite high interest in biotechnological production, little is known about the main factors affecting cell growth and ginsenoside biosynthesis of this species under in vitro conditions. In this study, the potential of cell cultures of P. vietnamensis as a biotechnological source of ginsenosides was was assessed.

Methods

Six suspension cell lines that were developed from different sections of a single rhizome through a multi-step culture optimization process and maintained for over 3 years on media with different mineral salt base and varying contents of auxins and cytokinins. These cell lines were evaluated for productivity parameters and cytological characteristics. Ginsenoside profiles were assessed using a combination of the reversed-phase ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-Orbitrap-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS/MS) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-time of flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-TOF-MS).

Results

All lines demonstrated good growth with a specific growth rate of 0.1-0.2 day-1, economic coefficient of 0.31-0.70, productivity on dry weight (DW) of 0.30-0.83 gDW (L·day)-1, and maximum biomass accumulation varying from 10 to 22 gDW L-1. Ginsenosides of the protopanaxadiol (Rb1, Rb2/Rb3, malonyl-Rb1, and malonyl-Rb2/Rb3), oleanolic acid (R0 and chikusetsusaponin IV), and ocotillol (vinaginsenoside R1) groups and their isomers were identified in cell biomass extracts. Chikusetsusaponin IV was identified in P. vietnamensis cell culture for the first time.

Discussion

These results suggest that suspension cell cultures of Vietnamese ginseng have a high potential for the biotechnological production of biomass containing ginsenosides, particularly of the oleanolic acid and ocotillol groups.

Precursor ions-guided comprehensive profiling of triterpenoid saponins from the Eleutherococcus senticosus stems and their neuroprotective effect evaluation

Triterpenoid saponins (TS) are the main constituents of Eleutherococcus senticosus, also termed as Siberian ginseng or Ciwujia, a widely used herb in China, Japan, Korea, and Russia for its beneficial effects on memory enhancement, tonifying, heart-nourishing, and tranquilizing. Although the stems, rhizomes, and roots are used identically, a preliminary experiment found TS were specifically distributed in stems rather than the underground parts. However, a comprehensive profiling of the TS compounds in E. senticosus stems (ESS) is still absent. In this study, an MS/MS molecular networking (MN)-based precursor ions (PIs) discovery strategy was applied to fast track the TS compounds from ESS extract. A total of 80 TS were tracked and characterized, among which 78 ones were reported for the first time in ESS. Furthermore, the TS-rich fraction (ESS-TS) was prepared by a series of chromatography separation, and was found with significant neuralprotective effects on attenuating Aβ25-35-induced neurite atrophy, and promoting the outgrowth of damaged neurite in the Aβ25-35-induced primary cortical neuronal damage model. In conclusion, this study highlighted the existence of TS compounds in ESS, a major medicinal parts nowadays adopted as Ciwujia by the Chinese Pharmacopiea and market. In addition, the TS was found with determined roles in the outgrowth of neuritis, and was proposed as crucial constituent when the E. senticosus was used as the therapeutic agents for neural diseases. These results supplies scientific data for the quality control of E. senticosus and the further development of ESS-TS as memory enhancement agents.

A Qualitative Analysis of Cultured Adventitious Ginseng Root's Chemical Composition and Immunomodulatory Effects

The cultivation of ginseng in fields is time-consuming and labor-intensive. Thus, culturing adventitious ginseng root in vitro constitutes an effective approach to accumulating ginsenosides. In this study, we employed UPLC-QTOF-MS to analyze the composition of the cultured adventitious root (cAR) of ginseng, identifying 60 chemical ingredients. We also investigated the immunomodulatory effect of cAR extract using various mouse models. The results demonstrated that the cAR extract showed significant activity in enhancing the immune response in mice. The mechanism underlying the immunomodulatory effect of cAR was analyzed through network pharmacology analysis, revealing potential 'key protein targets', namely TNF, AKT1, IL-6, VEGFA, and IL-1β, affected by potential 'key components', namely the ginsenosides PPT, F1, Rh2, CK, and 20(S)-Rg3. The signaling pathways PI3K-Akt, AGE-RAGE, and MAPK may play a vital role in this process.

Suspension Cell Culture of Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms in Bubble-Type Bioreactors-Growth Characteristics, Triterpene Glycosides Accumulation and Biological Activity

Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms, or Ming aralia, is a medicinal plant of the Araliaceae family, which is highly valued for its antitoxic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial, anti-asthmatic, adaptogenic, and other properties. The plant can be potentially used to treat diabetes and its complications, ischemic brain damage, and Parkinson's disease. Triterpene glycosides of the oleanane type, such as 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl] oleanolic acid 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester (PFS), ladyginoside A, and polysciosides A-H, are mainly responsible for biological activities of this species. In this study, cultivation of the cell suspension of P. fruticosa in 20 L bubble-type bioreactors was attempted as a sustainable method for cell biomass production of this valuable species and an alternative to overexploitation of wild plant resources. Cell suspension cultivated in bioreactors under a semi-continuous regime demonstrated satisfactory growth with a specific growth rate of 0.11 day-1, productivity of 0.32 g (L · day)-1, and an economic coefficient of 0.16 but slightly lower maximum biomass accumulation (~6.8 g L-1) compared to flask culture (~8.2 g L-1). Triterpene glycosides PFS (0.91 mg gDW-1) and ladyginoside A (0.77 mg gDW-1) were detected in bioreactor-produced cell biomass in higher concentrations compared to cells grown in flasks (0.50 and 0.22 mg gDW-1, respectively). In antibacterial tests, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of cell biomass extracts against the most common pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant strain MRSA, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli varied within 250-2000 µg mL-1 which was higher compared to extracts of greenhouse plant leaves (MIC = 4000 µg mL-1). Cell biomass extracts also exhibited antioxidant activity, as confirmed by DPPH and TEAC assays. Our results suggest that bioreactor cultivation of P. fruticosa suspension cell culture may be a perspective method for the sustainable biomass production of this species.

