Mutant GlialCAM causes megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts, benign familial macrocephaly, and macrocephaly with retardation and autism

Psychotic attack during the clinical course of megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts: a case report

OBJECTIVES

Van der Knaap disease or megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC), is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disease with macrocephaly. We present a case of MLC with a confirmed homozygous MLC1 mutation who presented with a psychotic attack at a very young age.

CASE PRESENTATION

An 11-year-old girl was admitted to the emergency room with delusions, hallucinations, and irritability. She was diagnosed with MLC at 18 months old. Her psychotic symptoms were improved with the administration of risperidone treatment added to her valproic acid treatment for EEG abnormality.

CONCLUSION

In this case study we reported the first episode of a psychotic attack during the clinical course of MLC. This case indicates the possibility that MLC influences the onset of the psychotic attack. Further investigation with more patients is needed to identify the relationship.

Intragenic homozygous duplication in HEPACAM is associated with megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts type 2A

Disease-causing variants in HEPACAM are associated with megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 2A (MLC2A, MIM# 613,925, autosomal recessive), and megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 2B, remitting, with or without impaired intellectual development (MLC2B, MIM# 613,926, autosomal dominant). These disorders are characterised by macrocephaly, seizures, motor delay, cognitive impairment, ataxia, and spasticity. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in these individuals shows swollen cerebral hemispheric white matter and subcortical cysts, mainly in the frontal and temporal regions. To date, 45 individuals from 39 families are reported with biallelic and heterozygous variants in HEPACAM, causing MLC2A and MLC2B, respectively. A 9-year-old male presented with developmental delay, gait abnormalities, seizures, macrocephaly, dysarthria, spasticity, and hyperreflexia. MRI revealed subcortical cysts with diffuse cerebral white matter involvement. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) in the proband did not reveal any clinically relevant single nucleotide variants. However, copy number variation analysis from the WES data of the proband revealed a copy number of 4 for exons 3 and 4 of HEPACAM. Validation and segregation were done by quantitative PCR which confirmed the homozygous duplication of these exons in the proband and carrier status in both parents. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an intragenic duplication in HEPACAM causing MLC2A.

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts: a variant update and review of the literature

The leukodystrophy megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is characterized by infantile-onset macrocephaly and chronic edema of the brain white matter. With delayed onset, patients typically experience motor problems, epilepsy and slow cognitive decline. No treatment is available. Classic MLC is caused by bi-allelic recessive pathogenic variants in MLC1 or GLIALCAM (also called HEPACAM). Heterozygous dominant pathogenic variants in GLIALCAM lead to remitting MLC, where patients show a similar phenotype in early life, followed by normalization of white matter edema and no clinical regression. Rare patients with heterozygous dominant variants in GPRC5B and classic MLC were recently described. In addition, two siblings with bi-allelic recessive variants in AQP4 and remitting MLC have been identified. The last systematic overview of variants linked to MLC dates back to 2006. We provide an updated overview of published and novel variants. We report on genetic variants from 508 patients with MLC as confirmed by MRI diagnosis (258 from our database and 250 extracted from 64 published reports). We describe 151 unique MLC1 variants, 29 GLIALCAM variants, 2 GPRC5B variants and 1 AQP4 variant observed in these MLC patients. We include experiments confirming pathogenicity for some variants, discuss particularly notable variants, and provide an overview of recent scientific and clinical insight in the pathophysiology of MLC.

The IgCAM BT-IgSF (IgSF11) is essential for connexin43-mediated astrocyte-astrocyte coupling in mice

The type I transmembrane protein BT-IgSF is predominantly localized in the brain and testes. It belongs to the CAR subgroup of Ig cell adhesion proteins, that are hypothesized to regulate connexin expression or localization. Here, we studied the putative link between BT-IgSF and connexins in astrocytes, ependymal cells and neurons of the mouse. Global knockout of BT-IgSF caused an increase in the clustering of connexin43 (Gja1), but not of connexin30 (Gjb6), on astrocytes and ependymal cells. Additionally, knockout animals displayed reduced expression levels of connexin43 protein in the cortex and hippocampus. Importantly, analysis of biocytin spread in hippocampal or cortical slices from mature mice of either sex revealed a decrease in astrocytic cell-cell coupling in the absence of BT-IgSF. Blocking either protein biosynthesis or proteolysis showed that the lysosomal pathway increased connexin43 degradation in astrocytes. Localization of connexin43 in subcellular compartments was not impaired in astrocytes of BT-IgSF mutants. In contrast to connexin43 the localization and expression of connexin36 (Gjd2) on neurons was not affected by the absence of BT-IgSF. Overall, our data indicate that the IgCAM BT-IgSF is essential for correct gap junction-mediated astrocyte-to-astrocyte cell communication.Significance Statement Astrocytes regulate a variety of physiological processes in the developing and adult brain that are essential for proper brain function. Astrocytes form extensive networks in the brain and communicate via gap junctions. Disruptions of gap junction coupling are found in several diseases such as neurodegeneration or epilepsy. Here, we demonstrate that the cell adhesion protein BT-IgSF is essential for gap junction mediated coupling between astrocytes in the cortex and hippocampus.

Homozygous variant of MLC1 results in megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts

BACKGROUND

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a rare, inherited disorder that causes epilepsy, intellectual disorders, and early onset macrocephaly. MLC1 has been identified as a main pathogenic gene.

METHODS

Clinical data such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), routine blood tests, and physical examinations were collected from proband. Trio whole-exome sequencing (WES) of the family was performed, and all variants with a minor allele frequency (<0.01) in the exon and canonical splicing sites were selected for further pathogenic evaluation. Candidate variants were validated using Sanger sequencing.

RESULTS

Here, we report a new homozygous variant identified in two children from the same family in the MLC1 gene [NM_015166.4: c.838_843delinsATTTTA, (p.Ser280_Phe281delinsIleLeu)]. This variant is classified as variant of uncertain significance (VUS) according to the ACMG guidelines. Further experiments demonstrate that the newly identified variant causes a decrease of MLC1 protein levels when expressed in a heterologous expression system.

CONCLUSION

Our case expands on this genetic variation and provides new evidence for the clinical diagnosis of MLC1-related MLC.

