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Shen Z, Ke Z, Yang Q, Ghebremichael ST, Li T, Li T, Chen J, Meng X, Xiang H, Li C, Zhou Z, Pan G, Chen P. Transcriptomic changes in the microsporidia proliferation and host responses in congenitally infected embryos and larvae. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:321. [PMID: 38556880 PMCID: PMC10983672 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10236-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Congenital infection caused by vertical transmission of microsporidia N. bombycis can result in severe economic losses in the silkworm-rearing industry. Whole-transcriptome analyses have revealed non-coding RNAs and their regulatory networks in N. bombycis infected embryos and larvae. However, transcriptomic changes in the microsporidia proliferation and host responses in congenitally infected embryos and larvae remains unclear. Here, we simultaneously compared the transcriptomes of N. bombycis and its host B. mori embryos of 5-day and larvae of 1-, 5- and 10-day during congenital infection. For the transcriptome of N. bombycis, a comparison of parasite expression patterns between congenital-infected embryos and larva showed most genes related to parasite central carbon metabolism were down-regulated in larvae during infection, whereas the majority of genes involved in parasite proliferation and growth were up-regulated. Interestingly, a large number of distinct or shared differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were revealed by the Venn diagram and heat map, many of them were connected to infection related factors such as Ricin B lectin, spore wall protein, polar tube protein, and polysaccharide deacetylase. For the transcriptome of B. mori infected with N. bombycis, beyond numerous DEGs related to DNA replication and repair, mRNA surveillance pathway, RNA transport, protein biosynthesis, and proteolysis, with the progression of infection, a large number of DEGs related to immune and infection pathways, including phagocytosis, apoptosis, TNF, Toll-like receptor, NF-kappa B, Fc epsilon RI, and some diseases, were successively identified. In contrast, most genes associated with the insulin signaling pathway, 2-oxacarboxylic acid metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis, and lipid metabolisms were up-regulated in larvae compared to those in embryos. Furthermore, dozens of distinct and three shared DEGs that were involved in the epigenetic regulations, such as polycomb, histone-lysine-specific demethylases, and histone-lysine-N-methyltransferases, were identified via the Venn diagram and heat maps. Notably, many DEGs of host and parasite associated with lipid-related metabolisms were verified by RT-qPCR. Taken together, simultaneous transcriptomic analyses of both host and parasite genes lead to a better understanding of changes in the microsporidia proliferation and host responses in embryos and larvae in N. bombycis congenital infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zigang Shen
- College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Zhuojun Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Qiong Yang
- Sericulture and Agri-food Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Samson Teweldeberhan Ghebremichael
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Tangxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Tian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Xianzhi Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Heng Xiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chunfeng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Zeyang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China
- College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Guoqing Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China.
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China.
| | - Ping Chen
- College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Tiansheng Street, Chongqing, 400716, China.
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Patel P, Nandi A, Verma SK, Kaushik N, Suar M, Choi EH, Kaushik NK. Zebrafish-based platform for emerging bio-contaminants and virus inactivation research. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 872:162197. [PMID: 36781138 PMCID: PMC9922160 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Emerging bio-contaminants such as viruses have affected health and environment settings of every country. Viruses are the minuscule entities resulting in severe contagious diseases like SARS, MERS, Ebola, and avian influenza. Recent epidemic like the SARS-CoV-2, the virus has undergone mutations strengthen them and allowing to escape from the remedies. Comprehensive knowledge of viruses is essential for the development of targeted therapeutic and vaccination treatments. Animal models mimicking human biology like non-human primates, rats, mice, and rabbits offer competitive advantage to assess risk of viral infections, chemical toxins, nanoparticles, and microbes. However, their economic maintenance has always been an issue. Furthermore, the redundancy of experimental results due to aforementioned aspects is also in examine. Hence, exploration for the alternative animal models is crucial for risk assessments. The current review examines zebrafish traits and explores the possibilities to monitor emerging bio-contaminants. Additionally, a comprehensive picture of the bio contaminant and virus particle invasion and abatement mechanisms in zebrafish and human cells is presented. Moreover, a zebrafish model to investigate the emerging viruses such as coronaviridae and poxviridae has been suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paritosh Patel
- Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Kwangwoon University, 01897 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Aditya Nandi
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, Odisha, India
| | - Suresh K Verma
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, Odisha, India; Condensed Matter Theory Group, Materials Theory Division, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516, SE-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Neha Kaushik
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Engineering, The University of Suwon, 18323 Hwaseong, Republic of Korea
| | - Mrutyunjay Suar
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, Odisha, India
| | - Eun Ha Choi
- Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Kwangwoon University, 01897 Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Nagendra Kumar Kaushik
- Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Kwangwoon University, 01897 Seoul, South Korea.
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Shikina E, Kovalevsky R, Shirkovskaya A, Toukach P. Prospective bacterial and fungal sources of hyaluronic acid: A review. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2022; 20:6214-6236. [PMID: 36420162 PMCID: PMC9676211 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2022.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The unique biological and rheological properties make hyaluronic acid a sought-after material for medicine and cosmetology. Due to very high purity requirements for hyaluronic acid in medical applications, the profitability of streptococcal fermentation is reduced. Production of hyaluronic acid by recombinant systems is considered a promising alternative. Variations in combinations of expressed genes and fermentation conditions alter the yield and molecular weight of produced hyaluronic acid. This review is devoted to the current state of hyaluronic acid production by recombinant bacterial and fungal organisms.
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Encapsulation of the septal cell wall protects Streptococcus pneumoniae from its major peptidoglycan hydrolase and host defenses. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010516. [PMID: 35731836 PMCID: PMC9216600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthesis of the capsular polysaccharide, a major virulence factor for many pathogenic bacteria, is required for bacterial survival within the infected host. In Streptococcus pneumoniae, Wze, an autophosphorylating tyrosine kinase, and Wzd, a membrane protein required for Wze autophosphorylation, co-localize at the division septum and guarantee the presence of capsule at this subcellular location. To determine how bacteria regulate capsule synthesis, we studied pneumococcal proteins that interact with Wzd and Wze using bacterial two hybrid assays and fluorescence microscopy. We found that Wzd interacts with Wzg, the putative ligase that attaches capsule to the bacterial cell wall, and recruits it to the septal area. This interaction required residue V56 of Wzd and both the transmembrane regions and DNA-PPF domain of Wzg. When compared to the wild type, Wzd null pneumococci lack capsule at midcell, bind the peptidoglycan hydrolase LytA better and are more susceptible to LytA-induced lysis, and are less virulent in a zebrafish embryo infection model. In this manuscript, we propose that the Wzd/Wze pair guarantees full encapsulation of pneumococcal bacteria by recruiting Wzg to the division septum, ensuring that capsule attachment is coordinated with peptidoglycan synthesis. Impairing the encapsulation process, at localized subcellular sites, may facilitate elimination of bacteria by strategies that target the pneumococcal peptidoglycan.
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Extra-Intestinal Effects of C. difficile Toxin A and B: An In Vivo Study Using the Zebrafish Embryo Model. Cells 2020; 9:cells9122575. [PMID: 33271969 PMCID: PMC7760802 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
C.difficile infection (CDI) is not a merely “gut-confined” disease as toxemia could drive the development of CDI-related extra-intestinal effects. These effects could explain the high CDI-associated mortality, not just justified by diarrhea and dehydration. Here, the extra-intestinal effects of toxin A (TcdA) and B (TcdB) produced by C. difficile have been studied in vivo using the zebrafish embryo model. Noteworthy, protective properties of human serum albumin (HSA) towards toxins-induced extra-intestinal effects were also addressed. Zebrafish embryos were treated with TcdA, TcdB and/or HSA at 24 h post-fertilization. Embryos were analyzed for 48 h after treatment to check vital signs and morphological changes. Markers related to cardio-vascular damage and inflammation were evaluated by Real-Time quantitative PCR and/or western blotting. Both toxins induced cardiovascular damage in zebrafish embryos by different mechanisms: (i) direct toxicity (i.e., pericardial edema, cardiac chambers enlargement, endothelial alteration); (ii) increased hormonal production and release (i.e., atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)), (iii) alteration of the vascular system through the increase of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) levels, as well as of its receptors, (iv) pro-inflammatory response through high cytokines production (i.e., CXCL8, IL1B, IL6 and TNFα) and (v) cell-mediated damage due to the increase in neutrophils number. In addition to cardiovascular damage, we observe skin alteration and inflammation. Finally, our data indicate a protective effect of HSA toward the toxins induced extra-intestinal effects. Together, our findings can serve as a starting point for humans’ studies to substantiate and understand the extra-intestinal effects observed in CDI patients.