Network pharmacology-guided and TCM theory-supported in vitro and in vivo component identification of Naoluoxintong

Naoluoxintong (NLXT) has been used to treat ischemic stroke (IS) in China for more than two hundred years. However, the pharmacodynamic material basis of NLXT has not been fully studied. Under the guidance of the former network pharmacological analysis, a rapid and reliable method combining UPLC-Q-TOF-MSE with the novel informatics UNIFI™ platform was established which was used to study the composition of NLXT and its prototype components and metabolites in vivo. A total of 102 compounds were identified. 13 compounds were sourced from "Monarch herb", mainly involving flavonoids and their glycosides. 54 compounds were sourced from "Minister herb", mainly involving triterpenoid saponins, organic acids and lactones. 11 compounds were from the "Assistant herb", mostly containing citric acid and esters of citric acid. 24 compounds were from the "Guide herb", mostly including flavonoids and their glycosides, organic acids and lactones. Moreover, 24 prototype components and 30 metabolites were detected, and in vivo transformation pathways for different types of chemical components were provided. This is a comprehensive report on the identification of major chemical components in NLXT and metabolic components in rats by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS combined with UNIFI platform under the guidance of network pharmacology, which is helpful for the quality control of NLXT and the study of quality markers.

Discrimination for geographical origin of Panax quinquefolius L. using UPLC Q-Orbitrap MS-based metabolomics approach

American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L., is an important medicinal plant with multiple pharmacological effects and high nutritional value. American ginseng from different geographical origins varies in quality and price. However, there was no approach for discriminating American ginseng from different geographical origins to date. In this study, a metabolomic method based on the UPLC-Orbitrap fusion platform was established to comprehensively determine and analyze metabolites of American ginseng from America and Canada, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and Shandong provinces in China. A total of 382 metabolites were detected, including 230 saponins, 30 amino acids and derivatives, 27 organic acids and derivatives, 25 lipids, 17 carbohydrates and derivatives, 10 phenols, 8 nucleotides, and derivatives, as well as 35 other metabolites. Metabolite differences between North America and Asia producing areas were more obvious than within Asia. Twenty metabolites, contributed most to the differentiation of producing areas, were identified as potential markers with prediction accuracy higher than 91%. The results provide new insights into the metabolite composition of American ginseng from different origins, which will help discriminate origins and promote quality control of American ginseng.

New Evidence for Artemisia absinthium as an Alternative to Classical Antibiotics: Chemical Analysis of Phenolic Compounds, Screening for Antimicrobial Activity

Artemisia absinthium, an important herb of the Artemisia genus, was evaluated in this study for its potential as an alternative to classical antibiotics. The antimicrobial activity of methanol extracts of A. absinthium (MEAA) was evaluated using the broth microdilution method, revealing that A. absinthium exhibited broad-spectrum antibacterial and antifungal activity. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) was used to analyze the chemical profile of the MEAA, with a focus on flavonoids, quinic acids, and glucaric acids. A total of 90 compounds were identified, 69 of which were described for the first time in A. absinthium. Additionally, a new class of caffeoyl methyl glucaric acids was identified. The main active compounds were quantified and screened for antimicrobial activity. A. absinthium was found to be rich in quinic acids and flavonoids. The screening for antimicrobial activity also revealed that salicylic acid, caffeic acid, casticin, and 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid had varying degrees of antimicrobial activity. The acute toxicity of MEAA was examined following OECD guidelines. The administration of 5000 mg/kg bw of MEAA did not result in mortality in male and female mice. Furthermore, there were no observed effects on the visceral organs or general behavior of the mice, demonstrating the good safety of MEAA. This study provides new evidence for the use of A. absinthium as an alternative to classical antibiotics in addressing the problem of bacterial resistance.

Application of UPLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS metabolomics strategy to reveal the dynamic changes of triterpenoid saponins during the decocting process of Asian ginseng and American ginseng

Triterpenoid saponins are the main bioactive components contributed to the nutritional value of ginseng, and different process conditions will affect their content and quality. To study the holistic characterization and dynamic changes of triterpenoid saponins in Asian ginseng (ASG) and American ginseng (AMG) during soaking and decoction, a UPLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS-based metabolomics strategy was used to characterize and discover differential saponin markers. In total, 739 triterpenoid saponins (including 225 potential new saponins) were identified from ASG and AMG in untargeted metabolomics. Based on PCA and OPLS-DA, 51 and 48 saponin markers were screened from soaked and decocted ASG and AMG, respectively. Additionally, targeted metabolomics analysis and HCA of 22 ginsenoside markers suggested that decoction of ASG and AMG for 2 h to 4 h could significantly increase the contents of rare ginsenosides (G), such as G-Rg₃, G-Rg₅, G-F₄. This study provides a scientific insight that high boiling combined with simmering enriches ASG and AMG extracts with rich rare ginsenosides that are more beneficial to human health.

Immunomodulatory, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anti-Cancer Properties of Ginseng: A Pharmacological Update

Ginseng, a medicinal plant of the genus Panax, boasts a rich historical record of usage that dates back to the Paleolithic period. This botanical is extensively acknowledged and consumed in Eastern countries for its therapeutic properties, and, in Western countries, it is becoming increasingly popular as a remedy for fatigue and asthenia. This review provides an update on current research pertaining to ginseng and its isolated compounds, namely, ginsenosides and polysaccharides. The primary focus is on three crucial pharmacological activities, namely, immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. The review encompasses studies on both isolated compounds and various ginseng extracts obtained from the root, leaves, and berries.

Metabolite Fingerprinting for Identification of Panax ginseng Metabolites Using Internal Extractive Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Ginseng, a kind of functional food and medicine with high nutritional value, contains various pharmacological metabolites that influence human metabolic functions. Therefore, it is very important to analyze the composition and metabolites of ginseng. However, the analysis of active metabolites in ginseng samples usually involves various experimental steps, such as extraction, chromatographic separation, and characterization, which may be time-consuming and laborious. In this study, an internal extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (iEESI-MS) method was developed to analyze active metabolites in ginseng samples with sequential sampling and no pretreatment. A total of 44 metabolites, with 32 ginsenosides, 6 sugars, and 6 organic acids, were identified in the ginseng samples. The orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) score plot showed a clear separation of ginseng samples from different origins, indicating that metabolic changes occurred under different growing conditions. This study demonstrated that different cultivation conditions of ginseng can be successfully discriminated when using iEESI-MS-based metabolite fingerprints, which provide an alternative solution for the quality identification of plant drugs.

