MMORPG gaming and hostility predict Internet Addiction symptoms in adolescents: An empirical multilevel longitudinal study

Adverse childhood experience and young adult's problematic Internet use: The role of hostility and loneliness

BACKGROUND

Few studies have explored the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and problematic Internet use (PIU) during young adulthood. Moreover, even fewer studies have explored the roles of loneliness (social and emotional) and hostility in this relationship.

METHODS

This study used data from the Taiwan Youth Project (2011-2017). The analytical sample included 1885 participants (mean age = 31.3 years). PIU was measured using the short form of Chen's Internet Addiction Scale (2017). ACEs were assessed at the baseline of the adolescent phase (mean age = 14.3 years); this indicator has undergone recent revision. Hostility (three items from the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised) and loneliness (six items from the De Jong Gierveld scale) were measured in 2011 and 2014, respectively.

RESULTS

ACEs were associated with hostility and loneliness (emotional and social). Additionally, hostility (β = 0.62, p < .01) and emotional loneliness (β = 0.44, p < .01) were significantly associated with PIU. Most mediating paths (e.g., ACE → hostility → PIU) were significant, based on the bootstrapping results.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that ACEs have a long-term shadow effect on PIU in young adults. ACEs show an indirect association with PIU through both hostility and loneliness, as well as involving the relationship between them.

Social norms and problematic gaming among adolescents: The role of Internet use coping motives

INTRODUCTION

Problematic gaming (PG) is a public health issue among adolescents worldwide. Although several studies have documented that peer influences constitute a relevant risk factor for adolescent problematic behaviors, little research is currently available on PG. The aim of this study was to examine the contribution of social norms and perceived friends' gaming frequency on participants' own gaming frequency and PG, by testing potential differences among groups with low vs. high motive to use the Internet (e.g., online gaming) as a coping strategy.

METHOD

A survey was administered to 470 adolescent gamers (mean age = 15.49 years; SD = 1.05 years; 77.9 % males). A theoretical model was tested through path analysis and multi-group comparisons were performed.

RESULTS

Path analysis revealed that social norms and perceived friends' gaming frequency were positively associated to participants' gaming behaviors and PG. Additionally, different patterns between groups emerged.

CONCLUSION

Our findings confirmed the relative importance of peer influences on adolescents' gaming behaviors and PG and showed that adolescents who rely more on online gaming to cope with negative affect may be more vulnerable to social influence processes than other peers. These findings may provide useful indications for prevention programs targeting adolescent PG.

Investigating links between Internet literacy, Internet use, and Internet addiction among Chinese youth and adolescents in the digital age

Introduction

In current digital era, adolescents' Internet use has increased exponentially, with the Internet playing a more and more important role in their education and entertainment. However, due to the ongoing cognitive, emotion, and social development processes, youth and adolescents are more vulnerable to Internet addiction. Attention has been paid to the increased use of Internet during the COVID-19 pandemic and the influence of Internet literacy in prevention and intervention of Internet addiction.

Methods

The present study proposes a conceptual model to investigate the links between Internet literacy, Internet use of different purpose and duration, and Internet addiction among Chinese youth and adolescents. In this study, N = 2,276 adolescents studying in primary and secondary schools in East China were recruited, and they completed self-reports on sociodemographic characteristics, Internet literacy scale, Internet use, and Internet addiction scale.

Results

The results showed a significant relationship between Internet use and Internet addiction. To be specific, the duration of Internet use significantly and positively affected Internet addiction. With different dimensions of Internet literacy required, entertainment-oriented Internet use had positive impact on Internet addiction, while education-oriented Internet use exerted negative effects on Internet addiction. As for Internet literacy, knowledge and skills for Internet (positively) and Internet self-management (negatively) significantly influenced the likelihood of Internet addiction.

Discussion

The findings suggest that Internet overuse increases the risk of Internet addiction in youth and adolescents, while entertainment-oriented rather than education-oriented Internet use is addictive. The role of Internet literacy is complicated, with critical Internet literacy preventing the development of Internet addiction among youth and adolescents, while functional Internet literacy increasing the risk.

A Psychoanalytic Approach to Internet Gaming Disorder

BACKGROUND

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) is now an official diagnosis and significant public health challenges have been already identified regarding the provision of appropriate care to patients of all ages and the preparedness of mental health professionals to manage the disorder. Despite the existence of psychotherapeutic treatment modalities available for some time now, there is a paucity of any psychoanalytically driven treatments and the disorder is widely regarded and classified as being 'behavioral'. This has profound implications for patients with long-standing character pathology and psychiatric comorbidities, who are underserved by the provision of health services that could efficiently address their issues.

METHODS

This study presents a psychoanalytic perspective on IGD, based on Kohut's Self Psychology as applied in the treatment of other addictions. An outline of the theory, assessment and treatment modalities is presented with two case reports that illustrate its application.

RESULTS

The presentation outlines the challenges in treating IGD, expanding on the concept of guided imagery, resistance to treatment, selfobject transference and comorbidity with marijuana use and bipolar disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

A psychoanalytically driven protocol can be effective in treating IGD, especially in cases with marked character pathology and low motive to engage in other treatment modalities.

Cross-Cultural Efficacy of the Acceptance and Cognitive Restructuring Intervention Program (ACRIP) on the Internet Gaming Disorder Symptoms of Selected Asian Adolescents

Empirical evidence shows that Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) with poor psychological well-being increases. IGD has become an emerging issue of significant public health concern and the World Health Organization has recently recognized it as a mental health condition. This study examined the efficacy of the Acceptance and Cognitive Restructuring Intervention Program (ACRIP) in reducing the symptoms of IGD and improving the psychological well-being of adolescent gamers from select Asian cultures after proving it effective in a prior study in the Indian setting. The development of the ACRIP employed a sequential exploratory research design and randomized controlled trial on thirty participants. Internet Gaming Disorder (IGDS9-SF) and Ryff's Psychological well-being (PWB) scales were used to measure the severity of the gaming disorder and the state of psychological health of the experimental and control groups. Power analysis ascertained the study with a power of 0.90, indicating a strong probability of obtaining a statistically significant effect. Statistical analyses using paired t-test and MANOVA on post-test mean scores on IGD and PWB of the experimental group showed a significant difference which suggested that the ACRIP is efficacious and culture-free.