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts protein-1: A new calcium-sensitive protein functionally activated by endoplasmic reticulum calcium release and calmodulin binding in astrocytes

BACKGROUND

MLC1 is a membrane protein highly expressed in brain perivascular astrocytes and whose mutations account for the rare leukodystrophy (LD) megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts disease (MLC). MLC is characterized by macrocephaly, brain edema and cysts, myelin vacuolation and astrocyte swelling which cause cognitive and motor dysfunctions and epilepsy. In cultured astrocytes, lack of functional MLC1 disturbs cell volume regulation by affecting anion channel (VRAC) currents and the consequent regulatory volume decrease (RVD) occurring in response to osmotic changes. Moreover, MLC1 represses intracellular signaling molecules (EGFR, ERK1/2, NF-kB) inducing astrocyte activation and swelling following brain insults. Nevertheless, to date, MLC1 proper function and MLC molecular pathogenesis are still elusive. We recently reported that in astrocytes MLC1 phosphorylation by the Ca2+/Calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) in response to intracellular Ca2+ release potentiates MLC1 activation of VRAC. These results highlighted the importance of Ca2+ signaling in the regulation of MLC1 functions, prompting us to further investigate the relationships between intracellular Ca2+ and MLC1 properties.

METHODS

We used U251 astrocytoma cells stably expressing wild-type (WT) or mutated MLC1, primary mouse astrocytes and mouse brain tissue, and applied biochemistry, molecular biology, video imaging and electrophysiology techniques.

RESULTS

We revealed that WT but not mutant MLC1 oligomerization and trafficking to the astrocyte plasma membrane is favored by Ca2+ release from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but not by capacitive Ca2+ entry in response to ER depletion. We also clarified the molecular events underlining MLC1 response to cytoplasmic Ca2+ increase, demonstrating that, following Ca2+ release, MLC1 binds the Ca2+ effector protein calmodulin (CaM) at the carboxyl terminal where a CaM binding sequence was identified. Using a CaM inhibitor and generating U251 cells expressing MLC1 with CaM binding site mutations, we found that CaM regulates MLC1 assembly, trafficking and function, being RVD and MLC-linked signaling molecules abnormally regulated in these latter cells.

CONCLUSION

Overall, we qualified MLC1 as a Ca2+ sensitive protein involved in the control of volume changes in response to ER Ca2+ release and astrocyte activation. These findings provide new insights for the comprehension of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the myelin degeneration occurring in MLC and other LD where astrocytes have a primary role in the pathological process.

Glial Cell Adhesion Molecule (GlialCAM) Determines Proliferative versus Invasive Cell States in Glioblastoma

The malignant brain cancer glioblastoma (GBM) contains groups of highly invasive cells that drive tumor progression as well as recurrence after surgery and chemotherapy. The molecular mechanisms that enable these GBM cells to exit the primary mass and disperse throughout the brain remain largely unknown. Here we report using human tumor specimens and primary spheroids from male and female patients that glial cell adhesion molecule (GlialCAM), which has normal roles in brain astrocytes and is mutated in the developmental brain disorder megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC), is differentially expressed in subpopulations of GBM cells. High levels of GlialCAM promote cell-cell adhesion and a proliferative GBM cell state in the tumor core. In contrast, GBM cells with low levels of GlialCAM display diminished proliferation and enhanced invasion into the surrounding brain parenchyma. RNAi-mediated inhibition of GlialCAM expression leads to activation of proinvasive extracellular matrix adhesion and signaling pathways. Profiling GlialCAM-regulated genes combined with cross-referencing to single-cell transcriptomic datasets validates functional links among GlialCAM, Mlc1, and aquaporin-4 in the invasive cell state. Collectively, these results reveal an important adhesion and signaling axis comprised of GlialCAM and associated proteins including Mlc1 and aquaporin-4 that is critical for control of GBM cell proliferation and invasion status in the brain cancer microenvironment.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Glioblastoma (GBM) contains heterogeneous populations of cells that coordinately drive proliferation and invasion. We have discovered that glial cell adhesion molecule (GlialCAM)/hepatocyte cell adhesion molecule (HepaCAM) is highly expressed in proliferative GBM cells within the tumor core. In contrast, GBM cells with low levels of GlialCAM robustly invade into surrounding brain tissue along blood vessels and white matter. Quantitative RNA sequencing identifies various GlialCAM-regulated genes with functions in cell-cell adhesion and signaling. These data reveal that GlialCAM and associated signaling partners, including Mlc1 and aquaporin-4, are key factors that determine proliferative and invasive cell states in GBM.

B. de Paiva A, Souza KS, de Souza JLB, G. S. B. Lima PL, da Silva DJ, Pitombeira MS, Borges VK, Dias DA, Bispo LM, Santos CF, Freua F, Silva PDS, Alves IS, Portella LB, Cunha PR, Salomao RPA, Pedroso JL, Miyajima VP, Miyajima F, Cali E, Wade C, Sudarsanam A, O’Driscoll M, Hayton T, Barsottini OGP, Klebe S, Kok F, Lucato LT, Houlden H, Depienne C, Lynch DS, Braga-Neto P. Expanding the phenotypic spectrum of CLCN2-related leucoencephalopathy and ataxia

Mutations in CLCN2 are a rare cause of autosomal recessive leucoencephalopathy with ataxia and specific imaging abnormalities. Very few cases have been reported to date. Here, we describe the clinical and imaging phenotype of 12 additional CLCN2 patients and expand the known phenotypic spectrum of this disorder. Informed consent was obtained for all patients. Patients underwent either whole-exome sequencing or focused/panel-based sequencing to identify variants. Twelve patients with biallelic CLCN2 variants are described. This includes three novel likely pathogenic missense variants. All patients demonstrated typical MRI changes, including hyperintensity on T2-weighted images in the posterior limbs of the internal capsules, midbrain cerebral peduncles, middle cerebellar peduncles and cerebral white matter. Clinical features included a variable combination of ataxia, headache, spasticity, seizures and other symptoms with a broad range of age of onset. This report is now the largest case series of patients with CLCN2-related leucoencephalopathy and reinforces the finding that, although the imaging appearance is uniform, the phenotypic expression of this disorder is highly heterogeneous. Our findings expand the phenotypic spectrum of CLCN2-related leucoencephalopathy by adding prominent seizures, severe spastic paraplegia and developmental delay.