Characterization of Ginsenosides from the Root of Panax ginseng by Integrating Untargeted Metabolites Using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS

To compare the chemical distinctions of Panax ginseng Meyer in different growth environments and explore the effects of growth-environment factors on P. ginseng growth, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS/MS) was used to characterize the ginsenosides obtained by ultrasonic extraction from P. ginseng grown in different growing environments. Sixty-three ginsenosides were used as reference standards for accurate qualitative analysis. Cluster analysis was used to analyze the differences in main components and clarified the influence of growth environment factors on P. ginseng compounds. A total of 312 ginsenosides were identified in four types of P. ginseng, among which 75 were potential new ginsenosides. The number of ginsenosides in L15 was the highest, and the number of ginsenosides in the other three groups was similar, but it was a great difference in specie of ginsenosides. The study confirmed that different growing environments had a great influence on the constituents of P. ginseng, and provided a new breakthrough for the further study of the potential compounds in P. ginseng.

Differentiating root and rhizome of panax notoginseng based on precursor ion scanning and multi heart-cutting two-dimensional liquid chromatography

Owing to increasing demand for Panax notoginseng-based medicines and health products, establishing a fast, simple, and reliable assay to analyze the chemical differences between its root and rhizome is important. Although previous studies showed that the chemical and biological differences between the root and rhizome of P. notoginseng seem to be small, efforts should be taken to investigate such differences to ensure the safety and efficacy of the products. This work describes a holistic approach that combines characteristic fingerprinting using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry parent ion scanning with charged aerosol detection and targeted separation by online heart-cutting two-dimensional liquid chromatography, to identify and evaluate characteristic markers allowing differentiation of the root and rhizome. A total of five potential markers chikusetsusaponin L₅ , ginsenoside Rb₂ , stipuleanoside R_2, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb₁ , and malonyl-ginsenoside Rd, were identified and confirmed by comparing chromatographic retention time, the accurate mass of molecular weight, and the fragments of secondary MS with the available reference materials. The results showed that all five markers were 2.8-7 times higher in content in the rhizome than in the root.

Comparative transcriptome and metabolome analyses of four Panax species explore the dynamics of metabolite biosynthesis

Background

The genus Panax in the Araliaceae family has been used as traditional medicinal plants worldwide and is known to biosynthesize ginsenosides and phytosterols. However, genetic variation between Panax species has influenced their biosynthetic pathways is not fully understood.

Methods

Simultaneous analysis of transcriptomes and metabolomes obtained from adventitious roots of two tetraploid species (Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius) and two diploid species (P. notoginseng and P. vietnamensis) revealed the diversity of their metabolites and related gene expression profiles.

Results

The transcriptome analysis showed that 2,3-OXIDOSQUALENE CYCLASEs (OSCs) involved in phytosterol biosynthesis are upregulated in the diploid species, while the expression of OSCs contributing to ginsenoside biosynthesis is higher in the tetraploid species. In agreement with these results, the contents of dammarenediol-type ginsenosides were higher in the tetraploid species relative to the diploid species.

Conclusion

These results suggest that a whole-genome duplication event has influenced the triterpene biosynthesis pathway in tetraploid Panax species during their evolution or ecological adaptation. This study provides a basis for further efforts to explore the genetic variation of the Panax genus.

Comparison of Phytochemical Profiles of Wild and Cultivated American Ginseng Using Metabolomics by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) has been recognized as a valuable herb medicine, and ginsenosides are the most important components responsible for the health-beneficial effects. This study investigated the secondary metabolites responsible for the differentiation of wild and cultivated American ginsengs with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS)-based metabolomic approach. An in-house ginsenoside library was developed to facilitate data processing and metabolite identification. Data visualization methods, such as heatmaps and volcano plots, were utilized to extract discriminated ion features. The results suggested that the ginsenoside profiles of wild and cultivated ginsengs were significantly different. The octillol (OT)-type ginsenosides were present in greater abundance and diversity in wild American ginsengs; however, a wider distribution of the protopanaxadiol (PPD)-and oleanolic acid (OA)-type ginsenosides were found in cultivated American ginseng. Based on the tentative identification and semi-quantification, the amounts of five ginsenosides (i.e., notoginsenoside H, glucoginsenoside Rf, notoginsenoside R1, pseudoginsenoside RT2, and ginsenoside Rc) were 2.3-54.5 fold greater in wild ginseng in comparison to those in their cultivated counterparts, and the content of six ginsenosides (chicusetsusaponin IVa, malonylginsenoside Rd, pseudoginsenoside Rc1, malonylfloralginsenoside Rd6, Ginsenoside Rd, and malonylginsenoside Rb1) was 2.6-14.4 fold greater in cultivated ginseng compared to wild ginseng. The results suggested that the in-house metabolite library can significantly reduce the complexity of the data processing for ginseng samples, and UHPLC-HRMS is effective and robust for identifying characteristic components (marker compounds) for distinguishing wild and cultivated American ginseng.

Shengmai san-derived compound prescriptions: A review on chemical constituents, pharmacokinetic studies, quality control, and pharmacological properties

BACKGROUND

Shengmai San Formula (SMS), composed of Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Ophiopogon Radix and Schisandra chinensis Fructus, was a famous formula in Tradition Chinese Medicine (TCM). With the expansion of clinical applications, SMS was developed to different dosage forms, including Shengmai Yin Oral liquid (SMY), Shengmai Capsule (SMC), Shengmai Granule (SMG), Shengmai Injection (SMI) and Dengzhan Shengmai Capsule (DZSMC). These above SMS-derived compound prescriptions (SSCPs) play an important role in the clinical treatment. This review is aimed to providing a comprehensive perspective of SSCP.

METHODS

The relevant literatures were collected from classical TCM books and a variety of databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Springer Link, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Data.

RESULTS

The chemical constituents of SSCPs, arrived from the individual medicinal materials including Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Ophiopogon Radix, Schisandra chinensis Fructus, Erigerontis Herba, were firstly summarized respectively. Then the pharmacokinetics studies, quality control, and pharmacological properties of SSCPs were all reviewed. The active compounds, pharmacokinetics characterizes, quality control markers, the effects and mechanisms of pharmacology of the different dosage forms of SSCPs were summarized. Furthermore, the research deficiencies of SSCPs and an innovative research paradigm for Chinese materia medica (CMM) formula were proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

SMS, as a famous CMM formula, has great values in drug research and in clinical treatment especially for cardiocerebrovascular diseases. This article firstly make a comprehensive and systematic review on SMS.