Childhood trauma and problematic internet use: A meta-analysis based on students in mainland China

Background

In recent years, the relationship between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use has been widely studied by scholars, but the research conclusions on the relationship between them are not consistent. Some studies report that childhood trauma and problematic Internet use are significantly correlated. However, others believe that there is a weak correlation between them. So the relationship between them needs to be studied further. The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use, and the effects of some moderating variables on both for students in Mainland China.

Methods

This study followed the requirements of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) statement for literature screening. We searched the related studies on childhood trauma and problematic Internet use in Mainland China from January 2009 to November 2022 from CNKI, Wanfang Data, Chongqing VIP Information Co., Ltd. (VIP), Baidu scholar, ProQuest dissertations, SAGE Online Journals, Elsevier SDOL, Taylor &amp; Francis, Springer, Web of Science, Google Scholar, EBSCO, Medline, Scopus Database, PubMed Central, Embase, The Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, CMA 3.0 was used to analyse the overall effect and test the moderating effect.

Results

Among the papers included in the meta-analysis in this study, 31 papers reflected the relationship between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use, involving 52,503 subjects, and the sample size ranged from 388 to 16,130. This relationship between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use can be considered as a moderate correlation (r = 0.281, 95%CI[0.221, 0.338], p &lt; 0.001). The results showed that the relationship between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use was affected by different problematic Internet use measures. Meanwhile, meta-regression demonstrated that the relationship between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use was moderated by survey’s year. Specifically, the correlation coefficient between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use also increases with increasing year. However, the relationship between childhood trauma and problematic Internet use was not affected by the region, grade, childhood trauma measures, publication source.

Conclusion

Childhood trauma is closely related to problematic Internet use. In order to reduce problematic Internet use, corresponding prevention and intervention measures should be taken.

Online gaming addiction in youth: Some comments on Rosendo-Rios et al. (2022)

A recent systematic review examining online gaming addiction among children and young adults was published in Addictive Behaviors (i.e., Rosendo-Rios, Trott & Shukla, 2022). However, dozens of papers were missing from the review. One of the reasons why so many studies were not in the review is likely to be because of the search terms used. None of the search terms included the words 'adolescent', 'adolescence', 'emerging adults', 'excessive gaming', 'gaming disorder', 'video game addiction' or 'problematic gaming'. Moreover, studies were also included in the review if the mean age of the total sample was 25 years or below. This meant that some studies in the review included some participants who were not children, adolescents or emerging adults. It also meant that many studies were not included that had mean ages below the age of 26 years because they were not picked up by the search strategy. Given the high number of studies that were not included in the review, readers should view this systematic review as 'suggestive' of research in the area of problematic gaming in youth rather than 'definitive'.

Sexual Differences in Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD): From Psychological Features to Neuroanatomical Networks

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has been included in the 2013 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) as a condition in need of further study, and gaming disorder was recognized by the World Health Organization as a mental disorder in the International Classification of Disease (ICD-11) of 2018. IGD has different characteristics in the two sexes and is more prevalent in males than females. However, even if the female gamer population is constantly growing, the majority of available studies analyzed only males, or the data were not analyzed by sex. To better elucidate sex differences in IGD, we selectively reviewed research publications that evaluated IGD separately for males and females collected in approximately one hundred publications over the past 20 years. The available data in this narrative review indicate that IGD is strongly dimorphic by sex for both its psychological features and the involvement of different brain areas. Impulsivity, low self-control, anxiety, emotion dysregulation, and depression are some of the psychological features associated with IGD that show a sex dimorphism. At the same time, IGD and its psychological alterations are strongly correlated to dimorphic functional characteristics in relevant brain areas, as evidenced by fMRI. More research is needed to better understand sex differences in IGD. Animal models could help to elucidate the neurological basis of this disorder.

Draconian policy measures are unlikely to prevent disordered gaming

In August of 2021, China imposed severe restrictions on children's online gaming time. We argue that such a policy may seem useful on the surface but does not reflect the current evidence concerning prevention of disordered gaming. Videogame play is normal for children worldwide, and like other leisure activities can lead to benefits for the majority and problems for a minority. Problematic or disordered play results from the interaction of multiple risk factors that are not addressed by draconian policy measures. Identifying these factors through stakeholder-engaged research and current evidence will be much more likely to succeed in preventing disordered gaming and promoting youth wellbeing.

Risks and Opportunities for Youth in the Digital Era

Abstract. Due to continued groundbreaking digital advancements, Internet use has increased significantly. This has led to a heated debate in relation to weighing the many advantages of the technology against its potentially deleterious effects. To address such questions, experts converge on the need for greater knowledge around the way individual differences, partly shaped by an individual’s unique experiences of engaging with the medium, and partly by other real-life experiences, lead to different developmental trajectories. Consequently, the goals of the present review are to (i) broadly describe differences in digital media applications, users, and usage; (ii) introduce the Cyber-Developmental Framework (CDF), as an overarching framework for understanding individual differences in adaptive and maladaptive digital media use among youth; (iii) delineate the cyber-component of this framework in relation to users’ experience of the digital context, their activity within it, as well as their digital self-presence, which may have an impact on their digital media use; and (iv) summarize priorities and future directions through the lens of this CDF. Within this context, this review particularly emphasizes the effect of digital media use on youth’s psychological well-being. It is argued that the trajectory youth will follow in their use of the Internet is a function of the interplay between their characteristics, their proximate and distal contexts, and the particular features of the digital application(s) that the individual is engaged in. The review points to the need to conduct research focusing on better understanding the developmental and digital-context-related influences on youth’s trajectories of Internet use.

Could virtual reality applications pose real risks to children and adolescents? A systematic review of ethical issues and concerns

Virtual reality technologies (VRTs) are high-tech human-computer interfaces used to develop digital content and can be applied to multiple different areas, often offering innovative solutions to existing problems. A wide range of digital games is being also developed with VRTs and together with their components, the games' structural elements are appealing to children and engaging them more in virtual worlds. Our research interest is directed towards children's development and the effects of VRTs within gaming environments. Contemporary psychology studies perceive human development as a holistic and lifelong process with important interrelationships between physical, mental, social and emotional aspects. For the objectives and scope of this work, we examine children development across three domains: physical, cognitive and psychosocial. In this context, the authors review the literature on the impact of VRTs on children, in terms of software and hardware. Since research requires an wide-ranging approach, we study the evidence reported on the brain and neural structure, knowledge, behaviour, pedagogy, academic performance, and wellness. Our main concern is to outline the emerging ethical issues and worries of parents, educators, ophthalmologists, neurologists, psychologists, paediatricians and all relevant scientists, as well as the industry's views and actions. The systematic review was performed on the databases Scopus, IEEE Xplore, PubMed, and Google Scholar from 2010 to 2020 and 85 studies were selected. The review concluded that findings remain contradictory especially for the psychosocial domain. Official recommendations from organizations and well-documented researches by academics on child well-being are reassuring if health and safety specifications and particularly the time limit are met. Research is still ongoing, constantly updated and consist of a priority for the scientific community given that technology evolves.