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Heckman TI, Griffin MJ, Camus AC, LaFrentz BR, Morick D, Smirnov R, Ofek T, Soto E. Multilocus sequence analysis of diverse Streptococcus iniae isolates indicates an underlying genetic basis for phenotypic heterogeneity. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2020; 141:53-69. [PMID: 32940251 DOI: 10.3354/dao03521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus iniae is a Gram-positive, opportunistically zoonotic bacterium infective to a wide variety of farmed and wild fish species worldwide. Outbreaks in wild fish can have detrimental environmental and cultural impacts, and mortality events in aquaculture can result in significant economic losses. As an emerging or re-emerging pathogen of global significance, understanding the coalescing factors contributing to piscine streptococcosis is crucial for developing strategies to control infections. Intraspecific antigenic and genetic variability of S. iniae has made development of autogenous vaccines a challenge, particularly where the diversity of locally endemic S. iniae strains is unknown. This study genetically and phenotypically characterized 11 S. iniae isolates from diseased wild and farmed fish from North America, Central America, and the Caribbean. A multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) scheme was developed to phylogenetically compare these isolates to 84 other strains of Streptococcus spp. relevant to aquaculture. MLSA generated phylogenies comparable to established genotyping methods, and isolates formed distinct clades related to phenotype and host species. The endothelial Oreochromis mossambicus bulbus arteriosus cell line and whole blood from rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss, Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, and white sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus were used to investigate the persistence and virulence of the 11 isolates using in vitro assays. In vivo challenges using an O. niloticus model were used to evaluate virulence by the intragastric route of infection. Isolates showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in virulence and persistence, with some correlation to genogroup, establishing a basis for further work uncovering genetic factors leading to increased pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor I Heckman
- Aquatic Animal Health Laboratory, Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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7
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Soh KY, Loh JMS, Hall C, Proft T. Functional Analysis of Two Novel Streptococcus iniae Virulence Factors Using a Zebrafish Infection Model. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1361. [PMID: 32899555 PMCID: PMC7564053 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8091361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus iniae is a major fish pathogen that contributes to large annual losses in the aquaculture industry, exceeding US$100 million. It is also reported to cause opportunistic infections in humans. We have recently identified two novel S. iniae virulence factors, an extracellular nuclease (SpnAi) and a secreted nucleotidase (S5nAi), and verified their predicted enzymatic activities using recombinant proteins. Here, we report the generation of green fluorescent S. iniae spnAi and s5nAi deletion mutants and their evaluation in a transgenic zebrafish infection model. Our results show nuclease and nucleotidase activities in S. iniae could be attributed to SpnAi and S5nAi, respectively. Consistent with this, larvae infected with the deletion mutants demonstrated enhanced survival and bacterial clearance, compared to those infected with wild-type (WT) S. iniae. Deletion of spnAi and s5nAi resulted in sustained recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages, respectively, to the site of infection. We also show that recombinant SpnAi is able to degrade neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) isolated from zebrafish kidney tissue. Our results suggest that both enzymes play an important role in S. iniae immune evasion and might present potential targets for the development of therapeutic agents or vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kar Yan Soh
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; (K.Y.S.); (J.M.S.L.)
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Biomolecular Discoveries, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Jacelyn Mei San Loh
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; (K.Y.S.); (J.M.S.L.)
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Biomolecular Discoveries, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Christopher Hall
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; (K.Y.S.); (J.M.S.L.)
| | - Thomas Proft
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; (K.Y.S.); (J.M.S.L.)
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Biomolecular Discoveries, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
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Bailone RL, Fukushima HCS, Ventura Fernandes BH, De Aguiar LK, Corrêa T, Janke H, Grejo Setti P, Roça RDO, Borra RC. Zebrafish as an alternative animal model in human and animal vaccination research. Lab Anim Res 2020; 36:13. [PMID: 32382525 PMCID: PMC7203993 DOI: 10.1186/s42826-020-00042-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Much of medical research relies on animal models to deepen knowledge of the causes of animal and human diseases, as well as to enable the development of innovative therapies. Despite rodents being the most widely used research model worldwide, in recent decades, the use of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) model has exponentially been adopted among the scientific community. This is because such a small tropical freshwater teleost fish has crucial genetic, anatomical and physiological homology with mammals. Therefore, zebrafish constitutes an excellent experimental model for behavioral, genetic and toxicological studies which unravels the mechanism of various human diseases. Furthermore, it serves well to test new therapeutic agents, such as the safety of new vaccines. The aim of this review was to provide a systematic literature review on the most recent studies carried out on the topic. It presents numerous advantages of this type of animal model in tests of efficacy and safety of both animal and human vaccines, thus highlighting gains in time and cost reduction of research and analyzes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Lacava Bailone
- Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply, Federal Inspection Service, São Carlos, SP Brazil
- São Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP Brazil
| | - Hirla Costa Silva Fukushima
- Health and Biological Sciences Center, Federal University, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP Brazil
| | | | - Luís Kluwe De Aguiar
- Department of Food Technology and Innovation, Harper Adams University, Newport, UK
| | - Tatiana Corrêa
- Department of Genetic and Evolution, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP Brazil
| | - Helena Janke
- Department of Genetic and Evolution, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP Brazil
| | - Princia Grejo Setti
- Department of Genetic and Evolution, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP Brazil
| | | | - Ricardo Carneiro Borra
- Department of Genetic and Evolution, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP Brazil
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Liu S, Ning XH, Guan XL, Li XP, Sun L. Characterization of Streptococcus iniae-induced microRNA profiles in Paralichthys olivaceus and identification of pol-3p-10740_175 as a regulator of antibacterial immune response. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 98:860-867. [PMID: 31756455 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in many biological activities including immune defense against pathogens. In this study, we applied high-throughput sequencing technology to examine miRNAs in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) infected with Streptococcus iniae at different times. A total of 1038 miRNAs were identified, of which, 249 were novel miRNAs, and 81 showed differential expression (named DEmiRNAs) after S. iniae infection. Of the 81 DEmiRNAs identified, 34 and 58 occurred at 6 h and 24 h post-infection, respectively; most DEmiRNAs were strongly time-specific, and only 13.6% of the DEmiRNAs were shared between the two time points. A total of 9582 target genes were predicted for the 81 DEmiRNAs. The putative target genes were enriched in various GO and KEGG pathways of biological processes and molecular/cellular functions, in particular endocytosis, regulation of transcription, lysososme, and the signaling pathways of MAPK, ErbB, and AMPK. One of the DEmiRNAs, pol-3p-10740_175, was found to target dual specificity phosphatase 6 (Dusp6) and repress the expression of the latter. Transfection of flounder FG cells with pol-3p-10740_175 caused a significant inhibition on S. iniae invasion. The results of this study provided the first S. iniae-induced miRNA profile in Japanese flounder and indicated that flounder miRNAs play an important role in antibacterial immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xian-Hui Ning
- CAS Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiao-Lu Guan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xue-Peng Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.
