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Sun T, Zhao H, Hu L, Shao X, Lu Z, Wang Y, Ling P, Li Y, Zeng K, Chen Q. Enhanced optical imaging and fluorescent labeling for visualizing drug molecules within living organisms. Acta Pharm Sin B 2024; 14:2428-2446. [PMID: 38828150 PMCID: PMC11143489 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2024.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 01/07/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The visualization of drugs in living systems has become key techniques in modern therapeutics. Recent advancements in optical imaging technologies and molecular design strategies have revolutionized drug visualization. At the subcellular level, super-resolution microscopy has allowed exploration of the molecular landscape within individual cells and the cellular response to drugs. Moving beyond subcellular imaging, researchers have integrated multiple modes, like optical near-infrared II imaging, to study the complex spatiotemporal interactions between drugs and their surroundings. By combining these visualization approaches, researchers gain supplementary information on physiological parameters, metabolic activity, and tissue composition, leading to a comprehensive understanding of drug behavior. This review focuses on cutting-edge technologies in drug visualization, particularly fluorescence imaging, and the main types of fluorescent molecules used. Additionally, we discuss current challenges and prospects in targeted drug research, emphasizing the importance of multidisciplinary cooperation in advancing drug visualization. With the integration of advanced imaging technology and molecular design, drug visualization has the potential to redefine our understanding of pharmacology, enabling the analysis of drug micro-dynamics in subcellular environments from new perspectives and deepening pharmacological research to the levels of the cell and organelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Sun
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery System, Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250062, China
- Institute of Biochemical and Biotechnological Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Huanxin Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery System, Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250062, China
| | - Luyao Hu
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Xintian Shao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery System, Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250062, China
- School of Life Sciences, Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250062, China
| | - Zhiyuan Lu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery System, Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250062, China
| | - Yuli Wang
- Tianjin Pharmaceutical DA REN TANG Group Corporation Limited Traditional Chinese Pharmacy Research Institute, Tianjin 300457, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemistry Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Peixue Ling
- Institute of Biochemical and Biotechnological Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
- Key Laboratory of Biopharmaceuticals, Postdoctoral Scientific Research Workstation, Shandong Academy of Pharmaceutical Science, Jinan 250098, China
| | - Yubo Li
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Kewu Zeng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery System, Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250062, China
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Qixin Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery System, Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250062, China
- Departments of Diagnostic Radiology, Surgery, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Biomedical Engineering, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine and College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119074, Singapore
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Darvin ME. Optical Methods for Non-Invasive Determination of Skin Penetration: Current Trends, Advances, Possibilities, Prospects, and Translation into In Vivo Human Studies. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2272. [PMID: 37765241 PMCID: PMC10538180 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Information on the penetration depth, pathways, metabolization, storage of vehicles, active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), and functional cosmetic ingredients (FCIs) of topically applied formulations or contaminants (substances) in skin is of great importance for understanding their interaction with skin targets, treatment efficacy, and risk assessment-a challenging task in dermatology, cosmetology, and pharmacy. Non-invasive methods for the qualitative and quantitative visualization of substances in skin in vivo are favored and limited to optical imaging and spectroscopic methods such as fluorescence/reflectance confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM); two-photon tomography (2PT) combined with autofluorescence (2PT-AF), fluorescence lifetime imaging (2PT-FLIM), second-harmonic generation (SHG), coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), and reflectance confocal microscopy (2PT-RCM); three-photon tomography (3PT); confocal Raman micro-spectroscopy (CRM); surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) micro-spectroscopy; stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy; and optical coherence tomography (OCT). This review summarizes the state of the art in the use of the CLSM, 2PT, 3PT, CRM, SERS, SRS, and OCT optical methods to study skin penetration in vivo non-invasively (302 references). The advantages, limitations, possibilities, and prospects of the reviewed optical methods are comprehensively discussed. The ex vivo studies discussed are potentially translatable into in vivo measurements. The requirements for the optical properties of substances to determine their penetration into skin by certain methods are highlighted.
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Batista A, Guimarães P, Domingues JP, Quadrado MJ, Morgado AM. Two-Photon Imaging for Non-Invasive Corneal Examination. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:9699. [PMID: 36560071 PMCID: PMC9783858 DOI: 10.3390/s22249699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon imaging (TPI) microscopy, namely, two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF), fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM), and second-harmonic generation (SHG) modalities, has emerged in the past years as a powerful tool for the examination of biological tissues. These modalities rely on different contrast mechanisms and are often used simultaneously to provide complementary information on morphology, metabolism, and structural properties of the imaged tissue. The cornea, being a transparent tissue, rich in collagen and with several cellular layers, is well-suited to be imaged by TPI microscopy. In this review, we discuss the physical principles behind TPI as well as its instrumentation. We also provide an overview of the current advances in TPI instrumentation and image analysis. We describe how TPI can be leveraged to retrieve unique information on the cornea and to complement the information provided by current clinical devices. The present state of corneal TPI is outlined. Finally, we discuss the obstacles that must be overcome and offer perspectives and outlooks to make clinical TPI of the human cornea a reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Batista
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health (ICNAS), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3004-516 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Pedro Guimarães
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health (ICNAS), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José Paulo Domingues
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health (ICNAS), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3004-516 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maria João Quadrado
- Department of Ophthalmology, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal
- Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - António Miguel Morgado
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health (ICNAS), University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3004-516 Coimbra, Portugal
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Prinke P, Haueisen J, Klee S, Rizqie MQ, Supriyanto E, König K, Breunig HG, Piątek Ł. Automatic segmentation of skin cells in multiphoton data using multi-stage merging. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14534. [PMID: 34267247 PMCID: PMC8282875 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93682-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
We propose a novel automatic segmentation algorithm that separates the components of human skin cells from the rest of the tissue in fluorescence data of three-dimensional scans using non-invasive multiphoton tomography. The algorithm encompasses a multi-stage merging on preprocessed superpixel images to ensure independence from a single empirical global threshold. This leads to a high robustness of the segmentation considering the depth-dependent data characteristics, which include variable contrasts and cell sizes. The subsequent classification of cell cytoplasm and nuclei are based on a cell model described by a set of four features. Two novel features, a relationship between outer cell and inner nucleus (OCIN) and a stability index, were derived. The OCIN feature describes the topology of the model, while the stability index indicates segment quality in the multi-stage merging process. These two new features, combined with the local gradient magnitude and compactness, are used for the model-based fuzzy evaluation of the cell segments. We exemplify our approach on an image stack with 200 × 200 × 100 μm3, including the skin layers of the stratum spinosum and the stratum basale of a healthy volunteer. Our image processing pipeline contributes to the fully automated classification of human skin cells in multiphoton data and provides a basis for the detection of skin cancer using non-invasive optical biopsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Prinke
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technische Universität Ilmenau, 98693, Ilmenau, Germany.