What We Know About Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games

The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders defines internet gaming disorder without differentiating games from their respective genres, such as first-person shooter versus real-time strategy versus online gaming. Our review of the literature on massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) suggests that MMORPGs are different from other games because they are the most addictive, and therefore deserve to be looked at separately. MMORPGs are internet platforms for online users to interact with each other in a virtual story line. The overview of the existing literature delineates the positive and negative aspects of MMORPGs and also the available evidence on neuroscientific and neuroanatomical correlates between internet gaming disorder and other addictions. Evidence shows that a player's characteristics and motivations can determine his or her risk of developing problematic play. Problematic MMORPG use may lead to mental disorders such as depression and addiction, and can negatively affect quality of life, and vice versa. Conversely, some players may benefit from being part of a social community and from using it as a learning platform or as a safe space to explore gender-identity issues. Brain circuitry and metabolism are changed through problematic MMORPG use, with the affected areas including the ventral striatum and left angular gyrus.

The Association Between Generalized and Specific Problematic Internet Use and Its Gender Differences Across Different Educational Levels

This study had two aims: to test the effect and the effect size of specific problematic Internet use (SPIU) [online shopping, online pornography, social network site (SNS) usage, and Internet gaming] on generalized problematic Internet use (GPIU) and to reveal the gender differences in GPIU and SPIU for students from the elementary school level to the university level. In total, 5,215 Chinese students (2,303 males, mean age = 16.20 years, range = 10–23 years) from four types of schools (elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, and university) provided self-report data on demographic variables (gender and educational levels), online shopping, online pornography, SNS usage, Internet gaming, and GPIU. After calculations had been controlled for demographic variables, the results indicated that (i) online shopping, online pornography, SNS usage, and Internet gaming positively predicted GPIU—and Internet gaming was the most critical predictor of GPIU—and that (ii) gender differences were revealed in Internet gaming and GPIU in all educational levels, except at senior high school where the gender differences in GPIU were not significant. Significant gender differences were found for online shopping and online pornography for all educational levels above elementary school. These results provided further understanding of the association between GPIU and SPIU and gender differences in PIU, which suggested that gender differences across different educational levels should be considered in interventions of PIU.

Internet Gaming Disorder profiles and their associations with social engagement behaviours

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), describes the abuse of Internet games with detrimental impact to the real-life social engagement of some gamers. Indeed, evidence suggests that gamers differ on the severity and way in which they express IGD symptoms, as well as their social engagement behaviours. The present study aimed to: a) profile gamers regarding their experience of IGD symptoms and; b) examine how different IGD profiles varied on social engagement behaviours.

METHODS

A sample consisting of 1032 gamers (18-72 years, Mage = 24) was assessed with the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale 9 Items Short Form (IGDS9-SF) and social engagement questions regarding their participation in employment, education, romantic relationships and living status.

RESULTS

Latent class analyses (LCA) resulted in 4 distinct IGD classes. These entailed 'IGD aversive' (11.5%), 'Normative' (47.9%), 'Moderate IGD risk' (31.2%) and 'High IGD risk' (9.4%) gamers. The high IGD risk profile linked with higher unemployment, lower level of education and tended to live with divorced parents, friends and/or had transient accommodation.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that there are different IGD profiles driven by symptom severity, whilst gamers higher on IGD risk present with lower social engagement signs. Thus, social engagement and participation should be particularly targeted by IGD immunization and treatment protocols.

In search of the optimum structural model for Internet Gaming Disorder

BACKGROUND

Internet gaming Disorder (IGD) constitutes a recently proposed clinical disorder (American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 2013). The present study examined if IGD is best conceptualized as categorical (present/absent), or dimensional (severity ranging from low to high), or both (i.e., hybrid of categorical/dimensional).

METHODS

Ratings of the nine DSM-5 IGD symptoms, as presented in the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale 9-Short Form (Pontes & Griffiths, Comput Hum Behav 45:137-143, 2015), from 738 gamers, aged 17 to 72 years, were collected. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), latent class analysis (LCA), and factor mixture modelling analysis (FMMA) procedures were applied to determine the optimum IGD model.

RESULTS

Although the findings showed most support for a FFMA model with two classes and one factor, there was also good statistical and substantive support for the one-factor CFA model, and the LCA model with three classes.

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that while the optimum structure of IGD is most likely to be a hybrid model (i.e., concurrently categorical and dimensional), a uni-dimensional model and/or a three-class categorical model are also plausible.

Symptoms of Internet Gaming Disorder, Inattention, and Impulsivity: a Cross-Sectional Study Conducted in the United Arab Emirates

The addictive use of internet video games is now recognized as a valid diagnostic construct by both the World Health Organization and the American Psychiatric Association. A burgeoning body of preliminary evidence points to a relationship between attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms as being a risk factor for behaviors indicative of internet gaming disorder (IGD), however, studies have rarely examined ADHD's two diagnostic constructs, inattention and impulsivity, separately. Moreover, IGD research is non-existent in Middle Eastern contexts. Therefore, this study examined, separately, the association of IGD with inattention and impulsivity in a sample of gamers from the United Arab Emirates. A cross-sectional survey was completed by 214 participants aged 18-33 years (m_age = 20.64, SD = 4.34) who completed measures of IGD and ADHD, and self-reported daily duration of gameplay as well as a number of demographic characteristics. The pair of hierarchical linear regressions indicated that both the examined constructs, increased symptoms of inattention and impulsivity, were separately associated with elevated risk for engagement in IGD behaviors. However, these associations were not moderated by gender. These results confirm that symptoms of ADHD are indeed associated with IGD and is the first to confirm the presence of this relationship in a Middle Eastern sample.