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di Masi A, Leboffe L, Polticelli F, Tonon F, Zennaro C, Caterino M, Stano P, Fischer S, Hägele M, Müller M, Kleger A, Papatheodorou P, Nocca G, Arcovito A, Gori A, Ruoppolo M, Barth H, Petrosillo N, Ascenzi P, Di Bella S. Human Serum Albumin Is an Essential Component of the Host Defense Mechanism Against Clostridium difficile Intoxication. J Infect Dis 2019; 218:1424-1435. [PMID: 29868851 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The pathogenic effects of Clostridium difficile are primarily attributable to the production of the large protein toxins (C difficile toxins [Tcd]) A (TcdA) and B (TcdB). These toxins monoglucosylate Rho GTPases in the cytosol of host cells, causing destruction of the actin cytoskeleton with cytotoxic effects. Low human serum albumin (HSA) levels indicate a higher risk of acquiring and developing a severe C difficile infection (CDI) and are associated with recurrent and fatal disease. Methods We used a combined approach based on docking simulation and biochemical analyses that were performed in vitro on purified proteins and in human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2), and in vivo on stem cell-derived human intestinal organoids and zebrafish embryos. Results Our results show that HSA specifically binds via its domain II to TcdA and TcdB and thereby induces their autoproteolytic cleavage at physiological concentrations. This process impairs toxin internalization into the host cells and reduces the toxin-dependent glucosylation of Rho proteins. Conclusions Our data provide evidence for a specific HSA-dependent self-defense mechanism against C difficile toxins and provide an explanation for the clinical correlation between CDI severity and hypoalbuminemia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Loris Leboffe
- Department of Sciences, Roma Tre University, Roma, Italy
| | - Fabio Polticelli
- Department of Sciences, Roma Tre University, Roma, Italy.,National Institute of Nuclear Physics, Roma Tre Section, Roma, Italy
| | - Federica Tonon
- Department of Medical, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Cristina Zennaro
- Department of Medical, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Marianna Caterino
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Napoli "Federico II", Napoli, Italy.,Associazione Culturale DiSciMuS RCF, Casoria, Napoli, Italy
| | - Pasquale Stano
- Department of Sciences, Roma Tre University, Roma, Italy
| | - Stephan Fischer
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ulm Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Marlen Hägele
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University of Ulm Medical Center, Germany
| | - Martin Müller
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University of Ulm Medical Center, Germany
| | - Alexander Kleger
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University of Ulm Medical Center, Germany
| | - Panagiotis Papatheodorou
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ulm Medical Center, Ulm, Germany.,Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Giuseppina Nocca
- Institute of Biochemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Roma, Italy.,Institute of Chemistry of Molecular Recognition, CNR, Roma, Italy
| | - Alessandro Arcovito
- Institute of Biochemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Roma, Italy
| | - Andrea Gori
- Clinic of Infectious Diseases, San Gerardo Hospital, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Margherita Ruoppolo
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Napoli "Federico II", Napoli, Italy.,Associazione Culturale DiSciMuS RCF, Casoria, Napoli, Italy.,CEINGE Biotecnologie Avanzate, Napoli, Italy
| | - Holger Barth
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ulm Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Nicola Petrosillo
- 2nd Infectious Diseases Division, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Roma, Italy
| | - Paolo Ascenzi
- Department of Sciences, Roma Tre University, Roma, Italy
| | - Stefano Di Bella
- 2nd Infectious Diseases Division, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "L. Spallanzani", Roma, Italy
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11
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Jagau H, Behrens IK, Lahme K, Lorz G, Köster RW, Schneppenheim R, Obser T, Brehm MA, König G, Kohler TP, Rohde M, Frank R, Tegge W, Fulde M, Hammerschmidt S, Steinert M, Bergmann S. Von Willebrand Factor Mediates Pneumococcal Aggregation and Adhesion in Blood Flow. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:511. [PMID: 30972039 PMCID: PMC6443961 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major cause of community acquired pneumonia and septicaemia in humans. These diseases are frequently associated with thromboembolic cardiovascular complications. Pneumococci induce the exocytosis of endothelial Weibel-Palade Bodies and thereby actively stimulate the release of von Willebrand factor (VWF), which is an essential glycoprotein of the vascular hemostasis. Both, the pneumococcus induced pulmonary inflammation and the thromboembolytic complications are characterized by a dysbalanced hemostasis including a marked increase in VWF plasma concentrations. Here, we describe for the first time VWF as a novel interaction partner of capsulated and non-encapsulated pneumococci. Moreover, cell culture infection analyses with primary endothelial cells characterized VWF as bridging molecule that mediates bacterial adherence to endothelial cells in a heparin-sensitive manner. Due to the mechanoresponsive changes of the VWF protein conformation and multimerization status, which occur in the blood stream, we used a microfluidic pump system to generate shear flow-induced multimeric VWF strings on endothelial cell surfaces and analyzed attachment of RFP-expressing pneumococci in flow. By applying immunofluorescence visualization and additional electron microscopy, we detected a frequent and enduring bacterial attachment to the VWF strings. Bacterial attachment to the endothelium was confirmed in vivo using a zebrafish infection model, which is described in many reports and acknowledged as suitable model to study hemostasis mechanisms and protein interactions of coagulation factors. Notably, we visualized the recruitment of zebrafish-derived VWF to the surface of pneumococci circulating in the blood stream and detected a VWF-dependent formation of bacterial aggregates within the vasculature of infected zebrafish larvae. Furthermore, we identified the surface-exposed bacterial enolase as pneumococcal VWF binding protein, which interacts with the VWF domain A1 and determined the binding kinetics by surface plasmon resonance. Subsequent epitope mapping using an enolase peptide array indicates that the peptide 181YGAEIFHALKKILKS195 might serve as a possible core sequence of the VWF interaction site. In conclusion, we describe a VWF-mediated mechanism for pneumococcal anchoring within the bloodstream via surface-displayed enolase, which promotes intravascular bacterial aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilger Jagau
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ina-Kristin Behrens
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Karen Lahme
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Georgina Lorz
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Reinhard W Köster
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Reinhard Schneppenheim
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE Hamburg), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias Obser
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE Hamburg), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria A Brehm
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE Hamburg), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gesa König
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE Hamburg), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas P Kohler
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Universität Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Manfred Rohde
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Central Facility for Microscopy, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ronald Frank
- Department of Chemical Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Werner Tegge
- Department of Chemical Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Marcus Fulde
- Centre for Infection Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sven Hammerschmidt
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Universität Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Steinert
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Simone Bergmann
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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12
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Suff N, Waddington SN. The power of bioluminescence imaging in understanding host-pathogen interactions. Methods 2017; 127:69-78. [PMID: 28694065 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases are one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Modelling and understanding human infection is imperative to developing treatments to reduce the global burden of infectious disease. Bioluminescence imaging is a highly sensitive, non-invasive technique based on the detection of light, produced by luciferase-catalysed reactions. In the study of infectious disease, bioluminescence imaging is a well-established technique; it can be used to detect, localize and quantify specific immune cells, pathogens or immunological processes. This enables longitudinal studies in which the spectrum of the disease process and its response to therapies can be monitored. Light producing transgenic rodents are emerging as key tools in the study of host response to infection. Here, we review the strategies for identifying biological processes in vivo, including the technology of bioluminescence imaging and illustrate how this technique is shedding light on the host-pathogen relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Suff
- Gene Transfer Technology Group, Institute for Women's Health, University College London, 86-96 Chenies Mews, London WC1E 6HX, United Kingdom.