| | - Jens Haueisen
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technische Universität Ilmenau, 98693, Ilmenau, Germany
| | - Sascha Klee
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technische Universität Ilmenau, 98693, Ilmenau, Germany.,Division Biostatistics and Data Science, Department of General Health Studies, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Dr. Karl-Dorrek-Straße 30, 3500, Krems, Austria
| | - Muhammad Qurhanul Rizqie
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technische Universität Ilmenau, 98693, Ilmenau, Germany.,Informatics Engineering Program, Universitas Sriwijaya, Palembang, South Sumatera, Indonesia
| | - Eko Supriyanto
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technische Universität Ilmenau, 98693, Ilmenau, Germany.,IJN-UTM Cardiovascular Engineering Centre, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Karsten König
- Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarland University, Campus A5.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.,JenLab GmbH, Johann-Hittorf-Straße 8, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hans Georg Breunig
- Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarland University, Campus A5.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.,JenLab GmbH, Johann-Hittorf-Straße 8, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Łukasz Piątek
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technische Universität Ilmenau, 98693, Ilmenau, Germany.,Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Information Technology and Management, H. Sucharskiego 2 Str, 35-225, Rzeszów, Poland
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Tancrède-Bohin E, Baldeweck T, Brizion S, Decencière E, Victorin S, Ngo B, Raynaud E, Souverain L, Bagot M, Pena AM. In vivo multiphoton imaging for non-invasive time course assessment of retinoids effects on human skin. Skin Res Technol 2020; 26:794-803. [PMID: 32713074 PMCID: PMC7754381 DOI: 10.1111/srt.12877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Background In vivo multiphoton imaging and automatic 3D image processing tools provide quantitative information on human skin constituents. These multiphoton‐based tools allowed evidencing retinoids epidermal effects in the occlusive patch test protocol developed for antiaging products screening. This study aimed at investigating their relevance for non‐invasive, time course assessment of retinoids cutaneous effects under real‐life conditions for one year. Materials and Methods Thirty women, 55‐65 y, applied either retinol (RO 0.3%) or retinoic acid (RA 0.025%) on one forearm dorsal side versus a control product on the other forearm once a day for 1 year. In vivo multiphoton imaging was performed every three months, and biopsies were taken after 1 year. Epidermal thickness and dermal‐epidermal junction undulation were estimated in 3D with multiphoton and in 2D with histology, whereas global melanin density and its z‐epidermal distribution were estimated using 3D multiphoton image processing tools. Results Main results after one year were as follows: a) epidermal thickening with RO (+30%); b) slight increase in dermal‐epidermal junction undulation with RO; c) slight decrease in 3D melanin density with RA; d) limitation of the melanin ascent observed with seasonality and time within supra‐basal layers with both retinoids, using multiphoton 3D‐melanin z‐epidermal profile. Conclusions With a novel 3D descriptor of melanin z‐epidermal distribution, in vivo multiphoton imaging allows demonstrating that daily usage of retinoids counteracts aging by acting not only on epidermal morphology, but also on melanin that is shown to accumulate in the supra‐basal layers with time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Tancrède-Bohin
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, Clichy, France.,Service de Dermatologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Etienne Decencière
- Center for Mathematical Morphology, MINES ParisTech - PSL Research University, Fontainebleau, France
| | | | - Blandine Ngo
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | | | - Luc Souverain
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Martine Bagot
- Service de Dermatologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France.,Inserm U976, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Ana-Maria Pena
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
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Abstract
Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIM) in life sciences based on ultrashort laser scanning microscopy and time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) started 30 years ago in Jena/East-Germany. One decade later, first two-photon FLIM images of a human finger were taken with a lab microscope based on a tunable femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser. In 2002/2003, first clinical non-invasive two-photon FLIM studies on patients with dermatological disorders were performed using a novel multiphoton tomograph. Current in vivo two-photon FLIM studies on human subjects are based on TCSPC and focus on (i) patients with skin inflammation and skin cancer as well as brain tumors, (ii) cosmetic research on volunteers to evaluate anti-ageing cremes, (iii) pharmaceutical research on volunteers to gain information on in situ pharmacokinetics, and (iv) space medicine to study non-invasively skin modifications on astronauts during long-term space flights. Two-photon FLIM studies on volunteers and patients are performed with multiphoton FLIM tomographs using near infrared femtosecond laser technology that provide rapid non-invasive and label-free intratissue autofluorescence biopsies with picosecond temporal resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karsten König
- Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarland University, Campus A5.1, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany. JenLab GmbH, Johann-Hittorf-Strasse 8, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
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7
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Pena AM, Chen X, Pence IJ, Bornschlögl T, Jeong S, Grégoire S, Luengo GS, Hallegot P, Obeidy P, Feizpour A, Chan KF, Evans CL. Imaging and quantifying drug delivery in skin - Part 2: Fluorescence andvibrational spectroscopic imaging methods. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2020; 153:147-168. [PMID: 32217069 PMCID: PMC7483684 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the delivery and diffusion of topically-applied drugs on human skin is of paramount importance in both pharmaceutical and cosmetics research. This information is critical in early stages of drug development and allows the identification of the most promising ingredients delivered at optimal concentrations to their target skin compartments. Different skin imaging methods, invasive and non-invasive, are available to characterize and quantify the spatiotemporal distribution of a drug within ex vivo and in vivo human skin. The first part of this review detailed invasive imaging methods (autoradiography, MALDI and SIMS). This second part reviews non-invasive imaging methods that can be applied in vivo: i) fluorescence (conventional, confocal, and multiphoton) and second harmonic generation microscopies and ii) vibrational spectroscopic imaging methods (infrared, confocal Raman, and coherent Raman scattering microscopies). Finally, a flow chart for the selection of imaging methods is presented to guide human skin ex vivo and in vivo drug delivery studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana-Maria Pena
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, 1 avenue Eugène Schueller BP22, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Xueqin Chen
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, 1 avenue Eugène Schueller BP22, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Isaac J Pence
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, CNY149-3, 13(th) St, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States of America
| | - Thomas Bornschlögl
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, 1 avenue Eugène Schueller BP22, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Sinyoung Jeong
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, CNY149-3, 13(th) St, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States of America
| | - Sébastien Grégoire
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, 1 avenue Eugène Schueller BP22, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France.
| | - Gustavo S Luengo
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, 1 avenue Eugène Schueller BP22, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Philippe Hallegot
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation, 1 avenue Eugène Schueller BP22, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Peyman Obeidy
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, CNY149-3, 13(th) St, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States of America
| | - Amin Feizpour
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, CNY149-3, 13(th) St, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States of America
| | - Kin F Chan
- Simpson Interventions, Inc., Woodside, CA 94062, United States of America
| | - Conor L Evans
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, CNY149-3, 13(th) St, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States of America.
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Mohammed YH, Barkauskas DS, Holmes A, Grice J, Roberts MS. Noninvasive in vivo human multiphoton microscopy: a key method in proving nanoparticulate zinc oxide sunscreen safety. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2020; 25:1-19. [PMID: 31939224 PMCID: PMC7008509 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.25.1.014509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We describe the contribution of our in vivo multiphoton microscopy (MPM) studies over the last ten years with DermaInspect;® (JenLab, Germany), a CE-certified medical tomograph based on detection of fluorescent biomolecules, to the assessment of possible penetration of nanoparticulate zinc oxide in sunscreen through human skin. At the time we started our work, there was a strong movement for the precautionary principle to be applied to the use of nanoparticles in consumer products due to a lack of knowledge. The combined application of different MPM modalities, including spectral imaging, fluorescence lifetime imaging, second harmonic fluorescence generation, and phosphorescence microscopy, has provided overwhelming evidence that nanoparticle zinc oxide particles do not penetrate human skin when applied to various skin types with a range of methods of topical sunscreen application. MPM has also been used to study the viable epidermal morphology and redox state in supporting the safe use of topical zinc oxide nanoparticles. The impact of this work is emphasized by the recent proposed rule by the United States FDA on Sunscreen Drug Products for Over-the-Counter Human Use, which listed only zinc oxide and titanium dioxide of the currently marketed products to be generally recognized as safe and effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousuf H. Mohammed
- University of Queensland, University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, Therapeutics Research Group, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Deborah S. Barkauskas
- University of Queensland, University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, Therapeutics Research Group, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Amy Holmes
- University of South Australia, Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Medical Research, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Grice
- University of Queensland, University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, Therapeutics Research Group, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael S. Roberts
- University of Queensland, University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, Therapeutics Research Group, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
- University of South Australia, Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Medical Research, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Adelaide, Australia
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Perevedentseva E, Ali N, Karmenyan A, Skovorodkin I, Prunskaite-Hyyryläinen R, Vainio S, Cheng CL, Kinnunen M. Optical Studies of Nanodiamond-Tissue Interaction: Skin Penetration and Localization. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 12:E3762. [PMID: 31731700 PMCID: PMC6888210 DOI: 10.3390/ma12223762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In this work, several optical-spectroscopic methods have been used to visualize and investigate the penetration of diamond nanoparticles (NPs) of various sizes (3-150 nm), surface structures and fluorescence properties into the animal skin in vitro. Murine skin samples have been treated with nanodiamond (ND) water suspensions and studied using optical coherence tomography (OCT), confocal and two-photon fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM). An analysis of the optical properties of the used nanodiamonds (NDs) enables the selection of optimal optical methods or their combination for the study of nanodiamond-skin interaction. Among studied NDs, particles of 100 nm in nominal size were shown to be appropriate for multimodal imaging using all three methods. All the applied NDs were able to cross the skin barrier and penetrate the different layers of the epidermis to finally arrive in the hair follicle niches. The results suggest that NDs have the potential for multifunctional applications utilizing multimodal imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Perevedentseva
- Department of Physics, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien 97401, Taiwan; (E.P.); (A.K.)