How has Internet Addiction been Tracked Over the Last Decade? A Literature Review and 3C Paradigm for Future Research

Background:

The popularity of the internet aggravated by its excessive and uncontrolled use has resulted in psychological impairment or addiction. Internet addiction is hypothesized as an impulse-control disorder of internet use having detrimental impacts on daily life functions, family relationships, and emotional stability. The goal of this review is to provide an exhaustive overview of the empirical evidence on internet addiction and draw attention to future research themes.

Methods:

We performed a literature search on ScienceDirect and PubMed to review original research articles with empirical evidence published on peer-reviewed international journals from 2010 to 2019. Eight hundred and 26 articles were eligible for analysis. Frequency and descriptive statistics were calculated by Microsoft Excel.

Results:

A substantial contribution has been coming from researchers from China, Turkey, Korea, Germany, and Taiwan respectively. Despite controversies regarding its definition and diagnostic procedures, internet addiction has become the focal point of a myriad of studies that investigated this particular phenomenon from different exposures. Given observed literature review data regarding research design, data acquisition, and data analysis strategies, we proposed the 3C paradigm which emphasizes the necessity of research incorporating cross-disciplinary investigation conducted on cross-cultural settings with conscientious cross-validation considerations to gain a better comprehension of internet addiction.

Conclusions:

The findings of the present literature review will serve both academics and practitioners to develop new solutions for better characterize internet addiction.

A cross-sectional survey of internet use among university students

The last 2 decades have seen an increase in the number of reports of excessive internet use. Therefore, this study aimed to examine internet use among university students to gain more insight into the novel phenomenon of addictive internet use (AIU). Data were collected by the means of an online questionnaire sent to 4391 students. Approximately 10% of the 4391 students could be included in the statistical analysis. Of those 483 students, almost all (99.2%) used the internet, and a quarter (24.8%) showed AIU. The students used the internet mostly for information searches, random browsing, social networking, and online shopping; however, AIU was seen most often in the areas of social networking, random browsing, information searches, gaming, and pornography. One in four of the respondents showed addictive behavior in at least one area of internet use. Students with AIU in the area of random browsing were significantly less far advanced in their studies than those without AIU, and well-being was significantly poorer across AIU groups than in those who did not show AIU. The study confirms the importance of AIU, as reflected in the high prevalence of AIU among the students and the significantly lower level of well-being in those with AIU. Undifferentiated consideration of AIU does not do justice to its various facets, and future research should consider all areas of internet use, with the aim to increase understanding of the underlying mechanisms of AIU and develop more differentiated treatment approaches.

The Association between Parental Psychological Control, Deviant Peer Affiliation, and Internet Gaming Disorder among Chinese Adolescents: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study

Abundant empirical research indicates a relationship between parental psychological control and adolescent Internet gaming disorder (IGD), but the direction and underlying mechanism of this association remain unclear. Using a two-year longitudinal design across three time points, the present study examined the reciprocal processes between parental psychological control and IGD and explored whether deviant peer affiliation explains this bidirectional association. The sample consisted of 908 participants (480 boys and 428 girls) who participated in three measurements and completed questionnaires assessing parental psychological control, deviant peer affiliation, and IGD. Autoregressive cross-lagged models indicated a direct reciprocal relationship between parental psychological control and IGD. Furthermore, the results showed that parental psychological control exerts an indirect effect on adolescent IGD via deviant peer affiliation, but the inverse indirect effect via deviant peer affiliation was non-significant. Knowledge regarding the direct and underlying mechanisms of the reciprocal relationship between parental psychological control and IGD has important implications for prevention and intervention of adolescent IGD.

Problematic internet use: A scoping review – longitudinal research on a contemporary social problem, 2006–2017

Background and aims:

Problematic internet use (PIU), and kindred concepts such as internet addiction (IA), make up a growing research field, partly due to the suggested inclusion of internet gaming disorder in a future DSM-6 as well as the fact that gaming disorder is on its way to being included in the ICD-11. Conclusions from research are far from unified. This study aims to synthesise the research field of problematic internet use/internet addiction/gaming disorder, with a focus on the reporting of prevalence and change.

Methods:

Longitudinal studies of PIU/IA formed the basis for a scoping review. Systematic searches of Web of Science, Scopus and Proquest, for peer-reviewed and published articles based on empirical data collected at a minimum of two time points for studies, and with an end point set at 2017, led to the inclusion of 97 studies. Endnote X7 was used to organise the results and NVivo 11 was used for synthesising the results.

Results:

Analyses focused on prevalence and change. Findings show variation among measures and prevalence as well as in reported outcomes relating to social life and other problems. Most studies reported relations between PIU/IA and other problems in life, but no specific time order could be established. Furthermore, many studies did not present data on prevalence or change even though using a longitudinal survey design.

Discussion and conclusions:

In summary, the research field is plagued by a lack of consensus and common understanding, regarding both measures, perceptions of the problem, and findings.

The relationship between maladaptive personality functioning and problematic technology use in adolescence: A cluster analysis approach

In the last two decades, scientific research has explored the problematic use of internet, videogames and mobile phones. However, there is still little consistent knowledge regarding the co-occurrence of problematic technology use and the role of maladaptive personality characteristics in adolescence. The present study aimed to investigate adolescents' styles of technology use with a cluster analysis approach focusing on personality functioning. The sample comprised 408 Italian adolescents (46.3% males) aged 11 to 18 years (M _age  = 13.80; SD = 2.08). Data were collected using the Internet Addiction Test, the Videogame Dependency Scale, the Test of Mobile-Phone Dependence Brief Form and the Personality Inventory for DSM5 Brief Form. Results provided a four-cluster solution based on the co-occurrence of problematic technology use. The four clusters were labeled as follows: cluster 1: "Above average internet and mobile-phone use"; cluster 2: "Below average technology use"; cluster 3: "Above average videogame use"; and cluster 4: "Problematic technology use." Analyses on demographic variables (e.g., gender and age) demonstrated significant differences between the four groups. Adolescents with high levels of problematic technology use reported greater overall personality dysfunction than the other three groups. This finding supported our hypothesis on maladaptive personality functioning in adolescents at risk for addiction. Finally, the Antagonism domain played a specific role in differentiating the severity of adolescents' involvement in technology use. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings and to plan preventive interventions as well as therapeutic treatments.