Astroglial exosome HepaCAM signaling and ApoE antagonization coordinates early postnatal cortical pyramidal neuronal axon growth and dendritic spine formation

Developing astroglia play important roles in regulating synaptogenesis through secreted and contact signals. Whether they regulate postnatal axon growth is unknown. By selectively isolating exosomes using size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and employing cell-type specific exosome reporter mice, our current results define a secreted astroglial exosome pathway that can spread long-range in vivo and stimulate axon growth of cortical pyramidal neurons. Subsequent biochemical and genetic studies found that surface expression of glial HepaCAM protein essentially and sufficiently mediates the axon-stimulating effect of astroglial exosomes. Interestingly, apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a major astroglia-secreted cholesterol carrier to promote synaptogenesis, strongly inhibits the stimulatory effect of astroglial exosomes on axon growth. Developmental ApoE deficiency also significantly reduces spine density of cortical pyramidal neurons. Together, our study suggests a surface contact mechanism of astroglial exosomes in regulating axon growth and its antagonization by ApoE, which collectively coordinates early postnatal pyramidal neuronal axon growth and dendritic spine formation.

Regulatory features aid interpretation of 3'UTR Variants

Our ability to determine the clinical impact of variants in 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) of genes remains poor. We provide a thorough analysis of 3'UTR variants from several datasets. Variants in putative regulatory elements including RNA-binding protein motifs, eCLIP peaks, and microRNA sites are up to 16 times more likely than other variants to have gene expression and phenotype associations. Heterozygous variants in regulatory motifs result in allele-specific protein binding in cell lines and allele-specific gene expression differences in population studies. In addition, variants in shared regions of alternatively polyadenylated isoforms and those proximal to polyA sites are more likely to affect gene expression and phenotype. Finally, pathogenic 3'UTR variants in ClinVar are 20 times more likely than benign variants to fall in a regulatory site. We incorporated these findings into RegVar, a software tool that interprets regulatory elements and annotations for any 3'UTR variant, and predicts whether the variant is likely to affect gene expression or phenotype. This tool will help prioritize variants for experimental studies and identify pathogenic variants in patients.

Astrocyte Endfeet in Brain Function and Pathology: Open Questions

Astrocyte endfeet enwrap the entire vascular tree within the central nervous system, where they perform important functions in regulating the blood-brain barrier (BBB), cerebral blood flow, nutrient uptake, and waste clearance. Accordingly, astrocyte endfeet contain specialized organelles and proteins, including local protein translation machinery and highly organized scaffold proteins, which anchor channels, transporters, receptors, and enzymes critical for astrocyte-vascular interactions. Many neurological diseases are characterized by the loss of polarization of specific endfoot proteins, vascular dysregulation, BBB disruption, altered waste clearance, or, in extreme cases, loss of endfoot coverage. A role for astrocyte endfeet has been demonstrated or postulated in many of these conditions. This review provides an overview of the development, composition, function, and pathological changes of astrocyte endfeet and highlights the gaps in our knowledge that future research should address.

Astrocytes as master modulators of neural networks: Synaptic functions and disease-associated dysfunction of astrocytes

Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cell type in the central nervous system and are essential to the development, plasticity, and maintenance of neural circuits. Astrocytes are heterogeneous, with their diversity rooted in developmental programs modulated by the local brain environment. Astrocytes play integral roles in regulating and coordinating neural activity extending far beyond their metabolic support of neurons and other brain cell phenotypes. Both gray and white matter astrocytes occupy critical functional niches capable of modulating brain physiology on time scales slower than synaptic activity but faster than those adaptive responses requiring a structural change or adaptive myelination. Given their many associations and functional roles, it is not surprising that astrocytic dysfunction has been causally implicated in a broad set of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. In this review, we focus on recent discoveries concerning the contributions of astrocytes to the function of neural networks, with a dual focus on the contribution of astrocytes to synaptic development and maturation, and on their role in supporting myelin integrity, and hence conduction and its regulation. We then address the emerging roles of astrocytic dysfunction in disease pathogenesis and on potential strategies for targeting these cells for therapeutic purposes.

Astrocyte-synapse interactions during brain development

Bidirectional communication between astrocytes and neurons is essential for proper brain development. Astrocytes, a major glial cell type, are morphologically complex cells that directly interact with neuronal synapses to regulate synapse formation, maturation, and function. Astrocyte-secreted factors bind neuronal receptors to induce synaptogenesis with regional and circuit-level precision. Cell adhesion molecules mediate the direct contact between astrocytes and neurons, which is required for both synaptogenesis and astrocyte morphogenesis. Neuron-derived signals also shape astrocyte development, function, and molecular identity. This review highlights recent findings on the topic of astrocyte-synapse interactions, and discusses the importance of these interactions for synapse and astrocyte development.

Astroglial exosome HepaCAM signaling and ApoE antagonization coordinates early postnatal cortical pyramidal neuronal axon growth and dendritic spine formation

Developing astroglia play important roles in regulating synaptogenesis through secreted and contact signals. Whether they regulate postnatal axon growth is unknown. By selectively isolating exosomes using size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and employing cell-type specific exosome reporter mice, our current results define a secreted astroglial exosome pathway that can spread long-range in vivo and stimulate axon growth of cortical pyramidal neurons. Subsequent biochemical and genetic studies found that surface expression of glial HepaCAM protein essentially and sufficiently mediates the axon-stimulating effect of astroglial exosomes. Interestingly, apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a major astroglia-secreted cholesterol carrier to promote synaptogenesis, strongly inhibits the stimulatory effect of astroglial exosomes on axon growth. Developmental ApoE deficiency also significantly reduces spine density of cortical pyramidal neurons. Together, our study suggests a surface contact mechanism of astroglial exosomes in regulating axon growth and its antagonization by ApoE, which collectively coordinates early postnatal pyramidal neuronal axon growth and dendritic spine formation.