Discovery of unreported ginkgolides of anti-PAF activity using characteristic ion and neutral loss recognition strategy in Ginkgo biloba L

Ginkgolides are the most important bioactive components of Ginkgo biloba L, of which ginkgolide B has been successfully developed and marketed as a drug. The reported ginkgolides are very rare and exhibit a complex matrix due to the chemodiversity of Ginkgo biloba L. Herein, the global profile of characteristic ion and neutral loss recognition strategy were used for to discover eight undescribed ginkgolides, very rare cyclohexane ginkgolides R-V, ginkgolides D-F, and eight known ginkgolides. These ginkgolides were target isolated and identified using high-resolution mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and X-ray crystallography. The undescribed and known ginkgolides exhibited antiplatelet aggregation activities. In particular, compounds U and D had IC₅₀ values of 2.20 ± 0.15 and 6.50 ± 0.87 μM, respectively. This study has enriched the known structural diversity of ginkgolides and extended the application of mass spectrometry to the global profiling of natural products present in Ginkgo biloba L. Moreover, it could help chemists rapidly discover unreported compounds from a complex matrix.

Characterization of prenylated phenolics in Glycyrrhiza uralensis by offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry coupled with mass defect filter

Prenylated phenolics are an important class of natural products. In this study, an efficient strategy was established to systematically characterize the prenylated phenolics in Glycyrrhiza uralensis, a popular herbal medicine. Firstly, offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DLC/MS) coupled with mass defect filter (MDF) technology was used to preliminarily detect 1631 potential prenylated phenolics. Secondly, the tandem mass spectrometry fragmentation features of different types of prenylated phenolics were investigated using 29 reference standards. Diagnostic fragmentations included neutral loss (NL) of 42 Da for the annular type and NL of 56 Da for the catenulate type in the positive ion mode, and NL of 56 Da for A-ring prenyl groups and NL of 69 Da for B-ring prenyl groups in the negative ion mode. As a result, the prenylation types, substitution sites, and adjacent OH and OCH₃ substitutions of 320 prenylated phenolics in G. uralensis were rapidly characterized. Moreover, three prenylated dihydrostilbenes were purified from the aerial part of G. uralensis to verify the structural characterizations.

An off-line three-dimensional liquid chromatography/Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometry approach enabling the discovery of 1561 potentially unknown ginsenosides from the flower buds of Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius and Panax notoginseng

To comprehensively elucidate the herbal metabolites is crucial in natural products research to discover new lead compounds. Ginsenosides are an important class of bioactive components from the Panax plants exerting the significant tonifying effects. However, to identify new ginsenosides by the conventional strategies trends to be more and more difficult because of the large spans of acid-base property (the neutral and acidic saponins), molecular mass (400-1400 Da), and rather low content. Herein, an off-line multidimensional chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry approach was presented: ion exchange chromatography (IEC) as the first dimension of separation, hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) in the second dimension, and reversed-phase chromatography (RPC) for the third dimension which was hyphenated to a Q Exactive Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometer. By applying to the flower buds of P. ginseng (PGF), P. quinquefolius (PQF), and P. notoginseng (PNF), IEC using a PhenoSphere^TM SAX column could fractionate the total extracts into the neutral (unretained) and acidic (retained) fractions, while HILIC (an XBridge Amide column) and RPC (BEH Shield RP18 column) achieved the hydrophilic interaction and hydrophobic interaction separations, respectively. Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometry offered rich structural information and complementary resolution to the co-eluting components, particular to those minor ones by including precursor ion lists in data-dependent acquisition. We could characterize 803 ginsenosides from PGF, 795 from PQF, and 833 from PNF, and 1561 thereof are potentially unknown. These results can indicate the great potential of this multidimensional approach in the ultra-deep characterization of complex herbal samples supporting the efficient discovery of potentially novel natural compounds.

Software Assisted Multi-Tiered Mass Spectrometry Identification of Compounds in Traditional Chinese Medicine: Dalbergia odorifera as an Example

The complexity of metabolites in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) hinders the comprehensive profiling and accurate identification of metabolites. In this study, an approach that integrates enhanced column separation, mass spectrometry post-processing and result verification was proposed and applied in the identification of flavonoids in Dalbergia odorifera. Firstly, column chromatography fractionation, followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used for systematic separation and detection. Secondly, a three-level data post-processing method was applied to the identification of flavonoids. Finally, fragmentation rules were used to verify the flavonoid compounds. As a result, a total of 197 flavonoids were characterized in D. odorifera, among which seven compounds were unambiguously identified in level 1, 80 compounds were tentatively identified by MS-DIAL and Compound Discoverer in level 2a, 95 compounds were annotated by Compound discoverer and Peogenesis QI in level 2b, and 15 compounds were exclusively annotated by using SIRIUS software in level 3. This study provides an approach for the rapid and efficient identification of the majority of components in herbal medicines.

Isolation and Characterization of Natural Nanoparticles in Naoluo Xintong Decoction and Their Brain Protection Research

Currently, researchers use modern analytical techniques in a unique perspective of physical pharmacy to analyze the phase composition of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and have discovered that natural nanoparticles commonly exist in decoctions. This study aims to isolate and characterize the structure and composition of nanoparticles in Naoluo Xintong (NLXT) and investigate whether the brain protection effect of NLXT is closely related to NLXT-Nanoparticles (NLXT-NPs). Firstly, the dialysis-centrifugation method was used to separate the nanoparticles and then their size distribution, potential, and morphology were characterized. In addition, infrared spectroscopy and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight-mass spectrometer (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) technology were used to analyze the composition of nanoparticles. As for the pharmacodynamic experiment, Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into sham, Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model, NLXT, NLXT with nanoparticles removing (NLXT-RN), NLXT-RN+Nanoparticles (NLXT-RN+NPs), and NLXT-NPs groups. After administration, the neurological function, histopathological changes, oxidative stress, and apoptosis level were measured. Our research showed that NLXT-NPs are mainly composed of polysaccharides, proteins, and saponins, with typical characteristics of two hundred-nanometer size and negatively loaded. NLXT can improve nerve function, reduce oxidative stress, and inhibit cell apoptosis. However, removing nanoparticles can significantly reduce the brain-protective effect of NLXT, which indicates that NLXT-NPs play an essential role in the efficacy of NLXT.