| | - Simon N Waddington
- Gene Transfer Technology Group, Institute for Women's Health, University College London, 86-96 Chenies Mews, London WC1E 6HX, United Kingdom
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13
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Açik MN, Yüksel H, Ulucan A, Çetinkaya B. The first experimental research on the pathogenicity of Arcobacter butzleri in zebrafish. Vet Microbiol 2016; 189:32-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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14
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Zaccaria E, Cao R, Wells JM, van Baarlen P. A Zebrafish Larval Model to Assess Virulence of Porcine Streptococcus suis Strains. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151623. [PMID: 26999052 PMCID: PMC4801416 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus suis is an encapsulated Gram-positive bacterium, and the leading cause of sepsis and meningitis in young pigs resulting in considerable economic losses in the porcine industry. It is also considered an emerging zoonotic agent. In the environment, both avirulent and virulent strains occur in pigs, and virulent strains appear to cause disease in both humans and pigs. There is a need for a convenient, reliable and standardized animal model to assess S. suis virulence. A zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae infection model has several advantages, including transparency of larvae, low cost, ease of use and exemption from ethical legislation up to 6 days post fertilization, but has not been previously established as a model for S. suis. Microinjection of different porcine strains of S. suis in zebrafish larvae resulted in highly reproducible dose- and strain-dependent larval death, strongly correlating with presence of the S. suis capsule and to the original virulence of the strain in pigs. Additionally we compared the virulence of the two-component system mutant of ciaRH, which is attenuated for virulence in both mice and pigs in vivo. Infection of larvae with the ΔciaRH strain resulted in significantly higher survival rate compared to infection with the S10 wild-type strain. Our data demonstrate that zebrafish larvae are a rapid and reliable model to assess the virulence of clinical porcine S. suis isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Zaccaria
- Host-Microbe Interactomics, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Rui Cao
- Host-Microbe Interactomics, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jerry M. Wells
- Host-Microbe Interactomics, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Peter van Baarlen
- Host-Microbe Interactomics, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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15
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Saralahti A, Rämet M. Zebrafish and Streptococcal Infections. Scand J Immunol 2015; 82:174-83. [PMID: 26095827 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcal bacteria are a versatile group of gram-positive bacteria capable of infecting several host organisms, including humans and fish. Streptococcal species are common colonizers of the human respiratory and gastrointestinal tract, but they also cause some of the most common life-threatening, invasive infections in humans and aquaculture. With its unique characteristics and efficient tools for genetic and imaging applications, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) has emerged as a powerful vertebrate model for infectious diseases. Several zebrafish models introduced so far have shown that zebrafish are suitable models for both zoonotic and human-specific infections. Recently, several zebrafish models mimicking human streptococcal infections have also been developed. These models show great potential in providing novel information about the pathogenic mechanisms and host responses associated with human streptococcal infections. Here, we review the zebrafish infection models for the most relevant streptococcal species: the human-specific Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes, and the zoonotic Streptococcus iniae and Streptococcus agalactiae. The recent success and the future potential of these models for the study of host-pathogen interactions in streptococcal infections are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Saralahti
- BioMediTech, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
| | - M Rämet
- BioMediTech, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.,Department of Pediatrics, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland.,Department of Children and Adolescents, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland.,PEDEGO Research Center, Medical Research Center Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
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16
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Harvie EA, Huttenlocher A. Neutrophils in host defense: new insights from zebrafish. J Leukoc Biol 2015; 98:523-37. [PMID: 25717145 PMCID: PMC4569048 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.4mr1114-524r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are highly motile phagocytic cells that play a critical role in the immune response to infection. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are increasingly used to study neutrophil function and host-pathogen interactions. The generation of transgenic zebrafish lines with fluorescently labeled leukocytes has made it possible to visualize the neutrophil response to infection in real time by use of optically transparent zebrafish larvae. In addition, the genetic tractability of zebrafish has allowed for the generation of models of inherited neutrophil disorders. In this review, we discuss several zebrafish models of infectious disease, both in the context of immunocompetent, as well as neutrophil-deficient hosts and how these models have shed light on neutrophil behavior during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Harvie
- *Microbiology Doctoral Training Program, Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology and Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Anna Huttenlocher
- *Microbiology Doctoral Training Program, Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology and Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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17
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Monette MM, Evans DL, Krunkosky T, Camus A, Jaso-Friedmann L. Nonspecific cytotoxic cell antimicrobial protein (NCAMP-1): a novel alarmin ligand identified in zebrafish. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116576. [PMID: 25689842 PMCID: PMC4331361 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Cells from the coelomic cavity of adult zebrafish (zf) were used to study the alarmin-like activities of nonspecific cytotoxic cell antimicrobial protein-1 (NCAMP-1). Immunohistochemistry studies using polyclonal anti-NCAMP-1 identified constitutive NCAMP-1 in epithelial cells of the zf anterior kidney, in liver parenchyma and in the lamina propria of the intestine. NCAMP-1 was also located in the cytosol of mononuclear cells in these tissues. Cytosolic NCAMP-1 was detected in a diverse population of coelomic cells (CC) using confocal microscopy and polyclonal anti-NCAMP-1 staining. Large mononuclear and heterophil-like CC had intracellular NCAMP-1. These studies indicated that NCAMP-1 is constitutively found in epithelial cells and in ZFCC. To establish a relationship between NCAMP-1 and the alarmin functions of ATP, a stimulation-secretion model was initiated using zf coelomic cells (ZFCC). ZFCCs treated with the alarmin ATP secreted NCAMP-1 into culture supernatants. Treatment of ZFCC with either ATP or NCAMP-1 activated purinergic receptor induced pore formation detected by the ZFCC uptake of the dye YO-PRO-1. ATP induced YO-PRO-1 uptake was inhibited by antagonists oxidized-ATP, KN62, or CBB. These antagonists did not compete with NCAMP-1 induced YO-PRO-1 uptake. Binding of ZFCC by both ATP and NCAMP-1 produced an influx of Ca2+. Combined treatment of ZFCC with ATP and NCAMP-1 increased target cell cytotoxicity. Individually NCAMP-1 or ATP treatment did not produce target cell damage. Similar to ATP, NCAMP-1 activates cellular pore formation, calcium influx and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Mariscal Monette
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Donald Lee Evans
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Thomas Krunkosky
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Diagnostic Imaging, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Alvin Camus
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Liliana Jaso-Friedmann
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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18
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Wang YT, Huang HY, Tsai MA, Wang PC, Jiang BH, Chen SC. Phosphoglycerate kinase enhanced immunity of the whole cell of Streptococcus agalactiae in tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 41:250-259. [PMID: 25218275 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2014.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae is a Gram-positive bacterium and a severe aquaculture pathogen that can infect a wide range of warmwater fish species. The outer-surface proteins in bacterial pathogens play an important role in pathogenesis. We evaluated the immunogenicity of two of the identified surface proteins namely phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) and ornithine carbamoyl-transferase (OCT). PGK and OCT were over-expressed and purified from Escherichia coli and used as the subunit vaccines in tilapia. Tilapia immunized with the S. agalactiae modified bacteria vaccine (whole cell preparations with recombinant PGK and OCT proteins) individually were tested for the efficacy. OCT and PGK combined with WC had a higher survival rate. A high-level protection and significant specific antibody responses against S. agalactiae challenge was observed upon the vaccinated tilapia with the purified PGK protein and S. agalactiae whole cells. The specific antibody titer against S. agalactiae antigen suggested that increased antibody titers were correlated with post-challenge survival rate. Il-1β expression profile was higher in PGK + WC-treated group. Tnf-α expression in the PGK + WC group was significantly increased. Taken together, our results suggested the combinations of recombinant protein and whole cell may elicit immune responses that reach greater protection than that of individual S. agalactiae components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Wang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsing-Yen Huang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ming-An Tsai
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Pei-Chi Wang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Bo-Huang Jiang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shih-Chu Chen
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan, ROC.