Pharmacological modulation of chloride channels as a therapeutic strategy for neurological disorders

Chloride homeostasis is critical in the physiological functions of the central nervous system (CNS). Its concentration is precisely regulated by multiple ion-transporting proteins such as chloride channels and transporters that are widely distributed in the brain cells, including neurons and glia. Unlike ion transporters, chloride channels provide rapid responses to efficiently regulate ion flux. Some of chloride channels are also permeable to selected organic anions such as glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid, suggesting neuroexcitatory and neuroinhibitory functions while gating. Dysregulated chloride channels are implicated in neurological disorders, e.g., ischemia and neuroinflammation. Modulation of chloride homeostasis through chloride channels has been suggested as a potential therapeutic approach for neurological disorders. The drug design for CNS diseases is challenging because it requires the therapeutics to traverse the blood-brain-barrier. Small molecules are a well-established modality with better cell permeability due to their lower molecular weight and flexibility for structure optimization compared to biologics. In this article, we describe the important roles of chloride homeostasis in each type of brain cells and introduce selected chloride channels identified in the CNS. We then discuss the contribution of their dysregulations towards the pathogenesis of neurological disorders, emphasizing the potential of targeting chloride channels as a therapeutic strategy for CNS disease treatment. Along with this literature survey, we summarize the small molecules that modulate chloride channels and propose the potential strategy of optimizing existing drugs to brain-penetrants to support future CNS drug discovery.

Integrative Functional Genomic Analysis in Multiplex Autism Families from Kazakhstan

The study of extended pedigrees containing autism spectrum disorder- (ASD-) related broader autism phenotypes (BAP) offers a promising approach to the search for ASD candidate variants. Here, a total of 650,000 genetic markers were tested in four Kazakhstani multiplex families with ASD and BAP to obtain data on de novo mutations (DNMs), common, and rare inherited variants that may contribute to the genetic risk for developing autistic traits. The variants were analyzed in the context of gene networks and pathways. Several previously well-described enriched pathways were identified, including ion channel activity, regulation of synaptic function, and membrane depolarization. Perhaps these pathways are crucial not only for the development of ASD but also for ВАР. The results also point to several additional biological pathways (circadian entrainment, NCAM and BTN family interactions, and interaction between L1 and Ankyrins) and hub genes (CFTR, NOD2, PPP2R2B, and TTR). The obtained results suggest that further exploration of PPI networks combining ASD and BAP risk genes can be used to identify novel or overlooked ASD molecular mechanisms.

Emerging cellular themes in leukodystrophies

Leukodystrophies are a broad spectrum of neurological disorders that are characterized primarily by deficiencies in myelin formation. Clinical manifestations of leukodystrophies usually appear during childhood and common symptoms include lack of motor coordination, difficulty with or loss of ambulation, issues with vision and/or hearing, cognitive decline, regression in speech skills, and even seizures. Many cases of leukodystrophy can be attributed to genetic mutations, but they have diverse inheritance patterns (e.g., autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, or X-linked) and some arise from de novo mutations. In this review, we provide an updated overview of 35 types of leukodystrophies and focus on cellular mechanisms that may underlie these disorders. We find common themes in specialized functions in oligodendrocytes, which are specialized producers of membranes and myelin lipids. These mechanisms include myelin protein defects, lipid processing and peroxisome dysfunction, transcriptional and translational dysregulation, disruptions in cytoskeletal organization, and cell junction defects. In addition, non-cell-autonomous factors in astrocytes and microglia, such as autoimmune reactivity, and intercellular communication, may also play a role in leukodystrophy onset. We hope that highlighting these themes in cellular dysfunction in leukodystrophies may yield conceptual insights on future therapeutic approaches.

GPR37 Receptors and Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy with Subcortical Cysts

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a rare type of vacuolating leukodystrophy (white matter disorder), which is mainly caused by defects in MLC1 or glial cell adhesion molecule (GlialCAM) proteins. In addition, autoantibodies to GlialCAM are involved in the pathology of multiple sclerosis. MLC1 and GLIALCAM genes encode for membrane proteins of unknown function, which has been linked to the regulation of different ion channels and transporters, such as the chloride channel VRAC (volume regulated anion channel), ClC-2 (chloride channel 2), and connexin 43 or the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump. However, the mechanisms by which MLC proteins regulate these ion channels and transporters, as well as the exact function of MLC proteins remain obscure. It has been suggested that MLC proteins might regulate signalling pathways, but the mechanisms involved are, at present, unknown. With the aim of answering these questions, we have recently described the brain GlialCAM interactome. Within the identified proteins, we could validate the interaction with several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including the orphan GPRC5B and the proposed prosaposin receptors GPR37L1 and GPR37. In this review, we summarize new aspects of the pathophysiology of MLC disease and key aspects of the interaction between GPR37 receptors and MLC proteins.

The role of astrocyte structural plasticity in regulating neural circuit function and behavior

Brain circuits undergo substantial structural changes during development, driven by the formation, stabilization, and elimination of synapses. Synaptic connections continue to undergo experience‐dependent structural rearrangements throughout life, which are postulated to underlie learning and memory. Astrocytes, a major glial cell type in the brain, are physically in contact with synaptic circuits through their structural ensheathment of synapses. Astrocytes strongly contribute to the remodeling of synaptic structures in healthy and diseased central nervous systems by regulating synaptic connectivity and behaviors. However, whether structural plasticity of astrocytes is involved in their critical functions at the synapse is unknown. This review will discuss the emerging evidence linking astrocytic structural plasticity to synaptic circuit remodeling and regulation of behaviors. Moreover, we will survey possible molecular and cellular mechanisms regulating the structural plasticity of astrocytes and their non‐cell‐autonomous effects on neuronal plasticity. Finally, we will discuss how astrocyte morphological changes in different physiological states and disease conditions contribute to neuronal circuit function and dysfunction.

