Novel coatings for stir bar sorptive extraction to determine pharmaceuticals and personal care products in environmental waters by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry

For the occurrence of PPCPs from source to tap: A novel approach modified in terms of sample preservation and SPE cartridge to monitor PPCPs in our water supply

BACKGROUND

The ongoing infusion of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) into ecosystems sustains a perpetual life cycle and leads to multi-generational exposures. Limited understanding of their environmental impact and their intrinsic ability to induce physiological effect in humans, even at low doses, pose great risks to human health. Few scholarly works have conducted systematic research into the occurrence of PPCPs within potable water systems. Concurrently, the associated monitoring techniques have not been comprehensively examined with regards to the specific nature of drinking water, namely whether the significant presence of disinfectants may influence the detection of PPCPs.

RESULTS

A modified approach in terms of detailed investigation of sample preservation and optimization of an in-lab fabricated solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridge filled with DVB-VP and PS-DVB sorbent was proposed. Favorable methodological parameters were achieved, with correlation coefficients spanning from 0.9866 to 0.9998. The LODs of the PPCPs fluctuated from 0.001 to 2 μg L-1, while the LOQs varied from 0.002 to 5 μg L-1. The analysis of spiked samples disclosed a methodological precision of 2.31-9.86 % and a recovery of 52.4-119 %. We utilized the established method for analyzing 14 water samples of three categories (source water, finished water and tap water) from five centralized water supply plants. A total of 24 categories encompassing 72 PPCPs were detected, with the concentrations of PPCPs manifested a marked decrease from source water to finished water and finally to tap water.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our research meticulously examined the enhancement and purification effects of widely used commercial SPE cartridges and suggested the use of in-lab fabricated SPE cartridges packed with DVB-VP and PS-DVB adsorbents. We also conducted a systematic evaluation of the need to incorporate ascorbic acid and sodium thiosulfate as preservatives for PPCP measurement, in consideration of the unique characteristics of drinking water matrices, specifically, the significant concentration levels of disinfectants. Furthermore, the proposed method was effectively employed to study the presence of PPCPs in source water, finished water, and tap water collected from centralized water supply plants.

Volatile organic compounds in preen oil and feathers - a review

For a long time birds were assumed to be anosmic or at best microsmatic, with olfaction a poorly understood and seldom investigated part of avian physiology. The full viability of avian olfaction was first discovered through its functions in navigation and foraging. Subsequently, researchers have investigated the role of olfaction in different social and non-social contexts, including reproduction, kin recognition, predator avoidance, navigation and foraging. In parallel to the recognition of the importance of olfaction for avian social behaviour, there have been advances in the techniques and methods available for the sampling and analysis of trace volatiles and odourants, leading to insights into the chemistry underlying chemical communication in birds. This review provides (i) an overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the volatile chemical composition of preen oil and feathers, its phylogenetic coverage, chemical signatures and their potential functions, and (ii) a discussion of current methods used for the isolation and detection of volatiles. Finally, lines for future research are proposed.

Fluorine-Functionalized Covalent-Organic-Framework-Coated Stir Bar for the Extraction of Benzoylurea Insecticides in Pear Juice and Beverage Followed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Ultraviolet Detection

A fluorinated covalent organic framework (COF), named F-COF, was fabricated via simple room-temperature synthesis. With the characteristics of rich fluorine atoms, hydrophobicity, and large conjugated structure, F-COF was evaluated for the extraction of five benzoylurea insecticides (BUs) containing fluorine atoms, benzene ring, and urea bridge. Specifically, F-COF-coated stir bars were prepared by physical adhesion and exhibited higher extraction recovery (73-93 versus 40-85%) toward BUs than commercial stir bars in a shorter extraction time (50 min versus 24 h). The adsorption behavior of BUs on F-COF was explored, and it was assumed that the halogen bond (O-F), hydrophobic interaction, electrostatic interaction, and π-π stacking contributed to the adsorption. On the basis of it, a method combining stir bar sorptive extraction with liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detector was developed for trace analysis of five BUs. Under the optimal conditions, the limits of detection for BUs were found to be 0.301-0.672 μg/L, with the linear range of 1.0/2.0-500 μg/L and relative standard deviations of <8.0% (c = 5 μg/L and n = 7). The accuracy of the proposed method was validated by the recovery test, and the recoveries of target BUs in spiked pear juice and pear beverage were 82.0-113 and 84.0-112%, respectively.