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19
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Zhang L, Sun C, Ye X, Zou S, Lu M, Liu Z, Tian Y. Characterization of four heat-shock protein genes from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and demonstration of the inducible transcriptional activity of Hsp70 promoter. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2014; 40:221-33. [PMID: 23912482 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-013-9838-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Heat-shock proteins (Hsps), known as stress proteins and extrinsic chaperones, play important roles in the folding, translocation, and refolding/degradation of proteins. In this study, we identified four Hsps in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), which display conserved Hsp characteristics in their predicted amino acid sequences. Further analyses on the structures, homology, and phylogenetics revealed that the four Hsps belong to Hsp70 family. One of them does not contain introns and is named Hsp70, while all the other three contain introns and are named Hsc70-1, Hsc70-2, and Hsc70-3. Expressions of the four Hsp proteins were observed in all examined tissues. Six hours after infection of Streptococcus agalactiae in Nile tilapia, the expression of Hsp70 was significantly increased in the liver, head kidney, spleen and gill, while Hsc70s' expression was unchanged in all examined tissues except the head kidney that showed significantly reduced expression of both Hsc70-2 and Hsc70-3. These results suggest that Hsp70 may participate in the defense against S. agalactiae infection. We then isolated the promoter of Hsp70 gene and inserted it into the donor plasmid of Tgf2 transposon system containing green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene. The plasmid was microinjected into zebrafish embryos, where the expression of GFP was induced by heat shock, S. agalactiae immersion challenge, indicating that the isolated Hsp70 promoter has transcriptional activity and is inducible by both heat shock and bacterial challenge. This promoter may facilitate the future construction of disease-resistant transgenic fish. The work also contributes to the further study of immune response of tilapia after bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fisheries Resource Application and Cultivation, China Ministry of Agriculture; Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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20
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Love DR, Lan CC, Dodd A, Shelling AN, McNabb WC, Ferguson LR. Modeling inflammatory bowel disease: the zebrafish as a way forward. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2014; 7:177-93. [PMID: 17331065 DOI: 10.1586/14737159.7.2.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The zebrafish has proved to be an informative model of vertebrate development and, more recently, an emerging model of human disease. The realization of the full potential of the zebrafish as a disease model lies in two interdependent areas. The first is an appreciation that the often overlooked strength of this species lies in allowing the design of experiments that address the interplay of genetics and the environment in a manipulable manner. The second is in the application and further development of gene targeting approaches. These twin features will be addressed in this review in the context of modeling inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald R Love
- University of Auckland, School of Biological Sciences, Private Bag 92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
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21
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Lü A, Hu X, Wang Y, Shen X, Zhu A, Shen L, Ming Q, Feng Z. Comparative analysis of the acute response of zebrafish Danio rerio skin to two different bacterial infections. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH 2013; 25:243-251. [PMID: 24341765 DOI: 10.1080/08997659.2013.829132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Skin is an important innate immune organ in fish; however, little is known about the skin's immune response to infectious pathogens. We conducted a comparative analysis of the acute immune response of Zebrafish Danio rerio skin against gram-positive (Staphylococcus chromogenes) and gram-negative (Citrobacter freundii) bacterial infections. Gene expression profiles induced from the two different infections were identified by microarray hybridization, with many genes demonstrating an acute immune response in the skin. Differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in response to stress and stimulus, complement activation, acute-phase response, and defense and immune response. Compared with transcription patterns of skin from the two infections, a similar innate immunity (e.g., transferrin, coagulation factor, complements, and lectins) was observed but with different acute-phase genes (e.g., ceruloplasmin, alpha-1-microglobulin, vitellogenin, and heat shock protein). These results suggest that the skin of fish plays an important role in the innate immune responses to bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aijun Lü
- a School of Life Sciences , Jiangsu Normal University , Xuzhou , 221116 , China
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22
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Improving the lethal effect of cpl-7, a pneumococcal phage lysozyme with broad bactericidal activity, by inverting the net charge of its cell wall-binding module. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:5355-65. [PMID: 23959317 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01372-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Phage endolysins are murein hydrolases that break the bacterial cell wall to provoke lysis and release of phage progeny. Recently, these enzymes have also been recognized as powerful and specific antibacterial agents when added exogenously. In the pneumococcal system, most cell wall associated murein hydrolases reported so far depend on choline for activity, and Cpl-7 lysozyme constitutes a remarkable exception. Here, we report the improvement of the killing activity of the Cpl-7 endolysin by inversion of the sign of the charge of the cell wall-binding module (from -14.93 to +3.0 at neutral pH). The engineered variant, Cpl-7S, has 15 amino acid substitutions and an improved lytic activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae (including multiresistant strains), Streptococcus pyogenes, and other pathogens. Moreover, we have demonstrated that a single 25-μg dose of Cpl-7S significantly increased the survival rate of zebrafish embryos infected with S. pneumoniae or S. pyogenes, confirming the killing effect of Cpl-7S in vivo. Interestingly, Cpl-7S, in combination with 0.01% carvacrol (an essential oil), was also found to efficiently kill Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas putida, an effect not described previously. Our findings provide a strategy to improve the lytic activity of phage endolysins based on facilitating their pass through the negatively charged bacterial envelope, and thereby their interaction with the cell wall target, by modulating the net charge of the cell wall-binding modules.
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23
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Patterson H, Saralahti A, Parikka M, Dramsi S, Trieu-Cuot P, Poyart C, Rounioja S, Rämet M. Adult zebrafish model of bacterial meningitis in Streptococcus agalactiae infection. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 38:447-455. [PMID: 22867759 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2012.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Revised: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is the major cause of severe bacterial disease and meningitis in newborns. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has recently emerged as a valuable and powerful vertebrate model for the study of human streptococcal infections. In the present study we demonstrate that adult zebrafish are susceptible to GBS infection through the intraperitoneal and intramuscular routes of infection. Following intraperitoneal challenge with GBS, zebrafish developed a fulminant infection 24-48 h post-injection, with signs of pathogenesis including severe inflammation at the injection site and meningoencephalitis. Quantification of blood and brain bacterial load confirmed that GBS is capable of replicating in the zebrafish bloodstream and penetrating the blood-brain barrier, resulting in the induction of host inflammatory immune responses in the brain. Additionally, we show that GBS mutants previously described as avirulent in the mice model, have an impaired ability to cause meningitis in this new in vivo model. Taken together, our data demonstrates that adult zebrafish may be used as a bacterial meningitis model as a means for deciphering the pathogenesis and development of invasive GBS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley Patterson
- Institute of Biomedical Technology, BioMediTech, University of Tampere, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
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24
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Abstract
Streptococcus iniae causes systemic infection characterized by meningitis and sepsis. Here, we report a larval zebrafish model of S. iniae infection. Injection of wild-type S. iniae into the otic vesicle induced a lethal infection by 24 h postinfection. In contrast, an S. iniae mutant deficient in polysaccharide capsule (cpsA mutant) was not lethal, with greater than 90% survival at 24 h postinfection. Live imaging demonstrated that both neutrophils and macrophages were recruited to localized otic infection with mutant and wild-type S. iniae and were able to phagocytose bacteria. Depletion of neutrophils and macrophages impaired host survival following infection with wild-type S. iniae and the cpsA mutant, suggesting that leukocytes are critical for host survival in the presence of both the wild-type and mutant bacteria. However, zebrafish larvae with impaired neutrophil function but normal macrophage function had increased susceptibility to wild-type bacteria but not the cpsA mutant. Taking these findings together, we have developed a larval zebrafish model of S. iniae infection and have found that although neutrophils are important for controlling infection with wild-type S. iniae, neutrophils are not necessary for host defense against the cpsA mutant.
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25
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Li YJ, Hu B. Establishment of Multi-Site Infection Model in Zebrafish Larvae for Studying Staphylococcus aureus Infectious Disease. J Genet Genomics 2012; 39:521-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jgg.2012.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Revised: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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26
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Lü AJ, Hu XC, Wang Y, Ming QL, Hu HX. Immune response in the skin of zebrafish, Danio rerio (Hamilton), against Staphylococcus chromogenes. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2012; 35:699-704. [PMID: 22537075 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2012.01371.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A-J Lü
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China.
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27
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Zhang Z, Wu H, Xiao J, Wang Q, Liu Q, Zhang Y. Immune responses of zebrafish (Danio rerio) induced by bath-vaccination with a live attenuated Vibrio anguillarum vaccine candidate. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 33:36-41. [PMID: 22507197 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A fish vaccine candidate, live attenuated Vibrio anguillarum, which can protect fish from vibriosis, was established in our laboratory. In this study, the protective immunological mechanism of live attenuated V. anguillarum was investigated in zebrafish as a model animal. After bath-vaccinated with the live attenuated strain, zebrafish were challenged with wild pathogenic strain to test the immunoprotection of the live attenuated strain. As the results, specific antibody response of fish against V. anguillarum was found to gradually increase during 28 days post-vaccination, and remarkable protection was showed with a high relative protection survival (RPS) of about 90%. Moreover, the vaccination changed the expressions of several immune-related genes in the spleens and livers of zebrafish. Among them, the expressions of pro-inflammatory factors such as IL-1 and IL-8 were tenderly up-regulated with about 3-4 fold in 1-7 days post-vaccination, while MHC II rose to a peak level of 4-fold in 7th day post-vaccination. These results gave some important messages about the mechanism of specific protection induced by live attenuated V. anguillarum and showed the availability of zebrafish model in the evaluation of the vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, PR China
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28
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Rounioja S, Saralahti A, Rantala L, Parikka M, Henriques-Normark B, Silvennoinen O, Rämet M. Defense of zebrafish embryos against Streptococcus pneumoniae infection is dependent on the phagocytic activity of leukocytes. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 36:342-348. [PMID: 21658407 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2011] [Revised: 05/18/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Severe community acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of death from infection in developing countries. Serotype specific conjugate vaccines have decreased the incidence of invasive infections, but at the same time, disease due to non-vaccine serotypes have increased. New insights into host immune mechanisms against pneumococcus may provide better treatment and prevention strategies. Zebrafish is an attractive vertebrate model for studying host immune responses and infection biology. Here we show that an intravenous challenge with pneumococcus infects zebrafish embryos leading to death in a dose dependent manner. Survival rates correlate with the bacterial burden in the embryos. The production of proinflammatory cytokines is induced in zebrafish after pneumococcal exposure. Importantly, morpholino treated embryos lacking either myeloid cells or the ability to phagocytose bacteria have lowered survival rates compared to wild type embryos after pneumococcal challenge. These data suggest that the survival of zebrafish embryos upon intravenous infection with S. pneumoniae is dependent on the clearance of the bacteria by phagocytosing cells. Additionally, we demonstrate that mutant pneumococci lacking known virulence factors are attenuated in the zebrafish model. Our data demonstrate that zebrafish embryos can be used for study innate immune responses as well as virulence determinants in pneumococcal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuli Rounioja
- Institute of Biomedical Technology, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.