Clonally expanded B cells in multiple sclerosis bind EBV EBNA1 and GlialCAM

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a heterogenous autoimmune disease in which autoreactive lymphocytes attack the myelin sheath of the central nervous system. B lymphocytes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with MS contribute to inflammation and secrete oligoclonal immunoglobulins^1,2. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection has been epidemiologically linked to MS, but its pathological role remains unclear³. Here we demonstrate high-affinity molecular mimicry between the EBV transcription factor EBV nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) and the central nervous system protein glial cell adhesion molecule (GlialCAM) and provide structural and in vivo functional evidence for its relevance. A cross-reactive CSF-derived antibody was initially identified by single-cell sequencing of the paired-chain B cell repertoire of MS blood and CSF, followed by protein microarray-based testing of recombinantly expressed CSF-derived antibodies against MS-associated viruses. Sequence analysis, affinity measurements and the crystal structure of the EBNA1-peptide epitope in complex with the autoreactive Fab fragment enabled tracking of the development of the naive EBNA1-restricted antibody to a mature EBNA1-GlialCAM cross-reactive antibody. Molecular mimicry is facilitated by a post-translational modification of GlialCAM. EBNA1 immunization exacerbates disease in a mouse model of MS, and anti-EBNA1 and anti-GlialCAM antibodies are prevalent in patients with MS. Our results provide a mechanistic link for the association between MS and EBV and could guide the development of new MS therapies.

Emergent White Matter Degeneration in the rTg-DI Rat Model of Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy Exhibits Unique Proteomic Changes

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), characterized by cerebral vascular amyloid accumulation, neuroinflammation, microbleeds, and white matter (WM) degeneration, is a common comorbidity in Alzheimer disease and a prominent contributor to vascular cognitive impairment and dementia. WM loss was recently reported in the corpus callosum (CC) in the rTg-DI rat model of CAA. The current study shows that the CC exhibits a much lower CAA burden compared with the adjacent cortex. Sequential Window Acquisition of All Theoretical Mass Spectra tandem mass spectrometry was used to show specific proteomic changes in the CC with emerging WM loss and compare them with the proteome of adjacent cortical tissue in rTg-DI rats. In the CC, annexin A3, heat shock protein β1, and cystatin C were elevated at 4 months (M) before WM loss and at 12M with evident WM loss. Although annexin A3 and cystatin C were also enhanced in the cortex at 12M, annexin A5 and the leukodystrophy-associated astrocyte proteins megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 1 and GlialCAM were distinctly elevated in the CC. Pathway analysis indicated neurodegeneration of axons, reflected by reduced expression of myelin and neurofilament proteins, was common to the CC and cortex; activation of Tgf-β1 and F2/thrombin was restricted to the CC. This study provides new insights into the proteomic changes that accompany WM loss in the CC of rTg-DI rats.

The neurovascular unit in leukodystrophies: towards solving the puzzle

The neurovascular unit (NVU) is a highly organized multicellular system localized in the brain, formed by neuronal, glial (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia) and vascular (endothelial cells and pericytes) cells. The blood-brain barrier, a complex and dynamic endothelial cell barrier in the brain microvasculature that separates the blood from the brain parenchyma, is a component of the NVU. In a variety of neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and stroke, dysfunctions of the NVU occurs. There is, however, a lack of knowledge regarding the NVU function in leukodystrophies, which are rare monogenic disorders that primarily affect the white matter. Since leukodystrophies are rare diseases, human brain tissue availability is scarce and representative animal models that significantly recapitulate the disease are difficult to develop. The introduction of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) now makes it possible to surpass these limitations while maintaining the ability to work in a biologically relevant human context and safeguarding the genetic background of the patient. This review aims to provide further insights into the NVU functioning in leukodystrophies, with a special focus on iPSC-derived models that can be used to dissect neurovascular pathophysiology in these diseases.

Heterogeneity of white matter astrocytes in the human brain

Astrocytes regulate central nervous system development, maintain its homeostasis and orchestrate repair upon injury. Emerging evidence support functional specialization of astroglia, both between and within brain regions. Different subtypes of gray matter astrocytes have been identified, yet molecular and functional diversity of white matter astrocytes remains largely unexplored. Nonetheless, their important and diverse roles in maintaining white matter integrity and function are well recognized. Compelling evidence indicate that impairment of normal astrocytic function and their response to injury contribute to a wide variety of diseases, including white matter disorders. In this review, we highlight our current understanding of astrocyte heterogeneity in the white matter of the mammalian brain and how an interplay between developmental origins and local environmental cues contribute to astroglial diversification. In addition, we discuss whether, and if so, how, heterogeneous astrocytes could contribute to white matter function in health and disease and focus on the sparse human research data available. We highlight four leukodystrophies primarily due to astrocytic dysfunction, the so-called astrocytopathies. Insight into the role of astroglial heterogeneity in both healthy and diseased white matter may provide new avenues for therapies aimed at promoting repair and restoring normal white matter function.

Human iPSC-Derived Astrocytes: A Powerful Tool to Study Primary Astrocyte Dysfunction in the Pathogenesis of Rare Leukodystrophies

Astrocytes are very versatile cells, endowed with multitasking capacities to ensure brain homeostasis maintenance from brain development to adult life. It has become increasingly evident that astrocytes play a central role in many central nervous system pathologies, not only as regulators of defensive responses against brain insults but also as primary culprits of the disease onset and progression. This is particularly evident in some rare leukodystrophies (LDs) where white matter/myelin deterioration is due to primary astrocyte dysfunctions. Understanding the molecular defects causing these LDs may help clarify astrocyte contribution to myelin formation/maintenance and favor the identification of possible therapeutic targets for LDs and other CNS demyelinating diseases. To date, the pathogenic mechanisms of these LDs are poorly known due to the rarity of the pathological tissue and the failure of the animal models to fully recapitulate the human diseases. Thus, the development of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) from patient fibroblasts and their differentiation into astrocytes is a promising approach to overcome these issues. In this review, we discuss the primary role of astrocytes in LD pathogenesis, the experimental models currently available and the advantages, future evolutions, perspectives, and limitations of hiPSC to study pathologies implying astrocyte dysfunctions.

Transmembrane topology and oligomeric nature of an astrocytic membrane protein, MLC1

MLC1 is a membrane protein mainly expressed in astrocytes, and genetic mutations lead to the development of a leukodystrophy, megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts disease. Currently, the biochemical properties of the MLC1 protein are largely unknown. In this study, we aimed to characterize the transmembrane (TM) topology and oligomeric nature of the MLC1 protein. Systematic immunofluorescence staining data revealed that the MLC1 protein has eight TM domains and that both the N- and C-terminus face the cytoplasm. We found that MLC1 can be purified as an oligomer and could form a trimeric complex in both detergent micelles and reconstituted proteoliposomes. Additionally, a single-molecule photobleaching experiment showed that MLC1 protein complexes could consist of three MLC1 monomers in the reconstituted proteoliposomes. These results can provide a basis for both the high-resolution structural determination and functional characterization of the MLC1 protein.