Occurrence, transformation, bioaccumulation, risk and analysis of pharmaceutical and personal care products from wastewater: a review

Almost all aspects of society from food security to disease control and prevention have benefited from pharmaceutical and personal care products, yet these products are a major source of contamination that ends up in wastewater and ecosystems. This issue has been sharply accentuated during the coronavirus disease pandemic 2019 (COVID-19) due to the higher use of disinfectants and other products. Here we review pharmaceutical and personal care products with focus on their occurrence in the environment, detection, risk, and removal.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10311-022-01498-7.

Porous organic framework as coating for stir bar sorptive extraction of carbamate pesticides from corn and potato samples

Three porous organic frameworks (POFs) were synthesized by the reaction between phloroglucinol and 1,4-phthalaldehyde, 4,4'-biphenyldialdehyde or tris-(4-formylphenyl) amine; the products are named as POF-a, POF-b and POF-c, respectively. They were used to prepare POFs coated stir bars respectively for the extraction of four carbamate pesticides (CMPs). POF-c coated stir bar exhibited better adsorption performance than POF-a/b coated stir bar and commercial stir bars, probably due to the stronger conjugated structure and hydrophobicity of POF-c, and resultant hydrophobic, π-π and hydrogen bonding interactions between them. The adsorption mechanism for target CMPs was verified by characterization techniques and molecular dynamics simulation. A method of POF-c coated stir bar sorptive extraction-high performance liquid chromatography-variable wavelength ultraviolet detector was developed for the analysis of four CMPs in corn and potato samples. Under the optimal conditions, LODs of the method were between 0.017 and 0.048 μg/L, and the linear range for four CMPs was 0.1/0.2-200 μg/L.

Weak anion-exchange mixed-mode materials to selectively extract acidic compounds by stir bar sorptive extraction from environmental waters

In this study, the first example of a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-based magnet coated with weak anion exchange (WAX) monolith as novel support for stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) is presented. Firstly, the PTFE magnets were properly modified and vinylized in order to immobilize polymer monoliths onto its surface. Then, a glycidyl methacrylate monolith was prepared and modified with ethylenediamine (EDA) to create weak anion exchanger via ring opening reaction of epoxy groups. The prepared covalently immobilized EDA-modified monoliths onto PTFE magnet exhibited good stability and reusability. Application of resulting material as stir bar for SBSE was investigated for a series of acidic compounds that includes acesulfame, saccharin, diclofenac or ibuprofen, among others as target compounds. Firstly, the SBSE conditions were optimized to promote the WAX interactions with the target compounds achieving recoveries from 37 to 75% and enable the selective extraction of these compounds as it provided values of% matrix effect from 17 to -13% when they were determined by SBSE followed by liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. The analytical methodology, was then validated and applied for the determination of the target solutes in environmental water samples, which were found at concentration up to 2500 ng L^-1 in river waters.

Determination of Benzophenones in Water and Cosmetics Samples: A Comparison of Solid-Phase Extraction and Microextraction by Packed Sorbent Methods

Benzophenones (BPs) are extensively used in a wide variety of cosmetic products and other materials (e.g., textiles or plastics) to avoid damaging effects of UV radiation. In the present work, we compared two extraction methods for the determination of BPs, namely, 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-1), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP-3) and 2,2-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP-8), in water and cosmetics samples. The following extraction methods were used for the research: solid-phase extraction (SPE) and microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS), whereas analysis was performed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. A comparison between the methods indicates that the MEPS technique(s) can be reliably used for analysis of BPs (sunscreen residue) in water samples and cosmetic samples with satisfactory results. This microextraction technique is cheap, easy, quick to implement, and consumes small amounts of solvents. On the other hand, the main advantage of the SPE method are low detection limits for the determination of BPs in water samples, i.e., from 0.034 to 0.067 µg L⁻¹, while, for the MEPS method, LODs were at the level of 1.8–3.2 µg L⁻¹. For both methods, the recoveries of BPs were 96–107% and 44–70% for water and cosmetics samples, respectively. The presented methods are suitable for use in cosmetics quality control and environmental pollution assessment.