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29
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Abstract
Zoonotic infections caused by Streptococcus spp. have been neglected in spite of the fact that frequency and severity of outbreaks increased dramatically in recent years. This may be due to non-identification since respective species are often not considered in human medical diagnostic procedures. On the other hand, an expanding human population concomitant with an increasing demand for food and the increased number of companion animals favour conditions for host species adaptation of animal streptococci. This review aims to give an overview on streptococcal zoonoses with focus on epidemiology and pathogenicity of four major zoonotic species, Streptococcus canis, Streptococcus equi sub. zooepidemicus, Streptococcus iniae and Streptococcus suis.
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30
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Borst LB, Patterson SK, Lanka S, Suyemoto MM, Maddox CW. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a screen for attenuation of Lancefield group C streptococci and a model for streptococcal pathogenesis. Vet Pathol 2011; 50:457-67. [PMID: 21997564 DOI: 10.1177/0300985811424731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Group C streptococci are highly contagious pyogenic bacteria responsible for respiratory tract, lymph node, urogenital tract, and wound infections. Wild-type strains of Streptococcus equi ssp equi (S. equi) and Streptococcus equi ssp zooepidemicus (S. zoo) as well as a commercially available modified live vaccine strain of S. equi were evaluated for virulence in zebrafish. Survival times, histologic lesions, and relative gene expression were compared among groups. Based on the intramuscular route of infection, significantly shorter survival times were observed in fish infected with wild-type strain when compared to modified live vaccine and S. zoo strains. Histologically, S. zoo-infected fish demonstrated a marked increase in inflammatory infiltrates (predominantly macrophages) at the site of infection, as well as increased cellularity in the spleen and renal interstitium. In contrast, minimal cellular immune response was observed in S. equi-injected fish with local tissue necrosis and edema predominating. Based on whole comparative genomic hybridization, increased transcription of positive acute-phase proteins, coagulation factors, and antimicrobial peptides were observed in S. equi-injected fish relative to S. zoo-injected fish, while mediators of cellular inflammation, including CXC chemokines and granulin, were upregulated in S. zoo-injected fish relative to S. equi-injected fish. In a screen of 11 clinical isolates, S. equi strains with a single nucleotide deletion in the upstream region of szp, a known virulence factor of streptococci, were found to be significantly attenuated in zebrafish. These collective findings underscore the value of the zebrafish as a model of streptococcal pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L B Borst
- North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 4700 Hillsborough Street, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA.
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31
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Meijer AH, Spaink HP. Host-pathogen interactions made transparent with the zebrafish model. Curr Drug Targets 2011; 12:1000-17. [PMID: 21366518 PMCID: PMC3319919 DOI: 10.2174/138945011795677809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2010] [Accepted: 10/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The zebrafish holds much promise as a high-throughput drug screening model for immune-related diseases, including inflammatory and infectious diseases and cancer. This is due to the excellent possibilities for in vivo imaging in combination with advanced tools for genomic and large scale mutant analysis. The context of the embryo’s developing immune system makes it possible to study the contribution of different immune cell types to disease progression. Furthermore, due to the temporal separation of innate immunity from adaptive responses, zebrafish embryos and larvae are particularly useful for dissecting the innate host factors involved in pathology. Recent studies have underscored the remarkable similarity of the zebrafish and human immune systems, which is important for biomedical applications. This review is focused on the use of zebrafish as a model for infectious diseases, with emphasis on bacterial pathogens. Following a brief overview of the zebrafish immune system and the tools and methods used to study host-pathogen interactions in zebrafish, we discuss the current knowledge on receptors and downstream signaling components that are involved in the zebrafish embryo’s innate immune response. We summarize recent insights gained from the use of bacterial infection models, particularly the Mycobacterium marinum model, that illustrate the potential of the zebrafish model for high-throughput antimicrobial drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemarie H Meijer
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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32
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Verduzco D, Amatruda JF. Analysis of cell proliferation, senescence, and cell death in zebrafish embryos. Methods Cell Biol 2011; 101:19-38. [PMID: 21550438 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-387036-0.00002-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Proper control of cell proliferation is critical for normal development, growth, differentiation, and tissue homeostasis. Dysregulation of cell division and cell death underlies almost all cancers, and contributes to the pathology of birth defects and degenerative diseases. The zebrafish has proved to be an excellent system for elucidating the roles of the cell cycle in normal development, and ways in which dysregulation of cell proliferation contributes to disease. This chapter describes the methods for studying the cell cycle in zebrafish embryos, including protocols to examine cell proliferation, DNA damage, senescence, and cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Verduzco
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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33
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Silva-Cardoso L, Caccin P, Magnabosco A, Patrón M, Targino M, Fuly A, Oliveira GA, Pereira MH, do Carmo MDGT, Souza AS, Silva-Neto MAC, Montecucco C, Atella GC. Paralytic activity of lysophosphatidylcholine from saliva of the waterbug Belostoma anurum. J Exp Biol 2010; 213:3305-10. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.041954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) is a major bioactive lipid that is enzymatically generated by phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Previously, we showed that LPC is present in the saliva of the blood-sucking hemipteran Rhodnius prolixus and modulates cell-signaling pathways involved in vascular biology, which aids blood feeding. Here, we show that the saliva of the predator insect Belostoma anurum contains a large number of lipids with LPC accounting for 25% of the total phospholipids. A PLA2 enzyme likely to be involved in LPC generation was characterized. The activity of this enzyme is 5-fold higher in Belostoma saliva than in other studied hemipterans, suggesting a close association with the predator feeding habits of this insect. Belostoma employs extra-oral digestion, which allows for ingestion of larger prey than itself, including small vertebrates such as amphibians and fish. Therefore, prey immobilization during digestion is essential, and we show here that Belostoma saliva and B. anurum saliva purified LPC have paralytic activity in zebrafish. This is the first evidence that lysophospholipids might play an important role in prey immobilization, in addition to contributing to blood feeding, and might have been an evolutionary acquisition that occurred long before the appearance of hematophagy in this animal group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lívia Silva-Cardoso
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, PO Box 68041, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, Av. Bauhínia 400, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21941-590, RJ, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Paola Caccin
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Anna Magnabosco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Patrón
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Mariane Targino
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, PO Box 68041, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, Av. Bauhínia 400, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21941-590, RJ, Brazil
| | - André Fuly
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, UFF, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Giselle A. Oliveira
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, PO Box 68041, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, Av. Bauhínia 400, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21941-590, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcos H. Pereira
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Amanda S. Souza
- Instituto de Nutrição, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Mário A. C. Silva-Neto
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, PO Box 68041, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, Av. Bauhínia 400, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21941-590, RJ, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Georgia C. Atella
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, PO Box 68041, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, Av. Bauhínia 400, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21941-590, RJ, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
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34
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Specific resistance to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in zebrafish is mediated by the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. Infect Immun 2010; 78:4542-50. [PMID: 20732993 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00302-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease caused by recessive mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene and is associated with prevalent and chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infections. Despite numerous studies that have sought to elucidate the role of CFTR in the innate immune response, the links between CFTR, innate immunity, and P. aeruginosa infection remain unclear. The present work highlights the zebrafish as a powerful model organism for human infectious disease, particularly infection by P. aeruginosa. Zebrafish embryos with reduced expression of the cftr gene (Cftr morphants) exhibited reduced respiratory burst response and directed neutrophil migration, supporting a connection between cftr and the innate immune response. Cftr morphants were infected with P. aeruginosa or other bacterial species that are commonly associated with infections in CF patients, including Burkholderia cenocepacia, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. Intriguingly, the bacterial burden of P. aeruginosa was found to be significantly higher in zebrafish Cftr morphants than in controls, but this phenomenon was not observed with the other bacterial species. Bacterial burden in Cftr morphants infected with a P. aeruginosa ΔLasR mutant, a quorum sensing-deficient strain, was comparable to that in control fish, indicating that the regulation of virulence factors through LasR is required for enhancement of infection in the absence of Cftr. The zebrafish system provides a multitude of advantages for studying the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa and for understanding the role that innate immune cells, such as neutrophils, play in the host response to acute bacterial infections commonly associated with cystic fibrosis.