Control of membrane protein homeostasis by a chaperone-like glial cell adhesion molecule at multiple subcellular locations

The significance of crosstalks among constituents of plasma membrane protein clusters/complexes in cellular proteostasis and protein quality control (PQC) remains incompletely understood. Examining the glial (enriched) cell adhesion molecule (CAM), we demonstrate its chaperone-like role in the biosynthetic processing of the megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cyst 1 (MLC1)-heteromeric regulatory membrane protein complex, as well as the function of the GlialCAM/MLC1 signalling complex. We show that in the absence of GlialCAM, newly synthesized MLC1 molecules remain unfolded and are susceptible to polyubiquitination-dependent proteasomal degradation at the endoplasmic reticulum. At the plasma membrane, GlialCAM regulates the diffusional partitioning and endocytic dynamics of cluster members, including the ClC-2 chloride channel and MLC1. Impaired folding and/or expression of GlialCAM or MLC1 in the presence of diseases causing mutations, as well as plasma membrane tethering compromise the functional expression of the cluster, leading to compromised endo-lysosomal organellar identity. In addition, the enlarged endo-lysosomal compartments display accelerated acidification, ubiquitinated cargo-sorting and impaired endosomal recycling. Jointly, these observations indicate an essential and previously unrecognized role for CAM, where GliaCAM functions as a PQC factor for the MLC1 signalling complex biogenesis and possess a permissive role in the membrane dynamic and cargo sorting functions with implications in modulations of receptor signalling.

Novel variants causing megalencephalic leukodystrophy in Sudanese families

Mutations in MLC1 cause megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC), a rare form of leukodystrophy characterized by macrocephaly, epilepsy, spasticity, and slow mental deterioration. Genetic studies of MLC are lacking from many parts of the world, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. Genomic DNA was extracted for 67 leukodystrophic patients from 43 Sudanese families. Mutations were screened using the NGS panel testing 139 leukodystrophies and leukoencephalopathies causing genes (NextSeq500 Illumina). Five homozygous MLC1 variants were discovered in seven patients from five distinct families, including three consanguineous families from the same region of Sudan. Three variants were missense (c.971 T > G, p.Ile324Ser; c.344 T > C, p.Phe115Ser; and c.881 C > T, p.Pro294Leu), one duplication (c.831_838dupATATCTGT, p.Ser280Tyrfs*8), and one synonymous/splicing-site mutation (c.762 C > T, p.Ser254). The segregation pattern was consistent with autosomal recessive inheritance. The clinical presentation and brain MRI of the seven affected patients were consistent with the diagnosis of MLC1. Due to the high frequency of distinct MLC1 mutations found in our leukodystrophic Sudanese families, we analyzed the coding sequence of MLC1 gene in 124 individuals from the Sudanese genome project in comparison with the 1000-genome project. We found that Sudan has the highest proportion of deleterious variants in MLC1 gene compared with other populations from the 1000-genome project.

Late adolescence mortality in mice with brain-specific deletion of the volume-regulated anion channel subunit LRRC8A

The leucine-rich repeat-containing family 8 member A (LRRC8A) is an essential subunit of the volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC). VRAC is critical for cell volume control, but its broader physiological functions remain under investigation. Recent studies in the field indicate that Lrrc8a disruption in the brain astrocytes reduces neuronal excitability, impairs synaptic plasticity and memory, and protects against cerebral ischemia. In the present work, we generated brain-wide conditional LRRC8A knockout mice (LRRC8A bKO) using Nestin^Cre -driven Lrrc8a^flox/flox excision in neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendroglia. LRRC8A bKO animals were born close to the expected Mendelian ratio and developed without overt histological abnormalities, but, surprisingly, all died between 5 and 9 weeks of age with a seizure phenotype, which was confirmed by video and EEG recordings. Brain slice electrophysiology detected changes in the excitability of pyramidal cells and modified GABAergic inputs in the hippocampal CA1 region of LRRC8A bKO. LRRC8A-null hippocampi showed increased immunoreactivity of the astrocytic marker GFAP, indicating reactive astrogliosis. We also found decreased whole-brain protein levels of the GABA transporter GAT-1, the glutamate transporter GLT-1, and the astrocytic enzyme glutamine synthetase. Complementary HPLC assays identified reduction in the tissue levels of the glutamate and GABA precursor glutamine. Together, these findings suggest that VRAC provides vital control of brain excitability in mouse adolescence. VRAC deletion leads to a lethal phenotype involving progressive astrogliosis and dysregulation of astrocytic uptake and supply of amino acid neurotransmitters and their precursors.

Identification of the GlialCAM interactome: the G protein-coupled receptors GPRC5B and GPR37L1 modulate megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy proteins

Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy with subcortical Cysts (MLC) is a type of vacuolating leukodystrophy, which is mainly caused by mutations in MLC1 or GLIALCAM. The two MLC-causing genes encode for membrane proteins of yet unknown function that have been linked to the regulation of different chloride channels such as the ClC-2 and VRAC. To gain insight into the role of MLC proteins, we have determined the brain GlialCAM interacting proteome. The proteome includes different transporters and ion channels known to be involved in the regulation of brain homeostasis, proteins related to adhesion or signaling as several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including the orphan GPRC5B and the proposed prosaposin receptor GPR37L1. Focusing on these two GPCRs, we could validate that they interact directly with MLC proteins. The inactivation of Gpr37l1 in mice upregulated MLC proteins without altering their localization. Conversely, a reduction of GPRC5B levels in primary astrocytes downregulated MLC proteins, leading to an impaired activation of ClC-2 and VRAC. The interaction between the GPCRs and MLC1 was dynamically regulated upon changes in the osmolarity or potassium concentration. We propose that GlialCAM and MLC1 associate with different integral membrane proteins modulating their functions and acting as a recruitment site for various signaling components as the GPCRs identified here. We hypothesized that the GlialCAM/MLC1 complex is working as an adhesion molecule coupled to a tetraspanin-like molecule performing regulatory effects through direct binding or influencing signal transduction events.