A paper-based polystyrene/nylon Janus platform for the microextraction of UV filters in water samples as proof-of-concept

A new mix-mode cellulose-based sorptive phase is described that combines two different polymeric domains (i.e., nylon and polystyrene), thus providing simultaneous hydrophilic and hydrophobic features as a result. By analogy with Janus materials, the new paper-based sorptive phase has been named paper-based polystyrene/nylon Janus-platform (P-Ps/Ny-JP). The main advantages of the proposed P-Ps/Ny-JP are the sustainability, simplicity in synthesis, and low cost of this extraction device. The main parameters affecting the synthesis (i.e., coating procedure and polymers proportion) have been studied, and the resulting material has been characterized via scanning electron microscopy and infrared spectroscopy. As a proof-of-concept, the simultaneous extraction of fourteen UV filters of a wide range of polarity, with log P values ranging from - 0.234 to 16.129, from water samples and their determination by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been performed. The proposed methodology enables the determination of these chemicals with limits of detection from 12 to 71 ng L^-1, and the precision, expressed as a relative standard deviation, was below 15%. The extraction device was applied to the analysis of real water samples likely to contain UV filters (i.e., two private swimming pool water and one seawater) and the recovery values were in the range 73-121%.

A review on analytical methods for pharmaceutical and personal care products and their transformation products

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) and corresponding transformation products have caused widespread concern due to their persistent emissions and potential toxicity. They have wide octanol-water partition coefficients (K_ow) and different ionization constants (pK_a) resulting in a poor analysis accuracy and efficiency. A suitable analytical method is the first prerequisite for further research on their environmental behavior to prioritize the substances. This study reviewed a full-scale analytical protocol for environmental samples in the recent ten years: from sampling to instrumental methods. Passive sampling techniques were compared and recommended for long-term continuous and scientific observation. A quick and effective sample extraction and clean-up method are highly required. Chromatographic methods coupled to mass spectrometry for determining PPCPs with a wide range of logK_ow (-7.53 to 10.80) were summed up. High-resolution mass spectrometry was confirmed to be a promising strategy for screening unknown transformation products, which would provide a nanogram level of detection limits and more accurate mass resolution. Screening strategies and mass change principles were summarized in detail. The recovery rate was important in multiple contaminants analysis identification and factors affecting the recovery rate of PPCPs were also discussed in this review, including sample matrix, target compounds characteristics, extraction method and solid-phase adsorbent. This review provides useful information for the selection of appropriate analytical methods and future development directions.

Overview of Sample Preparation and Chromatographic Methods to Analysis Pharmaceutical Active Compounds in Waters Matrices

In the environment, pharmaceutical residues are a field of particular interest due to the adverse effects to either human health or aquatic and soil environment. Because of the diversity of these compounds, at least 3000 substances were identified and categorized into 49 different therapeutic classes, and several actions are urgently required at multiple steps, the main ones: (i) occurrence studies of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in the water cycle; (ii) the analysis of the potential impact of their introduction into the aquatic environment; (iii) the removal/degradation of the pharmaceutical compounds; and, (iv) the development of more sensible and selective analytical methods to their monitorization. This review aims to present the current state-of-the-art sample preparation methods and chromatographic analysis applied to the study of PhACs in water matrices by pinpointing their advantages and drawbacks. Because it is almost impossible to be comprehensive in all PhACs, instruments, extraction techniques, and applications, this overview focuses on works that were published in the last ten years, mainly those applicable to water matrices.

Application of a new adhesive elastomeric coating and hydrophilic-lipophilic-balanced sorbent for modified stir-bar sorptive extraction

A new polyurethane adhesive was evaluated to fix a hydrophilic-lipophilic-balanced sorbent and to produce modified stir-bars. It presented high mechanical and chemical resistance, indicating that it is an adequate adhesive. The homemade bars were employed to determine bisphenol A, diclofenac, ibuprofen and triclosan in aqueous medium. Satisfactory figures of merit were observed, with LOD between 0.06 and 0.30 ng mL-1 and enrichment factors between 133 and 195 times, using an extraction time of 2 h. The stir-bars were employed to determine the four analytes in water samples, presenting recovery results from 53 to 135% and RSD between 0.7 and 20%. In general, the results observed here indicated that the adhesive is an appropriate alternative material to fix HLB particles, and could probably be applied to other sorbents.