Characterization and quantification of ginsenosides from the root of Panax quinquefolius L. by integrating untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS

The root of Panax quinquefolius L. (RPQ) is considered as an important functional food and rich in bioactive components, ginsenosides. To comprehensively characterize ginsenosides and evaluate the quality of RPQ from different sources, UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS was applied to untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis for the first time. In untargeted metabolites analysis, a total of 225 ginsenosides were identified from RPQ using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS combined with SWATH data-independent strategy. Furthermore, the contents of 39 targeted ginsenoside markers in 14 RPQ samples were analyzed by a rapid and sensitive UFLC-ESI-MS/MS method. In addition, the results of chemometric analysis showed the quality of American RPQ was distinguished from that of Chinese RPQ according to the amount of targeted ginsenosides. This newly developed approach provides a powerful tool for enriching the diversity of saponins database and assessing the quality of RPQ, which can be further extended to other ginseng products and functional foods.

Advances and challenges in ginseng research from 2011 to 2020: the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis

Covering: 2011 to the end of 2020Panax species (Araliaceae), particularly P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng, have a long history of medicinal use because of their remarkable tonifying effects, and currently serve as crucial sources for various healthcare products, functional foods, and cosmetics, aside from their vast clinical preparations. The huge market demand on a global scale prompts the continuous prosperity in ginseng research concerning the discovery of new compounds, precise quality control, ADME (absorption/disposition/metabolism/excretion), and biosynthesis pathways. Benefitting from the ongoing rapid development of analytical technologies, e.g. multi-dimensional chromatography (MDC), personalized mass spectrometry (MS) scan strategies, and multi-omics, highly recognized progress has been made in driving ginseng analysis towards "systematicness, integrity, personalization, and intelligentization". Herein, we review the advances in the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathway of ginseng over the past decade (2011-2020), with 410 citations. Emphasis is placed on the introduction of new compounds isolated (saponins and polysaccharides), and the emerging novel analytical technologies and analytical strategies that favor ginseng's authentic use and global consumption. Perspectives on the challenges and future trends in ginseng analysis are also presented.

Comprehensive phytochemicals analysis and anti-myocardial ischemia activity of total saponins of American ginseng berry

American ginseng berry (AGB) is a new medicinal source. Total saponins of American ginseng berry (TSAGB) are the main active ingredients. The effects and active saponins of TSAGB on myocardial ischemia (MI) rats were evaluated for the first time. First, there were 69 saponins identified or tentatively characterized by Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS) combined with UNIFI platform, among which, about 28 saponins were first identified in AGB. Second, MI model was established by ligating left coronary artery. It has been demonstrated that TSAGB could prevent the ST-segment elevation, reduce myocardial infarct size and levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and elevate the superoxide dismutase (SOD) level. Finally, network pharmacology combined with molecular docking to screen out four active saponins (ginsenoside Re, Rb₃ , Rg₃ , and PF₁₁ ) and five key targets (SOD1, LDHA, CKB, GOT2, and ROS1) closely related to MI. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study enriches the chemical composition of TSAGB, and provides a basis for clarifying the pharmacological substances for anti-myocardial ischemia. TSAGB might be a potential anti-myocardial ischemia agent. The effect might be related to alleviating oxidative stress.

Comprehensive investigation on metabolites of Panax quinquefolium L. in two main producing areas of China based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Jilin Province and Shandong Province are two main American ginseng (AG) producing areas in China. The geographical difference existed in these two provinces. Aiming at evaluating the similarities and differences of the secondary metabolites, the comprehensive metabolite profiling of AG from Jilin Province (AGJ) and Shandong Province (AGS) was performed based on UPLC-QTOF-MS for the first time. In screening analysis, a total of 111 shared compounds, with ginsenosides being major components, were identified or tentatively characterized, which indicated that AGJ and AGS were all rich in phytochemicals and contained similar structural types. Untargeted metabolomics analysis indicated that there were significant differences in the contents of certain constituents in AGJ and AGS. Nineteen (12 for AGJ, 7 for AGS) potential producing area-dependent chemical markers were discovered. Based on the contents and MS responses, ginsenoside Rg1, Re, and pseudoginsenoside F11 could be considered as the characteristical markers of AGJ, whereas ginsenoside Rg3 and Rh2 of AGS. This comprehensive phytochemical profile study could provide valuable chemical evidence for evaluating the characteristics qualities of AG from various producing areas.

Rapid discovery of potential ADR compounds from injection of total saponins from Panax notoginseng using data-independent acquisition untargeted metabolomics

Injection of total saponins from Panax notoginseng (ISPN) is a modern preparation derived from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and is widely applied in the treatment of cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, ophthalmology, and endocrine system diseases. With the increase in the clinical application of ISPN, its adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and related safety issues have attracted much attention. In the present study, a data-independent acquisition (DIA) strategy was proposed to comprehensively characterize the saponins contained in ISPN based on the ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-Orbitrap MS (UHPLC/Q-Orbitrap MS) platform. As many as 276 saponins were detected, and 250 compounds were identified or tentatively identified based on the retention times and MS/MS data. Furthermore, a metabolomic strategy was utilized to discover the discriminative saponins between normal and ADR batches. The results showed that six saponins, including ginsenoside Rh4, ginsenoside Rk3, ginsenoside Rg5, ginsenoside Rk1, ginsenoside Rg6, and 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2, were significantly different between the two groups. According to cytotoxicity analysis and degranulation detection of RBL-2H3 cells, ginsenoside Rg5, ginsenoside Rk1, and 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 were considered the potential compounds responsible for clinical ADRs, ultimately. In addition, the quantitative analysis showed that the content of these three compounds in ISPN samples with ADRs was generally higher than that in samples without ADRs. This study demonstrated that it is advisable to screen out potential markers related to ADRs for developing the quality standard of ISPN by the integration of untargeted metabolomic analysis and cell biology study, and thus reduce its ADRs in the clinic.

Comprehensive phytochemical profiling of American ginseng in Jilin province of China based on ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

American ginseng (AG), the underground part of Panax quinquefolium L., is composed of four morphological regions, including main root (MR), lateral root (LR), fibrous root (FR), and rhizome (RH). In the clinical, MR is the main medicinal region, other regions are rarely attention. Aiming at revealing the chemical composition of AG and making better use of AG, screening analysis and metabolomic analysis were both performed to profile MR, LR, FR, and RH. First, in the systematical screening analysis, a total of 134 compounds (including 122 shared components) with various structural patterns were identified and tentatively characterized. The results indicated that the phytochemicals with various structural types were rich in MR, LR, FR, and RH. Second, 6, 4, 8, and 11 chemical markers were identified from MR, LR, FR, and RH, respectively. Seven triterpene saponins (protopanaxatriol, quinquenoside R1 , ginsenoside Rc, Rk1 , Rg1 , Re, and vinaginsenoside R1 ) might be used for rapid differentiation of four morphological regions. This comprehensive profile study of metabolites illustrated the similarities and differences of phytochemicals in four morphological regions of AG. The results could be used for the quality control of AG and furnish a basis for the further development and utilization of AG sources.