Hostility Is Associated with Self-Reported Cognitive and Social Benefits Across Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game Player Roles

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) can sometimes be associated with patterns of play that are harmful to health and well-being. Hazardous MMORPG play has been linked to hostility (toward other people). However, little is known about how hostility, as a risk factor, relates to players' choices within games, or players' experiences of the positive aspects of MMORPGs. In this study, we surveyed 5,847 players of Jagex's RuneScape to examine how trait hostility relates to player roles that prioritize skill acquisition/improvement (Skillers), combat (Killers), or narrative challenges (Questers). Killers reported modestly higher levels of trait hostility than Skillers and Questers. The most hostile players reported the strongest importance of in-game relative to offline achievements, possibly indicating hazardous involvement. Critically, hostile players also report the strongest cognitive and social benefits. These include (i) skills acquired through MMORPGs that help players to achieve things in their offline lives and (ii) online relationships that benefit offline relationships. These findings offer a new perspective on the way that a previously reported risk factor for harmful MMORPG play relates to player engagement, possibly by offering a helpful space for hostile individuals to develop problem solving and social skills. This suggests that some individuals who might be vulnerable to developing harmful patterns of MMORPG play may simultaneously experience greater tangible benefits.

Insomnia, sleepiness, anxiety and depression among different types of gamers in African countries

Gaming has increasingly become a part of life in Africa. Currently, no data on gaming disorders or their association with mental disorders exist for African countries. This study for the first time investigated (1) the prevalence of insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness, anxiety and depression among African gamers, (2) the association between these conditions and gamer types (i.e., non-problematic, engaged, problematic and addicted) and (3) the predictive power of socioeconomic markers (education, age, income, marital status, employment status) on these conditions. 10,566 people from 2 low- (Rwanda, Gabon), 6 lower-middle (Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal, Ivory Coast) and 1 upper-middle income countries (South Africa) completed online questionnaires containing validated measures on insomnia, sleepiness, anxiety, depression and gaming addiction. Results showed our sample of gamers (24 ± 2.8 yrs; 88.64% Male), 30% were addicted, 30% were problematic, 8% were engaged and 32% were non-problematic. Gaming significantly contributed to 86.9% of the variance in insomnia, 82.7% of the variance in daytime sleepiness and 82.3% of the variance in anxiety [p < 0.001]. This study establishes the prevalence of gaming, mood and sleep disorders, in a large African sample. Our results corroborate previous studies, reporting problematic and addicted gamers show poorer health outcomes compared with non-problematic gamers.

Predicting likelihood of psychological disorders in PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds (PUBG) players from Asian countries using supervised machine learning

Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) has become one of the most popular genre of online video games played by gamers worldwide. Previous studies have exhibited that excessive engagement in games can lead to Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD). Internet Gaming Disorder has been associated with psychological disorders like impulsivity, anxiety and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In this study, we propose an approach to use the game and player statistics along with self-esteem measure of a PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds (PUBG, a MOBA game) player to predict whether he/she suffers from IGD and psychological disorders namely ADHD and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). We extract the game and player statistics of PUBG players from Asian countries and then run several state of the art supervised machine learning models to predict the occurrence of IGD, ADHD, and GAD. Initial experiments and results show that we are able to predict IGD, ADHD, and GAD with an accuracy of 93.18%, 81.81% and 84.9% respectively. Game statistics of PUBG players show strong positive correlation with IGD and ADHD indicating detrimental effects of MOBA games.

The Physical, Emotional, and Identity User-Avatar Association with Disordered Gaming: A Pilot Study

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is a rapidly expanding psychopathological manifestation necessitating further research and clinical attention. Although recent research has investigated relationships between user-avatar and excessive gaming, little is known about the interplay between IGD and avatar self-presence and its dimensions (i.e., the physical, emotional, and identity bond developed between the user and the in-game character). The aim of the present pilot study was twofold: (i) to investigate the associations between physical, emotional, and identity aspects of self-presence associate and IGD severity, and (ii) to assess IGD variations longitudinally in relation to the three dimensions of self-presence (i.e., proto-self-presence, core-self-presence, and extended-self-presence). The sample comprised 125 young adults aged between 18 and 29 years who underwent either (i) three offline measurements (1 month apart, over 3 months) or (ii) a cross-sectional online measurement. Regression and latent growth analysis indicated that the initial intensity of the physical, emotional, and identity self-presence aspects associated with IGD severity, but not to its longitudinal change. Overall, young adult gamers may exhibit higher IGD risk and severity when the experience of physical, emotional, and identity bonding with their in-game character is pronounced. The implications surrounding treatment and preventative policy recommendations are further discussed.

The Mediating Role of Coping Styles on Impulsivity, Behavioral Inhibition/Approach System, and Internet Addiction in Adolescents From a Gender Perspective

Previous findings have shown that impulsivity and Behavioral Inhibition/Approach System (BIS/BAS) have substantial effects on adolescents’ Internet addiction, but the mechanisms underlying these associations and gender differences in these effects have received little attention. We examined the mediating effects of coping styles from impulsivity, and BIS/BAS to Internet addiction as well as gender differences in these associations. A total of 416 Chinese adolescents were examined using a cross-sectional survey involving Young’s Diagnostic Questionnaire for Internet Addiction, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, BIS/BAS scales, and Coping Style Scale for Middle School Students. The data were analyzed using the independent sample t-test, chi-square test, Pearson correlation, and structure equation modeling. The results from the multiple-group (by adolescent gender) structural model analysis revealed that both impulsivity (p < 0.001) and BIS (p = 0.001) directly predicted positive Internet addiction in girls, while both impulsivity (p = 0.011) and BAS (p = 0.048) directly predicted positive Internet addiction in boys. Furthermore, emotion-focused coping mediated the relationship between impulsivity and Internet addiction (β = 0.080, 95% CI: 0.023–0.168) and the relationship between BIS and Internet addiction (β = 0.064, 95% CI: 0.013–0.153) in girls, while in boys, problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping mediated the association between impulsivity and Internet addiction (β = 0.118, 95% CI: 0.031–0.251; β = 0.065, 95% CI: 0.010–0.160, respectively) and problem-focused coping mediated the association between BAS and Internet addiction [β = −0.058, 95% CI: (−0.142)–(−0.003)]. These findings extend our insight into the mechanisms underlying the associations among impulsivity, BIS/BAS, and Internet addiction in adolescents and suggest that gender-sensitive training approaches to decrease adolescents’ Internet addiction are indispensable. These interventions should focus on the different gender predictors of adolescent Internet addiction and on the development of specific coping styles for boys and girls respectively.