HepaCAM shapes astrocyte territories, stabilizes gap-junction coupling, and influences neuronal excitability

How astrocytes form non-overlapping territories within synaptic neuropil is not understood. In this issue of Neuron, Baldwin et al. (2021) report that the cell adhesion molecule hepaCAM shapes murine astrocyte territories and that hepaCAM loss impairs gap-junction cell coupling and the balance between synaptic excitation and inhibition.

Structural basis for the dominant or recessive character of GLIALCAM mutations found in leukodystrophies

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a type of leukodystrophy characterized by white matter edema, and it is caused mainly by recessive mutations in MLC1 and GLIALCAM genes. These variants are called MLC1 and MLC2A with both types of patients sharing the same clinical phenotype. In addition, dominant mutations in GLIALCAM have also been identified in a subtype of MLC patients with a remitting phenotype. This variant has been named MLC2B. GLIALCAM encodes for an adhesion protein containing two immunoglobulin (Ig) domains and it is needed for MLC1 targeting to astrocyte–astrocyte junctions. Most mutations identified in GLIALCAM abolish GlialCAM targeting to junctions. However, it is unclear why some mutations behave as recessive or dominant. Here, we used a combination of biochemistry methods with a new developed anti-GlialCAM nanobody, double-mutants and cysteine cross-links experiments, together with computer docking, to create a structural model of GlialCAM homo-interactions. Using this model, we suggest that dominant mutations affect different GlialCAM–GlialCAM interacting surfaces in the first Ig domain, which can occur between GlialCAM molecules present in the same cell (cis) or present in neighbouring cells (trans). Our results provide a framework that can be used to understand the molecular basis of pathogenesis of all identified GLIALCAM mutations.

HepaCAM controls astrocyte self-organization and coupling

Astrocytes extensively infiltrate the neuropil to regulate critical aspects of synaptic development and function. This process is regulated by transcellular interactions between astrocytes and neurons via cell adhesion molecules. How astrocytes coordinate developmental processes among one another to parse out the synaptic neuropil and form non-overlapping territories is unknown. Here we identify a molecular mechanism regulating astrocyte-astrocyte interactions during development to coordinate astrocyte morphogenesis and gap junction coupling. We show that hepaCAM, a disease-linked, astrocyte-enriched cell adhesion molecule, regulates astrocyte competition for territory and morphological complexity in the developing mouse cortex. Furthermore, conditional deletion of Hepacam from developing astrocytes significantly impairs gap junction coupling between astrocytes and disrupts the balance between synaptic excitation and inhibition. Mutations in HEPACAM cause megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts in humans. Therefore, our findings suggest that disruption of astrocyte self-organization mechanisms could be an underlying cause of neural pathology.

Death rates in the U.S. due to Leukodystrophies with pediatric forms

To use national mortality and state death certificate records to estimate disease specific mortality rates among pediatric and adult populations for 23 leukodystrophies (LDs) with pediatric forms. Additionally, to calculate yearly prevalence and caseload of the most severe LD cases that will eventually result in pediatric death (i.e., pediatric fatality cases). Death certificate records describing cause of death were collected from states based on 10 ICD-10 codes associated with the 23 LDs. Deaths in the U.S. with these codes were distributed into categories based on proportions identified in state death certificate data. Mortality rates, prevalence, and caseload were calculated from resulting expected numbers, population sizes, and average lifetimes. An estimated 1.513 per 1,000,000 0-17 year old's died of these LDs at average age 5.2 years and 0.194 for those ≥18 at an average age of 42.3 years. Prevalence of pediatric fatality cases of these LDs declined from 1999 through 2007 and then remained constant at 6.2 per million children per year through 2012. Epidemiological information, currently lacking for rare diseases, is useful to newborn screening programs, research funding agencies, and care centers for LD patients. Methods used here are generally useful for studying rare diseases.

A novel remitting leukodystrophy associated with a variant in FBP2

Leukodystrophies are genetic disorders of cerebral white matter that almost exclusively have a progressive disease course. We became aware of three members of a family with a disorder characterized by a sudden loss of all previously acquired abilities around 1 year of age followed by almost complete recovery within 2 years. Cerebral MRI and myelin sensitive imaging showed a pronounced demyelination that progressed for several months despite signs of clinical improvement and was followed by remyelination. Exome sequencing did not-identify any mutations in known leukodystrophy genes but revealed a heterozygous variant in the FBP2 gene, c.343G>A, p. Val115Met, shared by the affected family members. Cerebral MRI of other family members demonstrated similar white matter abnormalities in all carriers of the variant in FBP2. The FBP2 gene codes for muscle fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, an enzyme involved in gluconeogenesis that is highly expressed in brain tissue. Biochemical analysis showed that the variant has a dominant negative effect on enzymatic activity, substrate affinity, cooperativity and thermal stability. Moreover, it also affects the non-canonical functions of muscle fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase involved in mitochondrial protection and regulation of several nuclear processes. In patients’ fibroblasts, muscle fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase shows no colocalization with mitochondria and nuclei leading to increased reactive oxygen species production and a disturbed mitochondrial network. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that the variant in FBP2 disturbs cerebral energy metabolism and is associated with a novel remitting leukodystrophy.