- P.N. Lebedev Physics Institute of Rus. Acad. Sci., Moscow 119991, Russia
- Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland
| | - Nsrein Ali
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu 90220, Finland; (N.A.); (I.S.); (R.P.-H.); (S.V.)
| | - Artashes Karmenyan
- Department of Physics, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien 97401, Taiwan; (E.P.); (A.K.)
- Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland
| | - Ilya Skovorodkin
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu 90220, Finland; (N.A.); (I.S.); (R.P.-H.); (S.V.)
| | - Renata Prunskaite-Hyyryläinen
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu 90220, Finland; (N.A.); (I.S.); (R.P.-H.); (S.V.)
| | - Seppo Vainio
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu 90220, Finland; (N.A.); (I.S.); (R.P.-H.); (S.V.)
- Borealis Biobank of Northern Finland, University of Oulu, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu 90220, Finland
| | - Chia-Liang Cheng
- Department of Physics, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien 97401, Taiwan; (E.P.); (A.K.)
| | - Matti Kinnunen
- Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland
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10
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Sdobnov AY, Lademann J, Darvin ME, Tuchin VV. Methods for Optical Skin Clearing in Molecular Optical Imaging in Dermatology. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2019; 84:S144-S158. [PMID: 31213200 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297919140098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
This short review describes recent progress in using optical clearing (OC) technique in skin studies. Optical clearing is an efficient tool for enhancing the probing depth and data quality in multiphoton microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Here, we discuss the main mechanisms of OC, its safety, advantages, and limitations. The data on the OC effect on the skin water content are presented. It was demonstrated that 70% glycerol and 100% OmnipaqueTM 300 reduce the water content in the skin. Both OC agents (OCAs) significantly affect the strongly bound and weakly bound water. However, OmnipaqueTM 300 causes considerably less skin dehydration than glycerol. In addition, the results of examination of the OC effect on autofluorescence in two-photon excitation and background fluorescence in Raman scattering at different skin depths are presented. It is shown that OmnipaqueTM 300 is a promising OCA due to its ability to reduce background fluorescence in the upper skin layers. The possibility of multimodal imaging combining optical methods and OC technique is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Yu Sdobnov
- Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu, Oulu, 90570, Finland. .,Research-Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov State University, Saratov, 410012, Russia
| | - J Lademann
- Center of Experimental and Applied Cutaneous Physiology, Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, 10117, Germany
| | - M E Darvin
- Center of Experimental and Applied Cutaneous Physiology, Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, 10117, Germany
| | - V V Tuchin
- Research-Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov State University, Saratov, 410012, Russia.,Laboratory of Laser Diagnostics of Technical and Living Systems, Institute of Precision Mechanics and Control, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saratov, 410028, Russia.,Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biophotonics, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, 634050, Russia.,Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
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11
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Tsuga Y, Katou M, Kuwabara S, Kanamori T, Ogura SI, Okazaki S, Ohtani H, Yuasa H. A Twist-Assisted Biphenyl Photosensitizer Passable Through Glucose Channel. Chem Asian J 2019; 14:2067-2071. [PMID: 30942532 DOI: 10.1002/asia.201900378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
While the development of low-molecular-weight drugs is saturating, agents for photodynamic therapies (PDTs) may become alternative seeds in pharmaceutical industry. Among them, orally administrative, cancer-selective, and side effect-free photosensitizers (PSs) that can be activated by tissue-penetrative near-infrared (NIR) lights are strongly demanded. We discovered such a PS from scratch by focusing on a twist-assisted spin-orbit charge transfer intersystem crossing (ISC) mechanism in a biphenyl derivative, which was demonstrated by thorough photophysical studies. The unique ISC mechanism enables the PS to be small and slim so as to pass through glucose transporters and exert a PDT effect selectively on a cancer cell line. The smallness will allow for oral administration and fast clearance, which have been agenda of approved PSs with larger molecular weights. We also demonstrated that our PS was able to be activated with an NIR pulse laser through two-photon excitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Tsuga
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, J2-10 4259 Nagatsuta, Midoriku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Masataka Katou
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, J2-10 4259 Nagatsuta, Midoriku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Satoshi Kuwabara
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, J2-10 4259 Nagatsuta, Midoriku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Takashi Kanamori
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, J2-10 4259 Nagatsuta, Midoriku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Shun-Ichiro Ogura
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, J2-10 4259 Nagatsuta, Midoriku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Shigetoshi Okazaki
- Department of Medical Spectroscopy, Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Handayama 1-20-1, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ohtani
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, J2-10 4259 Nagatsuta, Midoriku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Hideya Yuasa
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, J2-10 4259 Nagatsuta, Midoriku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
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12
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Alex A, Frey S, Angelene H, Neitzel C, Li J, Bower A, Spillman D, Marjanovic M, Chaney E, Medler J, Lee W, Vasist Johnson L, Boppart S, Arp Z. In situ
biodistribution and residency of a topical anti‐inflammatory using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. Br J Dermatol 2018; 179:1342-1350. [DOI: 10.1111/bjd.16992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - J. Li
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - A.J. Bower
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - D.R. Spillman
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - M. Marjanovic
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - E.J. Chaney
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | | | - W. Lee
- Carle Foundation Hospital Urbana IL U.S.A
| | | | - S.A. Boppart
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - Z. Arp
- GSK, Collegeville PA U.S.A
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13
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Batista A, Breunig HG, König A, Morgado AM, König K. Assessment of the metabolism and morphology of the porcine cornea, lens and retina by 2-photon imaging. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2018; 11:e201700324. [PMID: 29575612 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201700324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon imaging is a noninvasive imaging technique with increasing importance in the biological and medical fields since it allows intratissue cell imaging with high resolution. We demonstrate the feasibility of using a single 2-photon instrument to evaluate the cornea, the crystalline lens and the retina based on their autofluorescence (AF). Image acquisition was performed using a custom-built 2-photon microscope for 5-dimensional microscopy with a near infrared broadband sub-15 femtosecond laser centered at 800 nanometers. Signals were detected using a spectral photomultiplier tube. The spectral ranges for the analysis of each tissue/layer AF were determined based on the spectra of each tissue as well as of pure endogenous fluorophores. The cornea, lens and retina are characterized at multiple depths with subcellular resolution based on their morphology and AF lifetime. Additionally, the AF lifetime of NAD(P)H was used to assess the metabolic activity of the cornea epithelium, endothelium and keratocytes. The feasibility to evaluate the metabolic activity of lens epithelial cells was also demonstrated, which may be used to further investigate the pathogenesis of cataracts. The results illustrate the potential of multimodal multiphoton imaging as a novel ophthalmologic technique as well as its potential as a diagnostic tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Batista
- Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Hans G Breunig
- Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Aisada König
- Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - António M Morgado
- Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research/Institute of Nuclear Sciences Applied to Heath (CIBIT/ICNAS), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Karsten König
- Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Saarbrücken, Germany
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14
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Jeong S, Hermsmeier M, Osseiran S, Yamamoto A, Nagavarapu U, Chan KF, Evans CL. Visualization of drug distribution of a topical minocycline gel in human facial skin. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 9:3434-3448. [PMID: 29984108 PMCID: PMC6033575 DOI: 10.1364/boe.9.003434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Acne vulgaris is a common chronic skin disease in young adults caused by infection of the pilosebaceous unit, resulting in pimples and possibly permanent scarring on the skin. Minocycline, a common antibiotic, has been widely utilized as a systemic antimicrobial treatment for acne via oral administration. Recently, a topical minocycline gel (BPX-01) was developed to directly deliver minocycline through the epidermis and into the pilosebaceous unit to achieve localized treatment with lower doses of drug. As the effectiveness of the drug is directly related to its successful delivery, there is a need to evaluate the pharmacokinetics at the cellular level within tissue. Advantageously, minocycline is naturally fluorescent and can be directly visualized using microscopy-based approaches. Due to high endogenous autofluorescence, however, imaging of weakly emitting fluorescent molecules such as minocycline in skin tissue can be challenging. Here, we demonstrate a method for the selective visualization of minocycline within human skin tissue by utilizing two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) microscopy and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). To demonstrate the feasibility of this approach, ex vivo human facial skin samples treated with various concentrations of BPX-01 were investigated. From the TPEF analysis, we were able to visualize relatively high levels of drug uptake within facial skin. However, minocycline fluorescence could be overwhelmed by endogenous fluorescence that complicates TPEF quantitative analysis, making FLIM more advantageous for visualizing drug uptake. Importantly, we found a unique signature of minocycline uptake via FLIM analysis that enabled the successful differentiation of the drug and enabled the extraction of drug local distribution from the endogenous fluorescence using a non-Euclidean phasor analysis method. Based on these results, we believe that the drug local distribution visualization method using TPEF and FLIM with phasor analysis can play an important role in studying the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a topically applicable drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinyoung Jeong