Chemical Variations among Shengmaisan-Based TCM Patent Drugs by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Hybrid Quadrupole Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry

Shengmaisan (SMS) is a famous traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula to treat coronary heart diseases. It has been developed into several TCM patent drugs to meet the demands of different patients. In this study, a research strategy was proposed to reveal the chemical variations among four SMS-based patent drugs, including Shengmai Oral Solution (Shengmaiyin, SMY), Shengmai Capsule (Shengmai Jiaonang, SMJN), Yiqi Fumai Injection (YQFMI), and Yiqi Fumai Capsule (Yiqi Fumai Jiaonang, YQJN). Firstly, 227 compounds were tentatively identified using an Orbitrap-MS in the full scan/dd-MS2 mode. Secondly, untargeted metabolomics analysis suggested that ginsenosides, steroidal saponins, and lignans were the main types of differential compounds for the four patent drugs. Finally, the contents of 25 compounds were simultaneously determined in 30 batches of samples in the parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) mode. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) revealed the contents of ginsenosides Re, Rg1, Rb1, Ro, and Rg3, and schisandrin showed the highest intergroup variations. These compounds were chemical markers to differentiate the SMS-based patent drugs.

Classification-based strategies to simplify complex traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) researches through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in the last decade (2011-2020): Theory, technical route and difficulty

The difficulty of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) researches lies in the complexity of components, metabolites, and bioactivities. For a long time, there has been a lack of connections among the three parts, which is not conducive to the systematic elucidation of TCM effectiveness. To overcome this problem, a classification-based methodology for simplifying TCM researches was refined from literature in the past 10 years (2011-2020). The theoretical basis of this methodology is set theory, and its core concept is classification. Its starting point is that "although TCM may contain hundreds of compounds, the vast majority of these compounds are structurally similar". The methodology is composed by research strategies for components, metabolites and bioactivities of TCM, which are the three main parts of the review. Technical route, key steps and difficulty are introduced in each part. Two perspectives are highlighted in this review: set theory is a theoretical basis for all strategies from a conceptual perspective, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is a common tool for all strategies from a technical perspective. The significance of these strategies is to simplify complex TCM researches, integrate isolated TCM researches, and build a bridge between traditional medicines and modern medicines. Potential research hotspots in the future, such as discovery of bioactive ingredients from TCM metabolites, are also discussed. The classification-based methodology is a summary of research experience in the past 10 years. We believe it will definitely provide support and reference for the following TCM researches.

177 Saponins, Including 11 New Compounds in Wild Ginseng Tentatively Identified via HPLC-IT-TOF-MSn, and Differences among Wild Ginseng, Ginseng under Forest, and Cultivated Ginseng

Wild ginseng (W-GS), ginseng under forest (F-GS, planted in mountain forest and growing in natural environment), and cultivated ginseng (C-GS) were compared via HPLC-DAD and HPLC-IT-TOF-MSⁿ. A total of 199 saponins, including 16 potential new compounds, were tentatively identified from 100 mg W-GS (177 saponins in W-GS with 11 new compounds), F-GS (56 saponins with 1 new compound), and C-GS (60 saponins with 6 new compounds). There were 21 saponins detected from all the W-GS, F-GS, and C-GS. Fifty saponins were only detected from W-GS, including 23 saponins found in ginseng for the first time. Contents of ginsenosides Re (12.36–13.91 mg/g), Rh₁ (7.46–7.65 mg/g), Rd (12.94–12.98 mg/g), and the total contents (50.52–55.51 mg/g) of Rg₁, Re, Rf, Rb₁, Rg₂, Rh₁, and Rd in W-GS were remarkably higher than those in F-GS (Re 1.22–3.50 mg/g, Rh₁ 0.15–1.49 mg/g, Rd 0.19–1.49 mg/g, total 5.69–18.74 mg/g), and C-GS (Re 0.30–3.45 mg/g, Rh₁ 0.05–3.42 mg/g, Rd 0.17–1.68 mg/g, total 2.99–19.55 mg/g). Contents of Re and Rf were significantly higher in F-GS than those in C-GS (p < 0.05). Using the contents of Re, Rf, or Rb₁, approximately a half number of cultivated ginseng samples could be identified from ginseng under forest. Contents of Rg₁, Re, Rg₂, Rh₁, as well as the total contents of the seven ginsenosides were highest in ginseng older than 15 years, middle–high in ginseng between 10 to 15 years old, and lowest in ginseng younger than 10 years. Contents of Rg₁, Re, Rf, Rb₁, Rg₂, and the total of seven ginsenosides were significantly related to the growing ages of ginseng (p < 0.10). Similarities of chromatographic fingerprints to W-GS were significantly higher (p < 0.05) for F-GS (median: 0.824) than C-GS (median: 0.745). A characteristic peak pattern in fingerprint was also discovered for distinguishing three types of ginseng. Conclusively, wild ginseng was remarkably superior to ginseng under forest and cultivated ginseng, with ginseng under forest slightly closer to wild ginseng than cultivated ginseng. The differences among wild ginseng, ginseng under forest, and cultivated ginseng in saponin compositions and contents of ginsenosides were mainly attributed to their growing ages.

Mass spectrometry as a tool for the dereplication of saponins from Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke bark and wood

INTRODUCTION

Mass spectrometry in natural products research has been used as a first step to identify possible chemical structures and to guide subsequent efforts to isolate novel compounds. Preparations of Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke (AA) are known for their high content of saponins, especially dammarane-type triterpenoid aglycones. In the Amazon, where it is known as "saracura-mirá", roots and bark are widely used for the treatment and prevention of malaria, while the wood is discarded. The extract prepared from the wood is also saponin-rich, but its exact chemical composition has not been described.

OBJECTIVE

This study provides information on the chemical profiling and tentative structural identification of the major compounds (saponins) present in aqueous and ethanol extracts of bark and wood of AA by mass spectrometry.

METHODS

The strategy used to identify compounds present in all samples was ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with an ultraviolet detector coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-UV-MS/MS) for the analysis of fragmentation patterns through product ion scan using MZmine 2 software. Also, direct sample injection and electrospray ionisation combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry (DI-ESI-HRMS) measurements were performed.