A Web-Based Intervention for Social Media Addiction Disorder Management in Higher Education: Quantitative Survey Study

Background

Social media addiction disorder has recently become a major concern and has been reported to have negative impacts on postgraduate studies, particularly addiction to Facebook. Although previous studies have investigated the effects of Facebook addiction disorder in learning settings, there still has been a lack of studies investigating the relationship between online intervention features for Facebook addiction focusing on postgraduate studies.

Objective

In an attempt to understand this relationship, this study aimed to carry out an investigation on online intervention features for effective management of Facebook addiction in higher education.

Methods

This study was conducted quantitatively using surveys and partial least square-structural equational modeling. The study involved 200 postgraduates in a Facebook support group for postgraduates. The Bergen Facebook Addiction test was used to assess postgraduates’ Facebook addiction level, whereas online intervention features were used to assess postgraduates’ perceptions of online intervention features for Facebook addiction, which are as follows: (1) self-monitoring features, (2) manual control features, (3) notification features, (4) automatic control features, and (5) reward features.

Results

The study discovered six Facebook addiction factors (relapse, conflict, salience, tolerance, withdrawal, and mood modification) and five intervention features (notification, auto-control, reward, manual control, and self-monitoring) that could be used in the management of Facebook addiction in postgraduate education. The study also revealed that relapse is the most important factor and mood modification is the least important factor. Furthermore, findings indicated that notification was the most important intervention feature, whereas self-monitoring was the least important feature.

Conclusions

The study’s findings (addiction factors and intervention features) could assist future developers and educators in the development of online intervention tools for Facebook addiction management in postgraduate education.

Need fulfilment and internet gaming disorder: A preliminary integrative model

BACKGROUND

The need for a better understanding of the risk factors underpinning disordered gaming has been consistently emphasized. Although, gaming may offer a simple and straightforward means of alleviating distress, relying on gaming to address one's unmet psychological needs could invite problematic usage. Self-determination theory highlights the significance of three universally inherent psychological needs for relatedness, competency, and autonomy. A motivation to engage in gaming may be to address unmet needs and may become problematic.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess whether experienced levels of loneliness, depression and self-esteem mediate the association between Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) behaviours and Need-Fulfilment deficits.

METHOD

The participants comprised of 149 adults (83 males, 66 females), aged between 18 and 62 years. A series of self-reported questionaries assessing their levels of IGD behaviours, depression, loneliness, self-esteem and need-fulfilment were completed.

RESULTS

Need-fulfilment deficits were linked to higher IGD behaviours. Interestingly, this association was mediated by the reported levels of self-esteem and depression and not loneliness.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings lend further empirical support for the mediating role of psychological distress between need fulfilment deficits and IGD behaviours.

Associations between attention deficit hyperactivity and internet gaming disorder symptoms: Is there consistency across types of symptoms, gender and countries?

BACKGROUND

Videogame addiction has been suggested as a tentative disorder in 2013 by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) and was recently officially recognized as a mental health disorder by the World Health Organization (WHO). Although a few studies have identified attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a key risk factor for Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), the interplay between ADHD and IGD symptoms with gender differences across cultures remains to be further examined.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the moderating effects of gender in the association between ADHD and IGD across two nations.

METHOD

A cross-sectional online survey was developed to recruit 164 Australian (Mage = 23.01, SD = 3.35, Minage = 18, Maxage = 31, Males n = 121, 73.80%) and 457 U.S.-North American (Mage = 25.25 years, SD = 2.76, Minage = 18 years, Maxage = 29 years, Males = 265, 57.98%) Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) players aged between 18 and 29 years.

RESULTS

The hierarchical linear regression, moderation and moderated moderation analyses revealed that participants presenting greater inattention and hyperactivity symptoms exhibited higher levels of IGD-related behaviors in the two samples. Moreover, these associations differed across genders between the two countries. Specifically, more hyperactive-impulsive, as well as inattentive males in the USA presented higher levels of disordered gaming.

CONCLUSION

The results highlight the need for more cross-cultural and symptom-focused research in the broader IGD field.

Measuring Female Gaming: Gamer Profile, Predictors, Prevalence, and Characteristics From Psychological and Gender Perspectives

Research investigating female gaming is relatively scarce, and past research has demonstrated that men are more likely to be problematic gamers. Few studies have focused on female gamers in community samples, and those that have been published have mainly collected qualitative data in Europe. There is case study evidence suggesting clinicians are increasingly treating problem female gamers. The aim of this study is threefold: (i) to establish an international female gamer profile, (ii) to determine predictors associated with perceived internet gaming disorder (IGD), and (iii) to identify those who are potentially at risk of developing gaming addiction and its characteristics by applying a quantitative approach. A cross-sectional online survey was applied through international gaming forums recruiting 625 female gamers, assessing sociodemographics, gaming devices used and play genres, and a set of questionnaires on gaming [e.g., problem online gaming (e.g., the nine-item short-form scale to assess IGD: IGDS9-SF), female stereotypes (e.g., sex role stereotyping scale), and psychological symptoms (e.g., Symptom CheckList-27-plus)]. Female gamers from all continents reported the use of all videogames, especially popular online games using computers and consoles. The proportion of gamers with potential IGD was one per cent. Regression analyses identified several risk factors for increased scores on the IGDS9-SF, namely having achievement and social motivations, embodied presence and identification with the avatar, hostility and social phobia together with negative body image, playing Multiplayer Online Battle Arena games, Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games, and First-Person-Shooter games. Findings contribute to filling the gap in knowledge on female gaming, to aid in the applicability of problematic gaming measurements in female gamers, especially those who are at risk of problematic gaming. The purpose of this study is to enhance the validity of the current measures to diagnose problem gaming appropriately in both genders.

Assessing Online Flow Across Cultures: A Two-Fold Measurement Invariance Study

The association between online Flow and Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) has attracted significant attention. Despite the consensus that online Flow plays a pivotal role in the development of IGD and other Internet addictive behaviors, there has been a lack of consistency in measurement scales used to assess online Flow. Even widely used measures of online Flow have not been psychometrically assessed across culturally diverse populations of gamers. Such an assessment would enhance the accuracy of cross-cultural comparisons. Attending to this need, the present study assessed the psychometric properties of the binary coded (i.e., Yes, No) Online Flow Questionnaire (OFQ), while concurrently taking into consideration country, age, language, and mode of data collection (online or face-to-face) differences. Two sequences of successive multiple group confirmatory factor analyses were used to assess the psychometric properties of the OFQ, between: (a) emergent adults from the United States of America (N = 482, Mage = 25.23, SD = 2.746) and Australia (N = 168, Mage = 23.55, SD = 3.37) and (b) adolescents from Greece (N = 1579, Mage = 16.12, SD = 0.849) and Cyprus (N = 1372, Mage = 15.54, SD = 0.656). Configural and partial metric invariance were confirmed between the United States and Australian samples. For the Greek and Cypriot samples, results indicated full configural and metric invariance. These results provide initial information to researchers and clinicians of the extent to which the OFQ maintains its consistency when used across cultures and invite for further cross-cultural studies in the field. Implications, as well as limitations, are discussed.