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | - Maiko Hermsmeier
- BioPharmX, Inc., 1505 Adams Drive, Suite D, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Sam Osseiran
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue E25-519, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Akira Yamamoto
- BioPharmX, Inc., 1505 Adams Drive, Suite D, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Usha Nagavarapu
- BioPharmX, Inc., 1505 Adams Drive, Suite D, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Kin F. Chan
- BioPharmX, Inc., 1505 Adams Drive, Suite D, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Conor L. Evans
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
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15
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Sdobnov AY, Darvin ME, Genina EA, Bashkatov AN, Lademann J, Tuchin VV. Recent progress in tissue optical clearing for spectroscopic application. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2018; 197:216-229. [PMID: 29433855 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2018.01.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
This paper aims to review recent progress in optical clearing of the skin and over naturally turbid biological tissues and blood using this technique in vivo and in vitro with multiphoton microscopy, confocal Raman microscopy, confocal microscopy, NIR spectroscopy, optical coherence tomography, and laser speckle contrast imaging. Basic principles of the technique, its safety, advantages and limitations are discussed. The application of optical clearing agent on a tissue allows for controlling the optical properties of tissue. Optical clearing-induced reduction of tissue scattering significantly facilitates the observation of deep-located tissue regions, at the same time improving the resolution and image contrast for a variety of optical imaging methods suitable for clinical applications, such as diagnostics and laser treatment of skin diseases, mucosal tumor imaging, laser disruption of pathological abnormalities, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Yu Sdobnov
- Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland; Research-Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov State University (National Research University of Russia), Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012 Saratov, Russian Federation.
| | - M E Darvin
- Center of Experimental and Applied Cutaneous Physiology, Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - E A Genina
- Research-Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov State University (National Research University of Russia), Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012 Saratov, Russian Federation; Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biophotonics, Tomsk State University (National Research University of Russia), Lenin's av. 36, 634050 Tomsk, Russian Federation
| | - A N Bashkatov
- Research-Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov State University (National Research University of Russia), Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012 Saratov, Russian Federation; Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biophotonics, Tomsk State University (National Research University of Russia), Lenin's av. 36, 634050 Tomsk, Russian Federation
| | - J Lademann
- Center of Experimental and Applied Cutaneous Physiology, Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - V V Tuchin
- Research-Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov State University (National Research University of Russia), Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012 Saratov, Russian Federation; Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biophotonics, Tomsk State University (National Research University of Russia), Lenin's av. 36, 634050 Tomsk, Russian Federation; Laboratory of Laser Diagnostics of Technical and Living Systems, Institute of Precision Mechanics and Control RAS, Rabochaya 24, 410028 Saratov, Russian Federation
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16
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Batista A, Breunig HG, König A, Schindele A, Hager T, Seitz B, König K. High-resolution, label-free two-photon imaging of diseased human corneas. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2018; 23:1-8. [PMID: 29500874 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.23.3.036002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The diagnosis of corneal diseases may be improved by monitoring the metabolism of cells and the structural organization of the stroma using two-photon imaging (TPI). We used TPI to assess the differences between nonpathological (NP) human corneas and corneas diagnosed with either keratoconus, Acanthamoeba keratitis, or stromal corneal scars. Images were acquired using a custom-built five-dimensional laser-scanning microscope with a broadband sub-15 femtosecond near-infrared pulsed excitation laser and a 16-channel photomultiplier tube detector in combination with a time-correlated single photon counting module. Morphological alterations of epithelial cells were observed for all pathologies. Moreover, diseased corneas showed alterations to the cells' metabolism that were revealed using the NAD(P)H free to protein-bound ratios. The mean autofluorescence lifetime of the stroma and the organization of the collagen fibers were also significantly altered due to the pathologies. We demonstrate that TPI can be used to distinguish between NP and diseased human corneas, based not only on alterations of the cells' morphology, which can also be evaluated using current clinical devices, but on additional morphological and functional features such as the organization of the stroma and the cells' metabolism. Therefore, TPI could become an efficient tool for diagnosing corneal diseases and better understanding the biological processes of the diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Batista
- Saarland University, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Jena, Germany
| | - Hans Georg Breunig
- Saarland University, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Jena, Germany
| | - Aisada König
- Saarland University, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Tobias Hager
- Saarland University, Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Saarland University, Lions Cornea Bank Saar-Lor-Lux, Trier/Westpfalz, Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Berthold Seitz
- Saarland University, Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Saarland University, Lions Cornea Bank Saar-Lor-Lux, Trier/Westpfalz, Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Karsten König
- Saarland University, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Saarbrücken, Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Jena, Germany
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17
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Springer S, Zieger M, Hipler UC, König K, Lademann J, Kaatz M, Koehler MJ. Non‐invasive evaluation of human mucosal structures by multiphoton laser scanning tomography in vitro. Skin Res Technol 2018; 24:445-449. [DOI: 10.1111/srt.12451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Springer
- Department of DermatologyUniversity Hospital Jena Jena Germany
| | - M. Zieger
- Department of DermatologyUniversity Hospital Jena Jena Germany
- Department of DermatologySRH Wald‐Klinikum Gera GmbH Gera GmbH Germany
| | - U. C. Hipler
- Department of DermatologyUniversity Hospital Jena Jena Germany
| | | | - J. Lademann
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and AllergologyCenter of Experimental and Cutaneous Physiology (CCP)Charité‐Universitätsmedizin Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - M. Kaatz
- Department of DermatologyUniversity Hospital Jena Jena Germany
- Department of DermatologySRH Wald‐Klinikum Gera GmbH Gera GmbH Germany
| | - M. J. Koehler
- Department of DermatologyUniversity Hospital Jena Jena Germany
- Department of DermatologySRH Zentralklinikum Suhl Suhl Germany
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18
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Osseiran S, Roider EM, Wang H, Suita Y, Murphy M, Fisher DE, Evans CL. Non-Euclidean phasor analysis for quantification of oxidative stress in ex vivo human skin exposed to sun filters using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2017; 22:1-10. [PMID: 29222855 PMCID: PMC5722918 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.22.12.125004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Chemical sun filters are commonly used as active ingredients in sunscreens due to their efficient absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Yet, it is known that these compounds can photochemically react with UV light and generate reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in vitro, though this has yet to be validated in vivo. One label-free approach to probe oxidative stress is to measure and compare the relative endogenous fluorescence generated by cellular coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotides and flavin adenine dinucleotides. However, chemical sun filters are fluorescent, with emissive properties that contaminate endogenous fluorescent signals. To accurately distinguish the source of fluorescence in ex vivo skin samples treated with chemical sun filters, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy data were processed on a pixel-by-pixel basis using a non-Euclidean separation algorithm based on Mahalanobis distance and validated on simulated data. Applying this method, ex vivo samples exhibited a small oxidative shift when exposed to sun filters alone, though this shift was much smaller than that imparted by UV irradiation. Given the need for investigative tools to further study the clinical impact of chemical sun filters in patients, the reported methodology may be applied to visualize chemical sun filters and measure oxidative stress in patients' skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Osseiran
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Elisabeth M. Roider
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Hequn Wang
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Yusuke Suita
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Michael Murphy
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
| | - David E. Fisher
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Conor L. Evans
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Conor L. Evans, E-mail:
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19