RESULTS

The extracts showed chemical similarity, and 95 saponins were tentatively identified in AA wood and bark, including 73 which are described for the first time as tentative structures for this plant species.

CONCLUSION

This research describes a useful method for the fast and simultaneous tentative identification of major saponins in AA, contributing to the study of the chemical properties of this genus and family. Furthermore, it demonstrates the importance of the qualitative dereplication process, allowing a straightforward way to propose the tentative identification of compounds.

An integrated strategy of MS-network-based offline 2DLC-QTOF-MS/MS coupled with UHPLC-QTRAP®-MS/MS for the characterization and quantification of the non-polysaccharides in Sijunzi decoction

Sijunzi decoction (SJZD), a classic recipe in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has been applied for the clinical treatment of gastrointestinal diseases. While there are reports on pharmaceutical substances of SJZD focusing on its polysaccharides, the composition of non-polysaccharides (NPSs) has not yet been holistically clarified. In the current study, offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (2DLC-QTOF-MS/MS) was used for comprehensive NPS chemical profiling of SJZD. In addition, the MS-network of SJZD was proposed, which led to the construction of a larger in-house chemical library and accelerated qualitative processing. Four hundred forty-nine components, among which 6 were potentially novel, and 32 were confirmed by standard substances, were identified or tentatively assigned. Furthermore, based on good method validation, 19 representative components were simultaneously quantified by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole linear ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTRAP®-MS/MS). They were selected for quantification on the account of their bioactive reports on in vivo or in vitro activities, the peak intensity in the mass spectrum, and characteristic structures, which have the potential to be qualitative or quantitative markers of SJZD. The present work furthers understanding of the pharmacological effects and action mechanism of NPSs in SJZD, and provides a useful analytical approach for complex composition research of TCMs.

Characterization of the Components and Pharmacological Effects of Mountain-Cultivated Ginseng and Garden Ginseng Based on the Integrative Pharmacology Strategy

Panax ginseng C. A. Mey (PGCAM) is a herbaceous perennial belonging to the Araliaceae family, mainly including Mountain-Cultivated Ginseng (MCG) and Garden Ginseng (GG) on the market. We aimed to establish a rapid, accurate and effective method to distinguish 15-year-old MCG and GG using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS), and also explored the pharmacological mechanisms of the main components using the Integrative Pharmacology-based Network Computational Research Platform of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCMIP V2.0; http://www.tcmip.cn/). Altogether, 23 potential quality markers were characterized to distinguish 15-year-old MCG and GG, including ginsenosides Ra2, Rg1, and Ra1, and malonyl-ginsenoside Ra3, etc. The contents of 19 constituents (mainly protopanaxadiol-type) were higher in MCG compared with that in GG, and four constituents (mainly carbohydrate compounds) were higher in GG. The 105 putative targets corresponding to 23 potential quality markers were mainly involved in 30 pathways, which could be divided into 10 models, such as immune regulation, systems (metabolic, nervous, cardiovascular, reproductive), blood-pressure regulation, as well as antitumor, antiaging, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. Furthermore, the potential quality markers of MCG and GG could inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer by regulating the mRNA expression of PSA, S6K, MDM2, and P53 genes by acting on AR, MTOR, PI3K and other targets. The Integrative Pharmacology Strategy may provide an efficient way to identify chemical constituents and explore the pharmacological actions of TCM formulations.

Comprehensive Investigation on Ginsenosides in Different Parts of a Garden-Cultivated Ginseng Root and Rhizome

Background: Ginseng is widely used as herb or food. Different parts of ginseng have diverse usages. However, the comprehensive analysis on the ginsenosides in different parts of ginseng root is scarce. Methods: An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS) combined with UNIFI informatics platform and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-charged aerosol detection (UHPLC-CAD) were employed to evaluate the different parts of cultivated ginseng root. Results: 105 ginsenosides including 16 new compounds were identified or tentatively characterized. 22 potential chemical markers were identified, 20, 17, and 19 for main root (MR) and fibrous root (FR), main root (MR) and branch root (BR), and main root (MR) and rhizome (RH), respectively. The relative contents of Re, Rb₁, 20(R)-Rh₁, Rd, and Rf were highest in FR. The relative content of Rg₁ was highest in RH. The total relative content of pharmacopoeia indicators Rg₁, Re, and Rb₁ was highest in FR. Conclusion: The differences among these parts were the compositions and relative contents of ginsenosides. Under our research conditions, the peak area ratio of Rg₁ and Re could distinguish the MR and FR samples. Fibrous roots showed rich ingredients and high ginsenosides contents which should be further utilized.

Identification and Structural Analysis of Spirostanol Saponin from Yucca schidigera by Integrating Silica Gel Column Chromatography and Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Analysis

Yucca schidigera Roezl (Mojave), a kind of ornamental plant belonging to the Yucca genus (Agavaceae), whose extract exhibits important roles in food, beverage, cosmetic and feed additives owing to its rich spirostanol saponins. To provide a comprehensive chemical profiling of the spirostanol saponins in it, this study was performed by using a multi-phase liquid chromatography method combining a reversed phase chromatography T₃ column with a normal phase chromatography silica column for the separation and an ESI-Q-Exactive-Orbitrap MS in positive ion mode as the detector. By comparing the retention time and ion fragments with standards, thirty-one spirostanol saponins were identified. In addition, according to the summary of the chromatographic retention behaviors and the MS/MS cleavage patterns and biosynthetic pathway, another seventy-nine spirostanol saponins were speculatively identified, forty ones of which were potentially new ones. Moreover, ten novel spirostanol saponins (three pairs of (25R/S)-spirostanol saponin isomer mixtures) were targeted for isolation to verify the speculation. Then, the comprehensive chemical profiling of spirostanol saponins from Y. schidigera was reported here firstly.

Advances in Saponin Diversity of Panax ginseng

Ginsenosides are the major bioactive constituents of Panax ginseng, which have pharmacological effects. Although there are several reviews in regards to ginsenosides, new ginsenosides have been detected continually in recent years. This review updates the ginsenoside list from P. ginseng to 170 by the end of 2019, and aims to highlight the diversity of ginsenosides in multiple dimensions, including chemical structure, tissue spatial distribution, time, and isomeride. Protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol and C17 side-chain varied (C17SCV) manners are the major types of ginsenosides, and the constitute of ginsenosides varied significantly among different parts. Only 16 ginsenosides commonly exist in all parts of a ginseng plant. Protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside is dominant in root, rhizome, leaf, stem, and fruit, whereas malonyl- and C17SCV-type ginsenosides occupy a greater proportion in the flower and flower bud compared with other parts. In respects of isomeride, there are 69 molecular formulas corresponding to 170 ginsenosides, and the median of isomers is 2. This is the first review on diversity of ginsenosides, providing information for reasonable utilization of whole ginseng plant, and the perspective on studying the physiological functions of ginsenoside for the ginseng plant itself is also proposed.