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35
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Identification of a Novel Virulence-Related Gene in Streptococcus suis Type 2 Strains. Curr Microbiol 2010; 61:494-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-010-9643-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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36
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Phelps HA, Runft DL, Neely MN. Adult zebrafish model of streptococcal infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; Chapter 9:Unit 9D.1. [PMID: 19412913 DOI: 10.1002/9780471729259.mc09d01s13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcal pathogens cause a wide array of clinical syndromes in humans, including invasive systemic infections resulting in high mortality rates. Many of these pathogens are human specific, and therefore difficult to analyze in vivo using typical animal models, as these models rarely replicate what is observed in human infections. This unit describes the use of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) as an animal model for streptococcal infection to analyze multiple disease states. This model closely mimics the necrotizing fasciitis/myositis pathology observed in humans from a Streptococcus pyogenes infection. The use of a zoonotic pathogen, Streptococcus iniae, which replicates systemic infections caused by many streptococcal pathogens, including dissemination to the brain, is also described. Protocols describing both intraperitoneal and intramuscular infections, as well as methods for histological and quantitative measurements of infection, are also described.
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37
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Walters KB, Dodd ME, Mathias JR, Gallagher AJ, Bennin DA, Rhodes J, Kanki JP, Look AT, Grinblat Y, Huttenlocher A. Muscle degeneration and leukocyte infiltration caused by mutation of zebrafish Fad24. Dev Dyn 2009; 238:86-99. [PMID: 19097072 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Factor for adipocyte differentiation 24 (fad24) is a novel gene that has been implicated in adipocyte differentiation and DNA replication. In a screen for zebrafish mutants that have an abnormal tissue distribution of neutrophils, we identified an insertional allele of fad24, fad24hi1019. Homozygous fad24hi1019 larvae exhibit muscle degeneration accompanied by leukocyte infiltration. Muscle degeneration was extensive and included tissue apoptosis and disorganized, poorly striated muscle fibers. Blocking apoptosis using pan-caspase inhibitors resulted in decreased neutrophil recruitment into the body of the larva, suggesting a causative link between apoptosis and leukocyte infiltration. These findings suggest that zebrafish is a powerful genetic model system to address the interplay between muscle degeneration and leukocyte infiltration, and indicate that tissue apoptosis may contribute to neutrophil recruitment in some inflammatory states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin B Walters
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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38
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Zebrafish kidney phagocytes utilize macropinocytosis and Ca+-dependent endocytic mechanisms. PLoS One 2009; 4:e4314. [PMID: 19183805 PMCID: PMC2629567 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2008] [Accepted: 12/17/2008] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The innate immune response constitutes the first line of defense against invading pathogens and consists of a variety of immune defense mechanisms including active endocytosis by macrophages and granulocytes. Endocytosis can be used as a reliable measure of selective and non-selective mechanisms of antigen uptake in the early phase of an immune response. Numerous assays have been developed to measure this response in a variety of mammalian and fish species. The small size of the zebrafish has prevented the large-scale collection of monocytes/macrophages and granulocytes for these endocytic assays. Methodology/Principal Findings Pooled zebrafish kidney hematopoietic tissues were used as a source of phagocytic cells for flow-cytometry based endocytic assays. FITC-Dextran, Lucifer Yellow and FITC-Edwardsiella ictaluri were used to evaluate selective and non-selective mechanisms of uptake in zebrafish phagocytes. Conclusions/Significance Zebrafish kidney phagocytes characterized as monocytes/macrophages, neutrophils and lymphocytes utilize macropinocytosis and Ca2+-dependant endocytosis mechanisms of antigen uptake. These cells do not appear to utilize a mannose receptor. Heat-killed Edwardsiella ictaluri induces cytoskeletal interactions for internalization in zebrafish kidney monocytes/macrophages and granulocytes. The proposed method is easy to implement and should prove especially useful in immunological, toxicological and epidemiological research.
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39
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Castro SBR, Leal CAG, Freire FR, Carvalho DA, Oliveira DF, Figueiredo HCP. Antibacterial activity of plant extracts from Brazil against fish pathogenic bacteria. Braz J Microbiol 2008; 39:756-60. [PMID: 24031303 PMCID: PMC3768474 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-838220080004000030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2008] [Accepted: 10/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to evaluate the antibacterial activity of Brazilian plants extracts against fish pathogenic bacteria. Forty six methanolic extracts were screened to identify their antibacterial properties against Streptococcus agalactiae, Flavobacterium columnare and Aeromonas hydrophila. Thirty one extracts showed antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- S B R Castro
- AQUAVET - Laboratório de Doenças de Animais Aquáticos, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Lavras , Lavras, MG , Brasil
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40
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Host immune response and acute disease in a zebrafish model of Francisella pathogenesis. Infect Immun 2008; 77:914-25. [PMID: 19047404 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01201-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the bacterial genus Francisella are highly virulent and infectious pathogens. New models to study Francisella pathogenesis in evolutionarily distinct species are needed to provide comparative insight, as the mechanisms of host resistance and pathogen virulence are not well understood. We took advantage of the recent discovery of a novel species of Francisella to establish a zebrafish/Francisella comparative model of pathogenesis and host immune response. Adult zebrafish were susceptible to acute Francisella-induced disease and suffered mortality in a dose-dependent manner. Using immunohistochemical analysis, we localized bacterial antigens primarily to lymphoid tissues and livers of zebrafish following infection by intraperitoneal injection, which corresponded to regions of local cellular necrosis. Francisella sp. bacteria replicated rapidly in these tissues beginning 12 h postinfection, and bacterial titers rose steadily, leveled off, and then decreased by 7 days postinfection. Zebrafish mounted a significant tissue-specific proinflammatory response to infection as measured by the upregulation of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), gamma interferon, and tumor necrosis factor alpha mRNA beginning by 6 h postinfection and persisting for up to 7 days postinfection. In addition, exposure of zebrafish to heat-killed bacteria demonstrated that the significant induction of IL-1beta was highly specific to live bacteria. Taken together, the pathology and immune response to acute Francisella infection in zebrafish share many features with those in mammals, highlighting the usefulness of this new model system for addressing both general and specific questions about Francisella host-pathogen interactions via an evolutionary approach.