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Sdobnov A, Darvin ME, Lademann J, Tuchin V. A comparative study of ex vivo skin optical clearing using two-photon microscopy. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2017; 10:1115-1123. [PMID: 28133923 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201600066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Multiphoton tomography (MPT) is a prospective tool for imaging the skin structure. Aiming to increase the probing depth, a comparative ex vivo study of optical clearing of porcine ear skin was performed by using two optical clearing agents (OCAs), i.e., glycerol and iohexol (OmnipaqueTM ) at different concentrations, which exhibit different osmotic properties. The results show that a topical application of glycerol or OmnipaqueTM solutions onto the skin for 60 min significantly improved the depth and contrast of the MPT signals. By utilizing 40%, 60% and 100% glycerol, and 60% and 100% OmnipaqueTM it was demonstrated that both agents improve autofluorescence and SHG (second harmonic generation) signals from the skin. At the applied concentrations and agent time exposure, glycerol is more effective than OmnipaqueTM . However, tissue shrinkage and cell morphology changes were found for highly concentrated glycerol solutions. OmnipaqueTM , on the contrary, increases the safety and has no or minimal tissue shrinkage during the optical clearing process. Moreover OmnipaqueTM allows for robust multimodal optical/X-ray imaging with automatically matched optically cleared and X-ray contrasted tissue volumes. These findings make OmnipaqueTM more prospective than glycerol for some particular application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Sdobnov
- Research-Education Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov National Research State University, Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012, Saratov, Russian Federation
| | - Maxim E Darvin
- Center of Experimental and Applied Cutaneous Physiology, Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Juergen Lademann
- Center of Experimental and Applied Cutaneous Physiology, Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Valery Tuchin
- Research-Education Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, Saratov National Research State University, Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012, Saratov, Russian Federation
- Laboratory of Laser Diagnostics of Technical and Living Systems, Institute of Precision Mechanics and Control RAS, Rabochaya 24, 410028, Saratov, Russian Federation
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biophotonics, National Research Tomsk State University, Lenin's av. 36, 634050, Tomsk, Russian Federation
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20
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Abstract
Elastic liposomes have been developed and evaluated as novel topical and transdermal delivery systems. They share some similarities to conventional liposomes but their composition is designed to confer flexibility and elasticity in the lipid bilayer structure. Elastic liposomes are applied non-occluded to the skin and are reported to permeate through the stratum corneum lipid lamellar regions as a result of the hydration or osmotic force in the skin. They have been investigated as drug carriers for a range of small molecules, peptides, proteins, and vaccines, both in vitro and in vivo. Following topical application, structural changes in the stratum corneum have been identified and intact elastic liposomes visualized within the stratum corneum lipid lamellar regions, but evidence of intact liposomes in the deeper viable tissues is limited. The method by which they transport their drug payload into and through the skin has been investigated but remains an area of contention. This chapter provides an overview of the development, characterization, and evaluation of elastic liposomes for delivery into and via the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather A E Benson
- School of Pharmacy, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, G.P.O. Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia.
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21
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Efficacy, Safety and Targets in Topical and Transdermal Active and Excipient Delivery. PERCUTANEOUS PENETRATION ENHANCERS DRUG PENETRATION INTO/THROUGH THE SKIN 2017. [PMCID: PMC7121119 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-53270-6_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
A key requirement for topical and transdermal active delivery is the effective delivery of an active to a desired target site, to achieve both safe and efficacious outcomes. This chapter seeks to explore the importance of the pharmacological, toxicological and therapeutic properties of actives and excipients, as well as the site of action as complementary components in percutaneous absorption. This is crucial for optimized topical and transdermal product design.
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22
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Boreham A, Volz P, Peters D, Keck CM, Alexiev U. Determination of nanostructures and drug distribution in lipid nanoparticles by single molecule microscopy. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2017; 110:31-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2016.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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23
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Labiadh H, Lahbib K, Hidouri S, Touil S, Chaabane TBEN. Insight of ZnS nanoparticles contribution in different biological uses. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2016; 9:757-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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24
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Batista A, Breunig HG, Uchugonova A, Morgado AM, König K. Two-photon spectral fluorescence lifetime and second-harmonic generation imaging of the porcine cornea with a 12-femtosecond laser microscope. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2016; 21:36002. [PMID: 26953661 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.21.3.036002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Five dimensional microscopy with a 12-fs laser scanning microscope based on spectrally resolved two-photon autofluorescence lifetime and second-harmonic generation (SHG) imaging was used to characterize all layers of the porcine cornea. This setup allowed the simultaneous excitation of both metabolic cofactors, NAD(P)H and flavins, and their discrimination based on their spectral emission properties and fluorescence decay characteristics. Furthermore, the architecture of the stromal collagen fibrils was assessed by SHG imaging in both forward and backward directions. Information on the metabolic state and the tissue architecture of the porcine cornea were obtained with subcellular resolution, and high temporal and spectral resolutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Batista
- Saarland University, Faculty of Physics and Mechatronics, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Campus A5.1, Saarbrücken 66123, GermanybUniversity of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences, Azinhaga San
| | - Hans Georg Breunig
- Saarland University, Faculty of Physics and Mechatronics, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Campus A5.1, Saarbrücken 66123, GermanycJenLab GmbH, Schillerstr. 1, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Aisada Uchugonova
- Saarland University, Faculty of Physics and Mechatronics, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Campus A5.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - António Miguel Morgado
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences, Azinhaga Santa Comba-Celas, Coimbra 3000-548, PortugaldUniversity of Coimbra, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Department of Physics, Rua Larga, Coimbra 300
| | - Karsten König
- Saarland University, Faculty of Physics and Mechatronics, Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology, Campus A5.1, Saarbrücken 66123, GermanycJenLab GmbH, Schillerstr. 1, Jena 07745, Germany
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Liang X, Wang H, Zhu Y, Zhang R, Cogger VC, Liu X, Xu ZP, Grice JE, Roberts MS. Short- and Long-Term Tracking of Anionic Ultrasmall Nanoparticles in Kidney. ACS NANO 2016; 10:387-395. [PMID: 26743581 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b05066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
While biodistribution of nanoparticles (NPs) has been widely studied at the organ level, relatively little is known about their disposition in organs at the cellular level, especially after long-term exposure. The kidney is regarded as the key organ for the clearance of ultrasmall NPs (<5.5 nm). However, recent studies indicate that NPs in this size range could accumulate in the kidney for extended times without urinary excretion. Using negatively charged quantum dots (QDs) (∼3.7 nm) as a model system, we examined the suborgan disposition of anionic ultrasmall NPs in the kidney at the cellular level after intravenous injection by multiphoton microscopy coupled with fluorescence lifetime imaging. Most of the NPs were initially distributed in the peritubular capillaries or glomerular arterioles after injection, whereas they passed through the fenestrated glomerular endothelium and were gradually taken up by mesangial cells up to 30 days after injection. Only trace amounts of anionic QDs could be detected in the urine, which could be attributed to the barrier of the anionic glomerular basement membrane preventing filtration of anionic QDs. In contrast, cationic QDs of similar size (∼5.67 nm) were found to be readily excreted into urine. This study thus highlights the importance of surface charge in determining renal clearance of ultrasmall NPs. It provides a framework for characterizing and predicting the subcellular disposition in organs and long-term targeting of other NPs, with a physiologically based kinetic model being subsequently developed to describe the suborgan kinetics of anionic ultrasmall NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Liang
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland , Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Haolu Wang
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland , Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Yian Zhu
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland , Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Run Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University , Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Victoria C Cogger
- Centre for Education and Research on Ageing and the ANZAC Research Institute, The University of Sydney , Concord Hospital, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - Xin Liu
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland , Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Zhi Ping Xu
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland , St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jeffrey E Grice
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland , Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Michael S Roberts
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland , Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Science, University of South Australia , Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
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26
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[Methods for measuring skin aging]. Hautarzt 2016; 67:117-24. [PMID: 26746403 DOI: 10.1007/s00105-015-3752-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Aging affects human skin and is becoming increasingly important with regard to medical, social and aesthetic issues. Detection of intrinsic and extrinsic components of skin aging requires reliable measurement methods. Modern techniques, e.g., based on direct imaging, spectroscopy or skin physiological measurements, provide a broad spectrum of parameters for different applications.