Quantitative aspects of the hydrolysis of ginseng saponins: Application in HPLC-MS analysis of herbal products

Background

Ginseng is one of the most valuable herbal supplements. It is challenging to perform quality control of ginseng products due to the diversity of bioactive saponins in their composition. Acid or alkaline hydrolysis is often used for the structural elucidation of these saponins and sugars in their side chains. Complete transformation of the original ginsenosides into their aglycones during the hydrolysis is one of the ways to determine a total saponin group content. The main hurdle of this approach is the formation of various by-products that was reported by many authors.

Methods

Separate HPLC assessment of the total protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol and ocotillol ginsenoside contents is a viable alternative to the determination of characteristic biomarkers of these saponin groups, such as ginsenoside Rf and pseudoginsenoside F₁₁, which are commonly used for authentication of P. ginseng Meyer and P. quinquefolius L. samples respectively. Moreover, total ginsenoside content is an ideal aggregated parameter for standardization and quality control of ginseng-based medicines, because it can be directly applied for saponin dosage calculation.

Results

Different hydrolysis conditions were tested to develop accurate quantification method for the elucidation of total ginsenoside contents in herbal products. Linearity, limits of quantification, limits of detection, accuracy and precision were evaluated for the developed HPLC-MS method.

Conclusion

Alkaline hydrolysis results in fewer by-products than sugar elimination in acidic conditions. An equimolar response, as a key parameter for quantification, was established for several major ginsenosides. The developed approach has shown acceptable results in the analysis of several different herbal products.

UHPLC coupled with mass spectrometry and chemometric analysis of Kang-Ai injection based on the chemical characterization, simultaneous quantification, and relative quantification of 47 herbal alkaloids and saponins

Kang-Ai injection, which is composed of Astragali Radix, Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, and kushenin, is extensively used in China as an adjuvant therapy for many types of cancer and chronic hepatitis B. In the present study, 47 herbal compounds (11 alkaloids, 8 astragalosides, and 28 ginsenosides), were detected in Kang-Ai injection by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry, of which 31 were identified using authentic standards. Additionally, a practical ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry method was employed for simultaneous quantitative detection (31 available compounds), and relative quantitative detection (16 unavailable compounds) within 10 min. The limit of detection and limit of quantification was 0.11-2.22 and 0.53-11.08 ng/mL, respectively. Altogether, content levels of each compound ranged from 0.03 to 9835.57 μg/mL. Furthermore, chemometric analysis indicated oxymatrine, astragaloside IV, ginsenosides Rg1 and Re, and matrine had the greatest effect on concentration fluctuation. Therefore, we suggested these five compounds should be monitored during the manufacturing process. This method can be applied to provide crucial chemical profiles and quality assessments for Kang-Ai injection, guaranteeing the safety, effectiveness, and controllability of the drug in clinics.

Application of Identification and Evaluation Techniques for Ethnobotanical Medicinal Plant of Genus Panax: A Review

Genus Panax, as worldwide medicinal plants, has a medical history for thousands of years. Most of the entire genus are traditional ethnobotanical medicine in China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and Laos, which have given rise to international attention and use. This paper reviewed more than 210 articles and related books on the research of Panax medicinal plants and their Chinese patent medicines published in the last 30 years. The purpose was to review and summarize the species classification, geographical distribution, and ethnic minorities medicinal records of the genus Panax, and further to review the analytical tools and data analysis methods for the authentication and quality assessment of Panax medicinal materials and Chinese patent medicines. Five main technologies applied in the identification and evaluation of Panax have been introduced and summarized. Chromatography was the most widely used one. Further research and development of molecular identification technology had the potential to become a mainstream identification technology. In addition, some novel, controversial, and worthy methods including electronic noses, electronic eyes, and DNA barcoding were also introduced. At the same time, more than 80% of the researches were carried out by a combination of chemometric pattern-recognition technologies and multi-analysis technologies. All the technologies and methods applied can provide strong support and guarantee for the identification and evaluation of genus Panax, and also conduce to excellent reference value for the development and in-depth research of new technologies in Panax.

Phytochemical analysis of Panax species: a review

Panax species have gained numerous attentions because of their various biological effects on cardiovascular, kidney, reproductive diseases known for a long time. Recently, advanced analytical methods including thin layer chromatography, high-performance thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem ultraviolet, diode array detector, evaporative light scattering detector, and mass detector, two-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography, high speed counter-current chromatography, high speed centrifugal partition chromatography, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, high-performance anion-exchange chromatography, ambient ionization mass spectrometry, molecularly imprinted polymer, enzyme immunoassay, ¹H-NMR, and infrared spectroscopy have been used to identify and evaluate chemical constituents in Panax species. Moreover, Soxhlet extraction, heat reflux extraction, ultrasonic extraction, solid phase extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, acceleration solvent extraction, matrix solid phase dispersion extraction, and pulsed electric field are discussed. In this review, a total of 219 articles published from 1980 to 2018 are investigated. Panax species including P. notoginseng, P. quinquefolius, sand P. ginseng in the raw and processed forms from different parts, geographical origins, and growing times are studied. Furthermore, the potential biomarkers are screened through the previous articles. It is expected that the review can provide a fundamental for further studies.

Cyberecoethnopharmacolomics

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Development of a new term which describes the contemporary, composite, constituent sciences of ethnopharmacology.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To discuss the polysyllabic term cyberecoethnopharmacolomics in the context of the future of ethnopharmacology in global health care.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature background and assessment from the prior literature, diverse databases, and personal discussions.

RESULTS

The profiles and literature background with contemporary and future thoughts regarding the concepts and practices of cyber-, eco-, ethno-, pharmacol-, and -omics, and their impact in ethnopharmacology for the future are presented in the context of integrated health care systems.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethnopharmacology has a major role to play in global health care if the relevant sciences and cutting-edge technologies can coalesce synergistically as a responsive, evidence-based health care practice.