Application of Diagnostic Interview for Internet Addiction (DIA) in Clinical Practice for Korean Adolescents

The increased prevalence of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and the inclusion of IGD in DSM-5 and ICD-11 emphasizes the importance of measuring and describing the IGD symptoms. We examined the psychometric properties of the Diagnostic Interview for Internet Addiction (DIA), a semi-structured diagnostic interview tool for IGD, and verified the application of DIA in clinical practice for Korean adolescents. The DIA is conducted in a manner that interviews both adolescents and their caregivers, and each item has a standardized representative question and various examples. It consists of 10 items based on the DSM-5 IGD diagnostic criteria, which is cognitive salience, withdrawal, tolerance, difficulty in regulating use, loss of interest in other activities, persistent use despite negative results, deception regarding Internet/games/SNS use, use of Internet/games/SNS to avoid negative feelings, interference with role performance, and craving. The study included 103 adolescents divided into three subgroups (mild risk, moderate risk, and addicted group) based on the total score of DIA. Demographic and clinical characteristics were compared among the DIA subgroups using the chi-square test and analysis of variance (ANOVA), and correlation analysis was used to examine the associations of IGD symptoms with clinical variables (e.g., impulsivity, aggression, depression, anxiety, self-esteem). The DIA total score was significantly correlated with Internet and smartphone addiction, depression, state anxiety, self-esteem, impulsivity, aggression, and stress. Furthermore, the moderate risk and addicted group showed significantly higher levels of Internet and smartphone addiction, anxiety, depression, impulsivity, aggression, stress, and lower self-esteem compared with the mild risk group. The Junior Temperament and Character Inventory (JTCI), which measures temperament and character traits, revealed that the mild risk group had higher levels of persistence and self-directedness than did the addicted group. Our findings confirmed the psychometric properties of DIA and the application of the DIA classifications in Korean adolescents.

Gaming disorder among medical college students from India: Exploring the pattern and correlates

BACKGROUND

In the extant literature, apart from few published case reports describing patients with severe form of gaming disorder (GD), there is a lack of studies describing the pattern and correlates of GD existing in the Indian settings. Thus, the present study aimed to explore the extent and pattern of gaming behavior in a sample of medical college students from India and explore its association with the sociodemographic, psychological (depressive symptoms), and Internet gaming characteristics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This Internet-based cross-sectional study was conducted as an online survey among 306 medical students by the Behavioral Addictions Clinic at a tertiary care teaching college in India. The severity of problematic gaming behavior and depressive symptoms was assessed using the Internet GD Scale-Short Form (IGDS9-SF) and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information regarding sociodemographic and Internet gaming characteristics of the participants. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS software version 21.0, with two-tailed P < 0.05 taken as significant and P < 0.01 as highly significant results.

RESULTS

We identified 173 (55.6%) current gamers, with 11 (3.6%) Internet GD gamers based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders -5 criteria in the current study sample. A preference for multiplayer online gaming pattern (β =0.17, P = 0.005), spending greater amount of time in playing digital games (β = 0.53, P < 0.01), and higher PHQ-9 scores (β =0.25, P < 0.01**) representing greater depressive symptom severity were associated with statistically significantly greater scores on the IGDS9-SF, indicative of a higher risk for having GD.

CONCLUSIONS

GD is a cause of concern among medical students in India. There is an urgent need to create awareness about it among students and concerned authorities. Further, there is a need to develop effective screening and treatment strategies suited for our population. The risk factors identified in the current study can be utilized to screen those at high risk of developing the same.

The dark side of internet: Preliminary evidence for the associations of dark personality traits with specific online activities and problematic internet use

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Research has shown that personality traits play an important role in problematic internet use (PIU). However, the relationship between dark personality traits (i.e., Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism, sadism, and spitefulness) and PIU has yet to be investigated. Consequently, the objectives of this study were to investigate the relationships of dark traits with specific online activities (i.e., social media, gaming, gambling, shopping, and sex) and PIU.

METHODS

A total of 772 university students completed a self-report survey, including the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen Scale, Short Sadistic Impulse Scale, Spitefulness Scale, and an adapted version of the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale.

RESULTS

Hierarchical regression analysis and a multiple mediation model indicated that being male was positively associated with higher online gaming, online sex, and online gambling, and negatively associated with social media and online shopping. Narcissism was related to higher social media use; Machiavellianism was related to higher online gaming, online sex, and online gambling; sadism was related to online sex; and spitefulness was associated with online sex, online gambling, and online shopping. Finally, Machiavellianism and spitefulness were directly and indirectly associated with PIU via online gambling, online gaming, and online shopping, and narcissism was indirectly associated with PIU through social media use.

DISCUSSION

Findings of this preliminary study show that individuals high in dark personality traits may be more vulnerable in developing problematic online use and that further research is warranted to examine the associations of dark personality traits with specific types of problematic online activities.

Problematic Video Gaming and Problematic Internet Use Among Polish Young Adults

Technological advancements, on the one hand, facilitate everyday activities and, on the other hand, may lead to problematic behavior. These include problematic video gaming (PVG) and problematic Internet use. The purpose of this article is to present the specificity of these behavioral addictions in a group of Polish young adults and to determine their predictors and interrelatedness. The study involved a group of 1,493 young adults, aged from 18 to 30. The intensity of problematic Internet use was measured with the Problematic Internet Use Test (the Polish version of Internet Addiction Test developed by Kimberly Young), and intensity of PVG was measured with the Problem Video Game Playing Questionnaire. Based on the results, it can be shown that in the group of Polish young adults participating in the study, 0.3 percent of the individuals present very high problematic Internet use. On the contrary, 3.6 percent of the gamers show signs of PVG. Furthermore, analysis of structural equations showed that only the model assuming a correlation between the two types of behavioral addiction correctly fits the data set. Based on the developed model, it was established that the duration of social network usage is probably a predictor of problematic Internet use, while predictors of PVG include the amount of time dedicated to playing video games as well as engagement in action games. The present findings enable better understanding of the relationship between PVG and problematic Internet use among young adults. They also support other studies which suggest that, despite similarities between them, various types of behavioral addictions may be predicted by different factors.