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41
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Sullivan C, Kim CH. Zebrafish as a model for infectious disease and immune function. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 25:341-350. [PMID: 18640057 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2008.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2008] [Accepted: 05/13/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The zebrafish, Danio rerio, has come to the forefront of biomedical research as a powerful model for the study of development, neurobiology, and genetics of humans. In recent years, use of the zebrafish system has extended into studies in behaviour, immunology and toxicology, retaining the concept that it will serve as a model for human disease. As one of the most thoroughly studied teleosts, with a wealth of genetic and genomic information available, the zebrafish is now being considered as a model for pathogen studies in finfishes. Its genome is currently being sequenced and annotated, and gene microarrays and insertional mutants are commercially available. The use of gene-specific knockdown of translation through morpholino oligonucleotides is widespread. As a result, several laboratories have developed bacterial and viral disease models with the zebrafish to study immune responses to infection. Although many of the zebrafish pathogen models were developed to address human infectious disease, the results of these studies should provide important clues for the development of effective vaccines and prophylactic measures against bacterial and viral pathogens in economically important fishes. In this review, the capabilities and potential of the zebrafish model system will be discussed and an overview of information on zebrafish infectious disease models will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Con Sullivan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA
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42
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Phelps HA, Neely MN. Evolution of the zebrafish model: from development to immunity and infectious disease. Zebrafish 2008; 2:87-103. [PMID: 18248169 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2005.2.87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The successful zebrafish developmental model has now expanded to being used as a model for the analysis of host-pathogen interactions during infectious disease. Numerous pathogens have been demonstrated to infect zebrafish and new mechanisms of virulence, as well as host defense have been uncovered using this new model. In this review we summarize the literature on how the zebrafish infectious disease model is being used to decipher virulence mechanisms used by various pathogens and the host defense mechanisms initiated to combat infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary A Phelps
- Immunology and Microbiology Department, Wayne State School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
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43
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Meeker ND, Trede NS. Immunology and zebrafish: spawning new models of human disease. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 32:745-57. [PMID: 18222541 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2007.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2007] [Revised: 11/27/2007] [Accepted: 11/27/2007] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The zebrafish has emerged as a powerful new vertebrate model of human disease. Initially prominent in developmental biology, the zebrafish has now been adopted into varied fields of study including immunology. In this review, we describe the characteristics of the zebrafish, which make it a versatile model, including a description of its immune system with its remarkable similarities to its mammalian counterparts. We review the zebrafish disease models of innate and adaptive immunity. Models of immune system malignancies are discussed that are either based on oncogene over-expression or on our own forward-genetic screen that was designed to identify new models of immune dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan D Meeker
- The Department of Pediatrics and the Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Suite 4265, 2000 Circle of Hope, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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44
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Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens release soluble proteins, referred to as toxins, which damage host cells during disease. In the past, bacterial toxins have been studied extensively using cultured cells, and in vitro biochemical systems. However, little is known about the types of cells targeted by toxins during the disease process while within the host. This has limited our understanding of these important virulence factors. To address this problem, we have recently used transparent zebrafish embryos to follow toxin activity in a multiorgan system in real-time. Zebrafish provide many advantages over more traditional animal models, since major organs can be directly visualized by light microscopy. This allows one to follow toxin activity and organ damage as it occurs following intoxication. As proof-of-principle, we have recently exploited the zebrafish embryo to identify the activities of Clostridium difficile toxin B, an intracellular bacterial toxin. By using the zebrafish system we have been able to identify a major organ, the heart, targeted by this toxin.
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45
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Rojo I, de Ilárduya OM, Estonba A, Pardo MA. Innate immune gene expression in individual zebrafish after Listonella anguillarum inoculation. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 23:1285-93. [PMID: 17804254 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2007.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2007] [Revised: 06/18/2007] [Accepted: 07/10/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Zebrafish were intraperitoneally injected with 10(6)CFU (LD50) Listonella anguillarum. Three inoculated and control fish were collected at 1, 2, 4, 6 and 22h post infection (hpi) and the expression of genes related to the immune response (il1b, cebpb, tfa, mpx, tnfa, nitr9, tlr22, hsc70, cp, mrlp1, c3b and lyz) in each fish was monitored by means of real-time RT-PCR. A similar experiment was performed considering an intermediate time point at 15 hpi. Different relative levels of expression were found among genes. Also, wide interindividual variation in gene expression for most genes was detected among fish, inoculated or not. A steady increase of expression starting from the initial stages of the interaction was found for interleukin-1beta. An initial increase in levels of gene expression was found for the genes coding for the CCAAT/Enhancer Binding Protein subunit beta and the Novel Immune-Type Receptor 9, although their levels decreased later on and were indistinguishable from the controls at 22 hpi. Finally, some genes (Transferrin, Myeloid-specific Peroxidase and Tumour Necrosis Factor alpha) were upregulated at 22 hpi. Taken together, our results show an induction in gene expression of genes involved in the inflammatory and immune response upon L. anguillarum infection but also reveal the existence of a wide variation in the levels of expression of the studied genes in the zebrafish population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irune Rojo
- AZTI-Tecnalia, Food Research Unit, Txatxarramendi Ugartea z/g, E-48395 Sukarrieta, Bizkaia, Spain
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Lowe BA, Miller JD, Neely MN. Analysis of the polysaccharide capsule of the systemic pathogen Streptococcus iniae and its implications in virulence. Infect Immun 2006; 75:1255-64. [PMID: 17194809 PMCID: PMC1828557 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01484-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic pathogens have developed numerous strategies for evading the defenses of the host, permitting dissemination and multiplication in various tissues. One means of survival in the host, particularly in the bloodstream, has been attributed to the ability to avoid phagocytosis via capsular polysaccharide. To further define the virulence capacity of Streptococcus iniae, a zoonotic pathogen with the ability to cause severe systemic disease in both fish and humans, we performed an analysis of the capsule locus. The initial analysis included cloning and sequencing of the capsule synthesis operon, which revealed an approximately 21-kb region that is highly homologous to capsule operons of other streptococci. A genetic comparison of S. iniae virulent strain 9117 and commensal strain 9066 revealed that the commensal strain does not have the central region of the capsule operon composed of several important capsule synthesis genes. Four 9117 insertion or deletion mutants with mutations in the beginning, middle, or end of the capsule locus were analyzed to determine their capsule production and virulence. Virulence profiles were analyzed for each mutant using three separate criteria, which demonstrated the attenuation of each mutant in several tissue environments. These analyses also provided insight into the different responses of the host to each mutant strain compared to a wild-type infection. Our results demonstrate that capsule is not required for all host environments, while excess capsule is also not optimal, suggesting that for an "ideal" systemic infection, capsule production is most likely regulated while the bacterium is in different environments of the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth A Lowe
- Wayne State School of Medicine, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, 540 E. Canfield, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
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Hamm EE, Voth DE, Ballard JD. Identification of Clostridium difficile toxin B cardiotoxicity using a zebrafish embryo model of intoxication. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:14176-81. [PMID: 16966605 PMCID: PMC1599930 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0604725103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile toxin B (TcdB) has been studied extensively by using cell-free systems and tissue culture, but, like many bacterial toxins, the in vivo targets of TcdB are unknown and have been difficult to elucidate with traditional animal models. In the current study, the transparent Danio rerio (zebrafish) embryo was used as a model for imaging of in vivo TcdB localization and organ-specific damage in real time. At 24 h after treatment, TcdB was found to localize at the pericardial region, and zebrafish exhibited the first signs of cardiovascular damage, including a 90% reduction in systemic blood flow and a 20% reduction in heart rate. Within 72 h of exposure to TcdB, the ventricle chamber of the heart became deformed and was unable to contract or pump blood, and the fish exhibited extensive pericardial edema. In line with the observed defects in ventricle contraction, TcdB was found to directly disrupt coordinated contractility and rhythmicity in primary cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, using a caspase-3 inhibitor, we were able to block TcdB-related cardiovascular damage and prevent zebrafish death. These findings present an insight into the in vivo targets of TcdB, as well as demonstrate the strength of the zebrafish embryo as a tractable model for identification of in vivo targets of bacterial toxins and evaluation of novel candidate therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine E. Hamm
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Daniel E. Voth
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Jimmy D. Ballard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Wiles S, Hanage WP, Frankel G, Robertson B. Modelling infectious disease — time to think outside the box? Nat Rev Microbiol 2006; 4:307-12. [PMID: 16518420 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Models occupy an essential position in the study of infectious disease as a result of the ethical problems of exposing humans to potentially lethal agents. Deliberately induced infections in well-defined animal models provide much useful information about disease processes in an approximation of their natural context. Despite this, animal models are not the natural disease process, and recent experimental advances show, perhaps not unsurprisingly, that there are large differences between natural infections and animal models. Focusing on mouse models of bacterial pathogens, we discuss some of these discrepancies and suggest ways of improving model systems in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siouxsie Wiles
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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49
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Aleström P, Holter JL, Nourizadeh-Lillabadi R. Zebrafish in functional genomics and aquatic biomedicine. Trends Biotechnol 2006; 24:15-21. [PMID: 16309768 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2005] [Revised: 09/01/2005] [Accepted: 11/10/2005] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has many features that make it an ideal model for the study of developmental biology. It is small and easy to contain, it has transparent embryos, it is easy to breed and its early development is well characterized; these same characteristics have also made it an ideal vertebrate model in the areas of biomedicine and biotechnology. In aquaculture, the need for a well-characterized fish model has been satisfied by the zebrafish owing to the availability of functional genomics and molecular biology data to facilitate studies of growth, reproduction, meat quality and disease biology, with the corresponding development of vaccines and therapies. Zebrafish are also increasingly used in toxicogenomics to analyze the effects of toxins and pollutants in the environment, and for creating biomonitors that emit alarm signals when a toxic compound is detected. As detailed in this review, the zebrafish is a versatile and well-characterized model with applications in many fields of study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Aleström
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, PO Box 8146 Dep, N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Casadevall
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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