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Software-aided automatic laser optoporation and transfection of cells. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11185. [PMID: 26053047 PMCID: PMC4459191 DOI: 10.1038/srep11185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Optoporation, the permeabilization of a cell membrane by laser pulses, has emerged as a powerful non-invasive and highly efficient technique to induce transfection of cells. However, the usual tedious manual targeting of individual cells significantly limits the addressable cell number. To overcome this limitation, we present an experimental setup with custom-made software control, for computer-automated cell optoporation. The software evaluates the image contrast of cell contours, automatically designates cell locations for laser illumination, centres those locations in the laser focus, and executes the illumination. By software-controlled meandering of the sample stage, in principle all cells in a typical cell culture dish can be targeted without further user interaction. The automation allows for a significant increase in the number of treatable cells compared to a manual approach. For a laser illumination duration of 100 ms, 7-8 positions on different cells can be targeted every second inside the area of the microscope field of view. The experimental capabilities of the setup are illustrated in experiments with Chinese hamster ovary cells. Furthermore, the influence of laser power is discussed, with mention on post-treatment cell survival and optoporation-efficiency rates.
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Liang X, Grice JE, Zhu Y, Liu D, Sanchez WY, Li Z, Crawford DHG, Le Couteur DG, Cogger VC, Liu X, Xu ZP, Roberts MS. Intravital multiphoton imaging of the selective uptake of water-dispersible quantum dots into sinusoidal liver cells. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2015; 11:1711-20. [PMID: 25504510 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201402698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Although many studies reporting the organ-level biodistribution of nanoparticles (NPs) in animals, very few have addressed the fate of NPs in organs at the cellular level. The liver appears to be the main organ for accumulation of NPs after intravenous injection. In this study, for the first time, the in vivo spatiotemporal disposition of recently developed mercaptosuccinic acid (MSA)-capped cadmium telluride/cadmium sulfide (CdTe/CdS) quantum dots (QDs) is explored in rat liver using multiphoton microscopy (MPM) coupled with fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM), with subcellular resolution (∼1 μm). With high fluorescence efficiency and largely improved stability in the biological environment, these QDs show a distinct distribution pattern in the liver compared to organic dyes, rhodamine 123 and fluorescein. After intravenous injection, fluorescent molecules are taken up by hepatocytes and excreted into the bile, while negatively charged QDs are retained in the sinusoids and selectively taken up by sinusoidal cells (Kupffer cells and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells), but not by hepatocytes within 3 h. The results could help design NPs targeting the specific types of liver cells and choose the fluorescent markers for appropriate cellular imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Liang
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
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Liu X, Kruger P, Maibach H, Colditz PB, Roberts MS. Using skin for drug delivery and diagnosis in the critically ill. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 77:40-9. [PMID: 25305335 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Skin offers easy access, convenience and non-invasiveness for drug delivery and diagnosis. In principle, these advantages of skin appear to be attractive for critically ill patients given potential difficulties that may be associated with oral and parenteral access in these patients. However, the profound changes in skin physiology that can be seen in these patients provide a challenge to reliably deliver drugs or provide diagnostic information. Drug delivery through skin may be used to manage burn injury, wounds, infection, trauma and the multisystem complications that rise from these conditions. Local anaesthetics and analgesics can be delivered through skin and may have wide application in critically ill patients. To ensure accurate information, diagnostic tools require validation in the critically ill patient population as information from other patient populations may not be applicable.
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Breunig HG, Weinigel M, König K. In Vivo Imaging of ZnO Nanoparticles from Sunscreen on Human Skin with a Mobile Multiphoton Tomograph. BIONANOSCIENCE 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s12668-014-0155-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Koenig K. Hybrid multiphoton multimodal tomography of in vivo human skin. INTRAVITAL 2014. [DOI: 10.4161/intv.21938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Breunig HG, Uchugonova A, Batista A, König K. High-throughput continuous flow femtosecond laser-assisted cell optoporation and transfection. Microsc Res Tech 2014; 77:974-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hans Georg Breunig
- Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology; Saarland University, Faculty of Mechatronics and Physics; Campus A5.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Schillerstr. 1, 07745 Jena, Germany and Science Park 2; Campus D1.2 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Aisada Uchugonova
- Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology; Saarland University, Faculty of Mechatronics and Physics; Campus A5.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Schillerstr. 1, 07745 Jena, Germany and Science Park 2; Campus D1.2 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Ana Batista
- Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology; Saarland University, Faculty of Mechatronics and Physics; Campus A5.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Karsten König
- Department of Biophotonics and Laser Technology; Saarland University, Faculty of Mechatronics and Physics; Campus A5.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
- JenLab GmbH, Schillerstr. 1, 07745 Jena, Germany and Science Park 2; Campus D1.2 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
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Tong PL, Qin J, Cooper CL, Lowe PM, Murrell DF, Kossard S, Ng LG, Roediger B, Weninger W, Haass NK. A quantitative approach to histopathological dissection of elastin-related disorders using multiphoton microscopy. Br J Dermatol 2014; 169:869-79. [PMID: 23662922 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.12430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiphoton microscopy (MPM) is a novel imaging technology that has recently become applicable for diagnostic purposes. The use of (near) infrared light in MPM allows for deep tissue imaging. In addition, this modality exploits the autofluorescent nature of extracellular matrix fibres within the skin. OBJECTIVES To quantitate the structure and abundance of elastic fibres in human dermis in three dimensions utilizing autofluorescent signals generated by MPM for the objective examination of elastin-related skin disorders. METHODS Cross-sections of skin samples from elastin-related disorders were analysed by MPM and correlated to histopathology. In situ visualization of elastic fibres by MPM was conducted by en face imaging of ex vivo skin samples through the intact epidermis. Image analysis software was used to quantify elastic fibres in three dimensions. RESULTS Based on the MPM-detected elastin-specific autofluorescence, we developed the Dermal Elastin Morphology Index (DEMI), calculated as the ratio of elastic fibre surface area and volume. This enabled objective three-dimensional quantification of elastic fibres. Quantitative scoring of sun-damaged skin using DEMI correlated with qualitative histopathological grading of the severity of solar elastosis. Furthermore, this approach was applied to changes in elastic fibre architecture in other disorders, such as pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), PXE-like syndrome, elastofibroma, focal dermal elastosis, anetoderma, mid-dermal elastolysis and striae distensae. We imaged elastic fibres in intact ex vivo skin imaged en face through the epidermis, indicating that this approach could be used in vivo. CONCLUSIONS MPM has the potential for noninvasive in vivo visualization of elastic fibres in the dermis with near histological resolution. DEMI allows objective assessment of elastic fibres to support diagnosis and monitoring of disease progress or therapy of elastin-related skin disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- P L Tong
- Centenary Institute, Newtown, NSW, Australia; Discipline of Dermatology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; Department of Dermatology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