Bidirectional Mediating Role of Loneliness in the Association Between Shyness and Generalized Pathological Internet Use in Chinese University Students: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Analysis

This 1-year longitudinal study examined the bidirectional mediating role of loneliness in the association between shyness and generalized pathological Internet use (GPIU) in a sample of 291 Chinese university students (143 men, mean age = 19.07 years). A fully cross-lagged panel design was used in which shyness, loneliness, and GPIU were assessed at 3 time points separated by 6-month intervals (named T1, T2, and T3). The results indicated that relationships among shyness, loneliness, and GPIU were dynamic and bidirectional. Specifically, T1 shyness positively predicted increased T2 loneliness, T2 shyness positively predicted increased T3 loneliness, and T2 loneliness positively predicted increased T3 shyness. Additionally, T1 GPIU positively predicted increased T2 loneliness, T2 GPIU positively predicted increased T3 loneliness, and T2 loneliness positively predicted increased T3 GPIU. Loneliness was found to play a bidirectional mediating role in the association between shyness and GPIU. Specifically, T1 shyness and T3 GPIU were mediated through increased loneliness at T2, and T1 GPIU and T3 shyness were mediated through increased loneliness at T2. Furthermore, relationships among shyness, loneliness, and GPIU were the same across the 2 groups, with the strength of relationships being stronger for men.

A preliminary cross-cultural study of Hikikomori and Internet Gaming Disorder: The moderating effects of game-playing time and living with parents

Background

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and Hikikomori (an extreme form of social real-life withdrawal, where individuals isolate themselves from society) have both been suggested as mental disorders that require further clinical research, particularly among young adult populations.

Objective

To add to the extant literature, the present study used a cross-cultural, cross-sectional design to investigate the association between Hikikomori and IGD, and the potential moderating effects of reported game-playing time and living with parents.

Method

Two online samples of 153 Australian and 457 U.S.-North American young adult players of Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) games were collected. The nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9), and the Hikikomori Social Withdrawal Scale were administered to dimensionally assess IGD and Hikikomori, respectively.

Results

Linear regression analyses confirmed that Hikikomori symptoms are associated with IGD. Additionally, moderation analyses indicated that the association was exacerbated by longer game playing time across both populations. Gamers living with their parents was a significant moderator of the relationship for the Australian sample.

Conclusions

Extreme real-life social withdrawal and IGD are related, and this association is exacerbated for those who spend more time playing MMOs per day, and, for Australian participants, living with their parents.

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Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and Hikikomori are two relatively new disorders.

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Hikikomori symptoms are associated with higher IGD scores.

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Longer periods of gaming exacerbated the Hikikomori-IGD association.

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Living with parents exacerbated IGD among Australian gamers.

Avoidant romantic attachment in adolescence: Gender, excessive internet use and romantic relationship engagement effects

Romantic development is a distinctive characteristic of puberty. However, a significant proportion of adolescents present with avoidant romantic attachment (ARA) tendencies, which have significant impact on their general adaptation. ARA variations have been suggested in relation to age, gender, engagement with a romantic partner and Excessive Internet Use (EIU) behaviours. In this longitudinal, two-wave study of a normative sample of 515 Greek adolescents at 16 and 18 years, ARA was assessed with the relevant subscale of the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised and EIU with the Internet Addiction Test. A three-level hierarchical linear model found ARA tendencies to decrease between 16 and 18 while engagement in a romantic relationship and EIU were associated with lower and higher ARA tendencies respectively. Gender did not differentiate ARA severity either at the age of 16 or its changes over time. Results highlight the need of adopting a longitudinal-contextualized approach and provide implications for prevention and intervention initiatives in relation to the romantic development of adolescents.

Internet pornography viewing preference as a risk factor for adolescent Internet addiction: The moderating role of classroom personality factors

Background and aims Adolescent Internet pornography viewing has been significantly increased in the last decade with research highlighting its association with Internet addiction (IA). However, there is little longitudinal data on this topic, particularly in relation to peer context effects. This study aimed to examine age- and context-related variations in the Internet pornography-IA association. Methods A total of 648 adolescents, from 34 classrooms, were assessed at 16 years and then at 18 years to examine the effect of Internet pornography preference on IA in relation to the classroom context. IA was assessed using the Internet Addiction Test (Young, 1998), Internet pornography preference (over other Internet applications) was assessed with a binary (yes/no) question, and classroom introversion and openness to experience (OTE) with the synonymous subscales within the Five Factor Questionnaire (Asendorpf & Van Aken, 2003). Results Three-level hierarchical linear models were calculated. Findings showed that viewing Internet pornography exacerbates the risk of IA over time, while classroom factors, such as the average level of OTE and introversion, differentially moderate this relationship. Discussion and conclusion The study demonstrated that the contribution of Internet pornography preference (as an IA risk factor) might be increased in more extroverted classrooms and decreased in OTE classrooms.

Measurement Invariance of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (IGDS9-SF) between the United States of America, India and the United Kingdom

The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (IGDS9-SF) has been extensively used worldwide to assess Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) behaviors. Therefore, investigating cultural limitations and implications in its applicability is necessary. The cross-cultural feasibility of a test can be psychometrically evaluated with measurement invariance analyses. Thus, the present study used Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis (MGCFA) to examine the IGDS9-SF measurement invariance across gamers from the United States of America (USA), India, and the United Kingdom (UK). A total of 1013 gamers from the USA (n = 405), India (n = 336), and the UK (n = 272) were recruited. Although the one-factor structure of the IGD construct was supported, cross-country variations were demonstrated considering the way that this was reflected on items assessing preoccupation/salience, tolerance, deception, gaming escapism/mood modification, as well as daily activities' impairment related to gaming. Furthermore, the same scores on items assessing withdrawal symptoms, tolerance, lack of control over gaming engagement, escapism/mood modification and daily activities impairment associated to gaming, have been found to reflect various levels of IGD severity across the three groups. The implications of these results are further discussed in the context of existing evidence regarding the assessment of IGD.