Hydroxyl-containing porous organic framework coated stir bar sorption extraction combined with high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector for analysis of triazole fungicides in grape and cabbage samples

In this work, a hydroxyl-containing porous organic framework (HC-POF) was prepared by a simple solvothermal reaction with 1,4-phthalaldehyde and phloroglucinol as monomers. Sol-gel method was used to coat HC-POF on the glass stir bar. The prepared HC-POF coated stir bar shows better extraction performance for six triazole fungicides (TFs) compared to commercial polydimethylsiloxane and ethylene glycol-silicone coated stir bars. Fourier transform infrared Spectrometry and X-ray photoelectron Spectrometry were used to explore interactions between HC-POF coating and TFs. It is assumed that the coating mainly adsorbs TFs through π-π interactions, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. Based on this fact, a new method of HC-POF coated stir bar sorptive extraction combined with high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector was developed for the determination of six TFs in grape and cabbage samples. A series of extraction and desorption conditions were carefully optimized, including salt concentration, sample solution pH, stirring rate and desorption solvent. Under the optimized experimental conditions, the proposed method displayed limits of detection in the range of 0.022 -0.071 μg L^-1, which is the lowest among the reported SBSE methods for target TFs analysis. The linear range for six TFs was 0.1/0.2-500 μg L^-1 and the recoveries for the spiked grape and cabbage were 81.0-109% and 80.7-111%, respectively.

Carbon-Based Sorbent Coatings for the Determination of Pharmaceutical Compounds by Bar Adsorptive Microextraction

Thirteen carbon materials comprising commercial activated carbons and lab-made materials (activated carbons, hydrochars, and low-T and high-T activated hydrochars) were assayed as sorbent coatings in bar adsorptive microextration (BAμE) to monitor trace levels of ten common pharmaceutical compounds (PhCs) in environmental water matrices including surface water, seawater, tap water, and wastewater. Polar and nonpolar pharmaceuticals were selected, sulfamethoxazole, triclosan, carbamazepine, diclofenac, mefenamic acid, 17-α-ethinylestradiol, 17-β-estradiol, estrone, gemfibrozil, and clofibric acid, as model compounds to cover distinct therapeutic classes. Despite having a less-developed porosity, data showed that "in-house" prepared low-T activated hydrochars, obtained from carbohydrates and an eutectic salt mixture at low temperature (i.e., 180 °C) and autogenerated pressure, compete with the best commercial activated carbons for this particular application. The combination of a micro and mesopore network with a rich oxygen-based surface chemistry yielding an acidic nature allowed these low-T activated hydrochars to present the best overall recoveries (between 20.9 and 82.4%) for the simultaneous determination of the ten target PhCs with very distinct chemical properties using high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD).

Direct photoimmobilization of extraction disks on "green state" 3D printed devices

Post-curing is essential to improve the mechanical properties of 3D printed parts fabricated by stereolithography (SLA), since right after 3D printing they remain in a "green state". It means that the 3D printed parts have reached their final shape, but the polymerization reaction has not been yet completed. Herein, we take advantage of the tacky partially polymerized surface of "green state" SLA 3D printed parts to immobilize extraction disks and miniature magnets, which after UV post-curing, become permanently attached to the 3D printed part resulting in a rotating-disk sorptive extraction device (RDSE). The developed "stick & cure" procedure is reagent-free and does not require any additional preparation time, specialized skills, or instrumentation. As proof of concept, 3D printed RDSE devices with immobilized chelating disks have been applied to the simultaneous extraction of 14 trace metals prior to ICP-OES determination, featuring LODs between 0.03 and 1.27 μg L^-1, and an excellent device-to-device reproducibility (n = 5, RSD = 2.7-8.3%). The developed method was validated using certified wastewater and soil reference samples, and satisfactory spiking recoveries were obtained in the analysis of highly polluted solid waste treatment plant leachates (89-110%). In addition, exploiting the versatility of 3D printing, nine RDSE devices with different shapes were fabricated. Their performance was evaluated and compared for the fast extraction of the highly toxic Cr (VI) as its 1,5-diphenylcarbazide complex in reversed-phase mode, showing different extraction performance on depending on the shape of the 3D printed RDSE device.