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Bloksgaard M, Brewer JR, Pashkovski E, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Sørensen JA, Bagatolli LA. Effect of detergents on the physicochemical properties of skin stratum corneum: a two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy study. Int J Cosmet Sci 2013; 36:39-45. [PMID: 23962033 DOI: 10.1111/ics.12089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Understanding the structural and dynamical features of skin is critical for advancing innovation in personal care and drug discovery. Synthetic detergent mixtures used in commercially available body wash products are thought to be less aggressive towards the skin barrier when compared to conventional detergents. The aim of this work is to comparatively characterize the effect of a mild synthetic cleanser mixture (SCM) and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) on the hydration state of the intercellular lipid matrix and on proton activity of excised skin stratum corneum (SC). METHOD Experiments were performed using two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy. Fluorescent images of fluorescence reporters sensitive to proton activity and hydration of SC were obtained in excised skin and examined in the presence and absence of SCM and SDS detergents. RESULTS Hydration of the intercellular lipid matrix to a depth of 10 μm into the SC was increased upon treatment with SCM, whereas SDS shows this effect only at the very surface of SC. The proton activity of SC remained unaffected by treatment with either detergent. CONCLUSION While our study indicates that the SC is very resistant to external stimuli, it also shows that, in contrast to the response to SDS, SCM to some extent modulates the in-depth hydration properties of the intercellular lipid matrix within excised skin SC.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bloksgaard
- Membrane Biophysics and Biophotonics Group/MEMPHYS-Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - J R Brewer
- Membrane Biophysics and Biophotonics Group/MEMPHYS-Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - E Pashkovski
- Unilever R&D, 40 Merritt Blvd., Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | | | - J A Sørensen
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Odense University Hospital, DK-5000, Odense C, Denmark
| | - L A Bagatolli
- Membrane Biophysics and Biophotonics Group/MEMPHYS-Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
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37
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Leite-Silva VR, Lamer ML, Sanchez WY, Liu DC, Sanchez WH, Morrow I, Martin D, Silva HD, Prow TW, Grice JE, Roberts MS. The effect of formulation on the penetration of coated and uncoated zinc oxide nanoparticles into the viable epidermis of human skin in vivo. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2013; 84:297-308. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2013.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Revised: 01/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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38
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Kantere D, Guldbrand S, Paoli J, Goksör M, Hanstorp D, Wennberg AM, Smedh M, Ericson MB. Anti-Stokes fluorescence from endogenously formed protoporphyrin IX--implications for clinical multiphoton diagnostics. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2013; 6:409-15. [PMID: 22997024 PMCID: PMC3732385 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201200119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2012] [Revised: 07/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/30/2012] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Multiphoton imaging based on two-photon excitation is making its way into the clinics, particularly for skin cancer diagnostics. It has been suggested that endogenously formed protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) induced by aminolevulinic acid or methylaminolevulinate can be applied to improve tumor contrast, in connection to imaging of tissue autofluorescence. However, previous reports are limited to cell studies and data from tissue are scarce. No report shows conclusive evidence that endogenously formed PpIX increases tumor contrast when performing multiphoton imaging in the clinical situation. We here demonstrate by spectral analysis that two-photon excitation of endogenously formed PpIX does not provide additional contrast in superficial basal cell carcinomas. In fact, the PpIX signal is overshadowed by the autofluorescent background. The results show that PpIX should be excited at a wavelength giving rise to one-photon anti-Stokes fluorescence, to overcome the autofluorescent background. Thus, this study reports on a plausible method, which can be implemented for clinical investigations on endogenously formed PpIX using multiphoton microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Despina Kantere
- Department of Dermatology, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Stina Guldbrand
- Department of Physics, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - John Paoli
- Department of Dermatology, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Mattias Goksör
- Department of Physics, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Dag Hanstorp
- Department of Physics, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Maria Smedh
- Centre for Cellular Imaging, the Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marica B Ericson
- Department of Physics, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
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Bloksgaard M, Brewer J, Bagatolli LA. Structural and dynamical aspects of skin studied by multiphoton excitation fluorescence microscopy-based methods. Eur J Pharm Sci 2013; 50:586-94. [PMID: 23608611 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This mini-review reports on applications of particular multiphoton excitation microscopy-based methodologies employed in our laboratory to study skin. These approaches allow in-depth optical sectioning of the tissue, providing spatially resolved information on specific fluorescence probes' parameters. Specifically, by applying these methods, spatially resolved maps of water dipolar relaxation (generalized polarization function using the 6-lauroyl-2-(N,N-dimethylamino)naphthale probe), activity of protons (fluorescence lifetime imaging using a proton sensitive fluorescence probe--2,7-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein) and diffusion coefficients of distinct fluorescence probes (raster imaging correlation spectroscopy) can be obtained from different regions of the tissue. Comparative studies of different tissue strata, but also between equivalent regions of normal and abnormal excised skin, including applications of fluctuation correlation spectroscopy on transdermal penetration of liposomes are presented and discussed. The data from the different studies reported reveal the intrinsic heterogeneity of skin and also prove these strategies to be powerful noninvasive tools to explore structural and dynamical aspects of the tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bloksgaard
- Membrane Biophysics and Biophotonics group/MEMPHYS, Center for Biomembrane Physics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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40
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Modeling the human skin barrier--towards a better understanding of dermal absorption. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:152-68. [PMID: 22525516 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 04/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Many drugs are presently delivered through the skin from products developed for topical and transdermal applications. Underpinning these technologies are the interactions between the drug, product and skin that define drug penetration, distribution, and elimination in and through the skin. Most work has been focused on modeling transport of drugs through the stratum corneum, the outermost skin layer widely recognized as presenting the rate-determining step for the penetration of most compounds. However, a growing body of literature is dedicated to considering the influence of the rest of the skin on drug penetration and distribution. In this article we review how our understanding of skin physiology and the experimentally observed mechanisms of transdermal drug transport inform the current models of drug penetration and distribution in the skin. Our focus is on models that have been developed to describe particular phenomena observed at particular sites of the skin, reflecting the most recent directions of investigation.
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Spatially resolved two-color diffusion measurements in human skin applied to transdermal liposome penetration. J Invest Dermatol 2012; 133:1260-8. [PMID: 23223136 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2012.461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A multiphoton excitation-based fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy method, Raster image correlation spectroscopy (RICS), was used to measure the local diffusion coefficients of distinct model fluorescent substances in excised human skin. In combination with structural information obtained by multiphoton excitation fluorescence microscopy imaging, the acquired diffusion information was processed to construct spatially resolved diffusion maps at different depths of the stratum corneum (SC). Experiments using amphiphilic and hydrophilic fluorescently labeled molecules show that their diffusion in SC is very heterogeneous on a microscopic scale. This diffusion-based strategy was further exploited to investigate the integrity of liposomes during transdermal penetration. Specifically, the diffusion of dual-color fluorescently labeled liposomes--containing an amphiphilic fluorophore in the lipid bilayer and a hydrophilic fluorophore encapsulated in the liposome lumen--was measured using cross-correlation RICS. This type of experiment allows discrimination between separate (uncorrelated) and joint (correlated) diffusion of the two different fluorescent probes, giving information about liposome integrity. Independent of the liposome composition (phospholipids or transfersomes), our results show a clear lack of cross-correlation below the skin surface, indicating that the penetration of intact liposomes is highly compromised by the skin barrier.
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Vergou T, Patzelt A, Schanzer S, Meinke MC, Weigmann HJ, Thiede G, Sterry W, Lademann J, Darvin ME. Methods for the evaluation of the protective efficacy of sunscreen products. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2012; 26:30-5. [PMID: 23128400 DOI: 10.1159/000343576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The objective of the present investigation was to examine the utilization of optical and spectroscopic methods for the noninvasive characterization of Anthelios XL Fluide Extreme (SPF 50+), an exemplary sunscreen, concerning its homogeneity of distribution on the skin, its spectroscopic properties and its overall protective efficacy. The homogeneity of the distribution of the sunscreen on the skin was investigated with a multiphoton tomography microscope. Additionally, the sum transmission spectrum was determined using tape stripping and spectroscopic measurements. The results revealed a very homogeneous distribution of the sunscreen on the skin surface and also in the deep furrows. The sum transmission spectrum reflects a high protective efficacy of the sunscreen in both the UVA and UVB ranges. The sunscreen Anthelios XL Fluide Extreme (SPF 50+) generates a comfortable feeling on the skin and can be easily distributed. The presented optical methods have been shown to be suitable to investigate the overall protective efficacy of sunscreen products objectively, noninvasively and quickly.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Vergou
- Department of Dermatology, A. Sygros Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Guldbrand S, Kirejev V, Simonsson C, Goksör M, Smedh M, Ericson MB. Two-photon fluorescence correlation spectroscopy as a tool for measuring molecular diffusion within human skin. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2012; 84:430-6. [PMID: 23085333 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2012.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
There is a need for tools enabling quantitative imaging of biological tissue for pharmaceutical applications. In this study, two-photon fluorescence microscopy (TPM) has been combined with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), demonstrating proof-of-principle providing quantitative data of fluorophore concentration and diffusion in human skin. Measurements were performed on excised skin exposed to either rhodamine B (RB) or rhodamine B isothiocyanate (RBITC), chosen based on their similarity in fluorescence yield and molecular weight, but difference in chemical reactivity. The measurements were performed at tissue depths in the range 0 and 20 μm, and the diffusion coefficients at skin depths 5 and 10 μm were found to be significantly different (P<0.05). Overall median values for the diffusion coefficients were found to be 4.0×10(-13) m(2)/s and 2.0×10(-13) m(2)/s for RB and RBITC, respectively. These values correspond to the diffusion of a hard sphere with a volume eight times larger for RBITC compared to RB. This indicates that the RBITC have bound to biomolecules in the skin, and the measured signal is obtained from the RBITC-biomolecule complexes, demonstrating the potential of the TPM-FCS method to track molecular interactions in an intricate biological matrix such as human skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stina Guldbrand
- Department of Physics, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
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Prow TW. Multiphoton microscopy applications in nanodermatology. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2012; 4:680-90. [DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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45
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Patalay R, Talbot C, Alexandrov Y, Lenz MO, Kumar S, Warren S, Munro I, Neil MAA, König K, French PMW, Chu A, Stamp GWH, Dunsby C. Multiphoton multispectral fluorescence lifetime tomography for the evaluation of basal cell carcinomas. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43460. [PMID: 22984428 PMCID: PMC3439453 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the first detailed study using multispectral multiphoton fluorescence lifetime imaging to differentiate basal cell carcinoma cells (BCCs) from normal keratinocytes. Images were acquired from 19 freshly excised BCCs and 27 samples of normal skin (in & ex vivo). Features from fluorescence lifetime images were used to discriminate BCCs with a sensitivity/specificity of 79%/93% respectively. A mosaic of BCC fluorescence lifetime images covering >1 mm2 is also presented, demonstrating the potential for tumour margin delineation. Using 10,462 manually segmented cells from the image data, we quantify the cellular morphology and spectroscopic differences between BCCs and normal skin for the first time. Statistically significant increases were found in the fluorescence lifetimes of cells from BCCs in all spectral channels, ranging from 19.9% (425–515 nm spectral emission) to 39.8% (620–655 nm emission). A discriminant analysis based diagnostic algorithm allowed the fraction of cells classified as malignant to be calculated for each patient. This yielded a receiver operator characteristic area under the curve for the detection of BCC of 0.83. We have used both morphological and spectroscopic parameters to discriminate BCC from normal skin, and provide a comprehensive base for how this technique could be used for BCC assessment in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Patalay
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Dermatology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Clifford Talbot
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yuriy Alexandrov
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin O. Lenz
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sunil Kumar
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sean Warren
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Munro
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A. A. Neil
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Paul M. W. French
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony Chu
- Department of Dermatology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Chris Dunsby
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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46
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Darvin M, König K, Kellner-Hoefer M, Breunig H, Werncke W, Meinke M, Patzelt A, Sterry W, Lademann J. Safety Assessment by Multiphoton Fluorescence/Second Harmonic Generation/Hyper-Rayleigh Scattering Tomography of ZnO Nanoparticles Used in Cosmetic Products. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2012; 25:219-26. [DOI: 10.1159/000338976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2011] [Accepted: 04/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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47
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Multiphoton microscopy. a powerful tool in skin research and topical drug delivery science. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/s1773-2247(12)50036-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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48
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Patalay R, Talbot C, Alexandrov Y, Munro I, Neil MAA, König K, French PMW, Chu A, Stamp GW, Dunsby C. Quantification of cellular autofluorescence of human skin using multiphoton tomography and fluorescence lifetime imaging in two spectral detection channels. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 2:3295-3308. [PMID: 22162820 PMCID: PMC3233249 DOI: 10.1364/boe.2.003295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We explore the diagnostic potential of imaging endogenous fluorophores using two photon microscopy and fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) in human skin with two spectral detection channels. Freshly excised benign dysplastic nevi (DN) and malignant nodular Basal Cell Carcinomas (nBCCs) were excited at 760 nm. The resulting fluorescence signal was binned manually on a cell by cell basis. This improved the reliability of fitting using a double exponential decay model and allowed the fluorescence signatures from different cell populations within the tissue to be identified and studied. We also performed a direct comparison between different diagnostic groups. A statistically significant difference between the median mean fluorescence lifetime of 2.79 ns versus 2.52 ns (blue channel, 300-500 nm) and 2.08 ns versus 1.33 ns (green channel, 500-640 nm) was found between nBCCs and DN respectively, using the Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.01). Further differences in the distribution of fluorescence lifetime parameters and inter-patient variability are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Patalay
- Department of Photonics, Imperial College, South Kensington, Exhibition Road, London, UK
- Department of Dermatology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Du Cane Road, London, UK
| | - Clifford Talbot
- Department of Photonics, Imperial College, South Kensington, Exhibition Road, London, UK
| | - Yuriy Alexandrov
- Department of Photonics, Imperial College, South Kensington, Exhibition Road, London, UK
| | - Ian Munro
- Department of Photonics, Imperial College, South Kensington, Exhibition Road, London, UK
| | - Mark A. A. Neil
- Department of Photonics, Imperial College, South Kensington, Exhibition Road, London, UK
| | | | - Paul M. W. French
- Department of Photonics, Imperial College, South Kensington, Exhibition Road, London, UK
| | - Anthony Chu
- Department of Dermatology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Du Cane Road, London, UK
| | - Gordon W. Stamp
- CRUK London Research Institute, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, UK
| | - Chris Dunsby
- Department of Photonics, Imperial College, South Kensington, Exhibition Road, London, UK
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Du Cane Road, London, UK
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49
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Breunig HG, Bückle R, Kellner-Höfer M, Weinigel M, Lademann J, Sterry W, König K. Combined in vivo multiphoton and CARS imaging of healthy and disease-affected human skin. Microsc Res Tech 2011; 75:492-8. [PMID: 21972128 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.21082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We present combined epi-coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) and multiphoton imaging with both chemical discrimination and subcellular resolution on human skin in vivo. The combination of both image modalities enables label-free imaging of the autofluorescence of endogenous fluorophores by two-photon excited fluorescence, as well as imaging of the distribution of intercellular lipids, topically applied substances and water by CARS. As an example for medical imaging, we investigated healthy and psoriasis-affected human skin with both image modalities in vivo and found indications for different lipid distributions on the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Georg Breunig
- JenLab GmbH, Campus D1.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, and Schillerstr 1, 07745, Jena, Germany.
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