Low-cost approach to increase the analysis throughput of bar adsorptive microextraction (BAµE) combined with environmentally-friendly renewable sorbent phase of recycled diatomaceous earth

In this study, a novel apparatus for bar adsorptive microextraction (BAµE) using a voltage regulator was proposed as an alternative tool to improve the analysis throughput. In addition, recycled diatomaceous earth obtained as a brewery residue was employed as a biosorbent coating for the determination of methyl paraben, ethyl paraben, benzophenone and triclocarban in water samples by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The use of the extraction devices, comprised of floating adsorptive bars of 7.5mm length, in the extractions with magnetic stirrers linked to a voltage regulator enabled the analysis of multiple samples, simultaneously. The method optimization was carried out by univariate and multivariate analyses. The optimal conditions for the method were sample solution at pH 5, extraction time of 90min and liquid desorption in 100µL of acetonitrile:methanol (50:50, v/v) for 15min. The total sample preparation time was 17.5min per sample for a simultaneous batch of six extractions. The R² values for the calibration curves obtained were higher than 0.9985. The limits of detection (LODs) varied from 0.19 to 2μgL^-1 and the limits of quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.63 to 6.9μgL^-1. The method was applied to freshwater samples collected from Peri Lagoon (Florianópolis, SC, Brazil) and the relative recoveries ranged from 63% to 124% with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of < 20% (n = 2). The RSD values for the reproducibility of the performance of the magnetic stirrers and inter-device extraction efficiency were lower than 14% (n = 3) and 11% (n = 3), respectively.

Ecological risk assessment associated to the removal of endocrine-disrupting parabens and benzophenone-4 in wastewater treatment

The occurrence of four widely used and endocrine disrupting parabens (PBs) (methylparaben, propylparaben, butylparaben and benzylparaben) and a polar UV filter (benzophenone-4) were determined in influent and effluent wastewater from the 19 major wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) of Catalonia, Spain. For their analysis an on-line solid-phase extraction-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-HPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated. Laboratory analysis revealed high levels for both PBs and BP4, with maximum concentrations of 5700ngL(-1) and 1806ngL(-1), respectively, in influent samples, and 137ngL(-1) and 1080ngL(-1), respectively in effluent wastewaters. Removal rates (RE%) for the target compounds in each WWTPs were calculated. RE% for parabens were almost 100%, whereas for BP4 values where in the range 5-91%. The half-life time (t1/2), hydraulic retention time (HRT), and annual mass load (ML) for each facility was estimated. Results indicated that there was no clear influence of HRT on the RE% of BP4. MLs for BP4 were in the range 0.9-110.1kgy(-1), with the highest values in the most populated areas. Finally, a risk assessment, estimated in terms of hazard quotients (HQs), was carried out for aquatic biota. HQs for the target compounds in effluent wastewaters indicated a negligible effect, whereas for some influent wastewaters' HQs pointed out that some species are at risk.

MIL-101/GO Coated Stir Bar for SBSE to Determine Azo Dyes in Water Samples by UV–Vis Spectrophotometric Method

A composite of chromium (III) terephthalate metal-organic framework and graphene oxide (MIL-101/GO) coated stir bar was prepared by sol–gel technique for the first time and was employed for stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) of trace azo dyes amaranth, sunset yellow and carmine from water samples followed by UV–Vis spectrophotometric detection. A MIL-101/GO coating was first created on the glass bar surface. MIL-101/GO and MIL-101/GO coated stir bars were characterized. The enrichment factors of azo dyes by SBSE have been investigated in detail, and the optimized experimental parameters were obtained. Under the optimal conditions, a method for determination of trace amount of azo dyes was setup, and the detection limits of amaranth, sunset yellow and carmine were 2.3 ng/mL, 1.7 ng/mL and 1.6 ng/mL. The proposed method was successfully applied for the analysis of the three azo dyes in water samples.

Stir bar sorptive extraction applied to the analysis of biological fluids

Stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) is a sample preparation technique, which is used for the extraction as well as the preconcentration of organic substances from various aqueous matrices, prior to the determination of the analytes with a separation technique, such as LC or GC, coupled to different detectors. Since 1999, when SBSE was first developed by Sandra and co-workers, SBSE has been used in the analysis of samples of environmental, food, pharmaceutical and biomedical origin. In this article, we focus on the application of SBSE in biological fluids.