Neurodegeneration Upon Dysfunction of Endosomal/Lysosomal CLC Chloride Transporters

The regulation of luminal ion concentrations is critical for the function of, and transport between intracellular organelles. The importance of the acidic pH in the compartments of the endosomal-lysosomal pathway has been well-known for decades. Besides the V-ATPase, which pumps protons into their lumen, a variety of ion transporters and channels is involved in the regulation of the organelles' complex ion homeostasis. Amongst these are the intracellular members of the CLC family, ClC-3 through ClC-7. They localize to distinct but overlapping compartments of the endosomal-lysosomal pathway, partially with tissue-specific expression. Functioning as 2Cl⁻/H⁺ exchangers, they can support the vesicular acidification and accumulate luminal Cl⁻. Mutations in the encoding genes in patients and mouse models underlie severe phenotypes including kidney stones with CLCN5 and osteopetrosis or hypopigmentation with CLCN7. Dysfunction of those intracellular CLCs that are expressed in neurons lead to neuronal defects. Loss of endosomal ClC-3, which heteromerizes with ClC-4, results in neurodegeneration. Mutations in ClC-4 are associated with epileptic encephalopathy and intellectual disability. Mice lacking the late endosomal ClC-6 develop a lysosomal storage disease with reduced pain sensitivity. Human gene variants have been associated with epilepsy, and a gain-of-function mutation causes early-onset neurodegeneration. Dysfunction of the lysosomal ClC-7 leads to a lysosomal storage disease and neurodegeneration in mice and humans. Reduced luminal chloride, as well as altered calcium regulation, has been associated with lysosomal storage diseases in general. This review discusses the properties of endosomal and lysosomal Cl⁻/H⁺ exchange by CLCs and how various alterations of ion transport by CLCs impact organellar ion homeostasis and function in neurodegenerative disorders.

Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy: Insights Into Pathophysiology and Perspectives for Therapy

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a rare genetic disorder belonging to the group of vacuolating leukodystrophies. It is characterized by megalencephaly, loss of motor functions, epilepsy, and mild mental decline. In brain biopsies of MLC patients, vacuoles were observed in myelin and in astrocytes surrounding blood vessels. It is mainly caused by recessive mutations in MLC1 and HEPACAM (also called GLIALCAM) genes. These disease variants are called MLC1 and MLC2A with both types of patients sharing the same clinical phenotype. Besides, dominant mutations in HEPACAM were also identified in a subtype of MLC patients (MLC2B) with a remitting phenotype. MLC1 and GlialCAM proteins form a complex mainly expressed in brain astrocytes at the gliovascular interface and in Bergmann glia at the cerebellum. Both proteins regulate several ion channels and transporters involved in the control of ion and water fluxes in glial cells, either directly influencing their location and function, or indirectly regulating associated signal transduction pathways. However, the MLC1/GLIALCAM complex function and the related pathological mechanisms leading to MLC are still unknown. It has been hypothesized that, in MLC, the role of glial cells in brain ion homeostasis is altered in both physiological and inflammatory conditions. There is no therapy for MLC patients, only supportive treatment. As MLC2B patients show an MLC reversible phenotype, we speculated that the phenotype of MLC1 and MLC2A patients could also be mitigated by the re-introduction of the correct gene even at later stages. To prove this hypothesis, we injected in the cerebellar subarachnoid space of Mlc1 knockout mice an adeno-associated virus (AAV) coding for human MLC1 under the control of the glial-fibrillary acidic protein promoter. MLC1 expression in the cerebellum extremely reduced myelin vacuolation at all ages in a dose-dependent manner. This study could be considered as the first preclinical approach for MLC. We also suggest other potential therapeutic strategies in this review.

Cellular basis of ClC-2 Cl- channel-related brain and testis pathologies

The ClC-2 chloride channel is expressed in the plasma membrane of almost all mammalian cells. Mutations that cause the loss of ClC-2 function lead to retinal and testicular degeneration and leukodystrophy, whereas gain-of-function mutations cause hyperaldosteronism. Leukodystrophy is also observed with a loss of GlialCAM, a cell adhesion molecule that binds to ClC-2 in glia. GlialCAM changes the localization of ClC-2 and opens the channel by altering its gating. We now used cell type-specific deletion of ClC-2 in mice to show that retinal and testicular degeneration depend on a loss of ClC-2 in retinal pigment epithelial cells and Sertoli cells, respectively, whereas leukodystrophy was fully developed only when ClC-2 was disrupted in both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. The leukodystrophy of Glialcam-/- mice could not be rescued by crosses with Clcn2op/op mice in which a mutation mimics the "opening" of ClC-2 by GlialCAM. These data indicate that GlialCAM-induced changes in biophysical properties of ClC-2 are irrelevant for GLIALCAM-related leukodystrophy. Taken together, our findings suggest that the pathology caused by Clcn2 disruption results from disturbed extracellular ion homeostasis and identifies the cells involved in this process.

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 1 (MLC1) promotes glioblastoma cell invasion in the brain microenvironment

Glioblastoma (GBM), or grade IV astrocytoma, is a malignant brain cancer that contains subpopulations of proliferative and invasive cells that coordinately drive primary tumor growth, progression, and recurrence after therapy. Here, we have analyzed functions for megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 1 (Mlc1), an eight-transmembrane protein normally expressed in perivascular brain astrocyte end feet that is essential for neurovascular development and physiology, in the pathogenesis of GBM. We show that Mlc1 is expressed in human stem-like GBM cells (GSCs) and is linked to the development of primary and recurrent GBM. Genetically inhibiting MLC1 in GSCs using RNAi-mediated gene silencing results in diminished growth and invasion in vitro as well as impaired tumor initiation and progression in vivo. Biochemical assays identify the receptor tyrosine kinase Axl and its intracellular signaling effectors as important for MLC1 control of GSC invasive growth. Collectively, these data reveal key functions for MLC1 in promoting GSC growth and invasion, and suggest that targeting the Mlc1 protein or its associated signaling effectors may be a useful therapy for blocking tumor progression in patients with primary or recurrent GBM.

Chromoanasynthesis as a cause of Jacobsen syndrome

Jacobsen syndrome (MIM #147791) is a rare multisystem genomic disorder involving craniofacial abnormalities, intellectual disability, other neurodevelopmental defects, and terminal truncation of chromosome 11q, typically deleting ~170 to >340 genes. We describe the first case of Jacobsen syndrome caused by congenital chromoanasynthesis, an extreme form of complex chromosomal rearrangement. Six duplications and five deletions occurred on one copy of chromosome 11q with microhomology signatures in the breakpoint junctions, indicating an all-at-once replication-based rearrangement mechanism in a gametocyte or early post-zygotic cell. Eighteen genes were deleted from the Jacobsen region, including KIRREL3, which is associated with intellectual disability.

Varying perivascular astroglial endfoot dimensions along the vascular tree maintain perivascular-interstitial flux through the cortical mantle

The glymphatic system is a recently defined brain-wide network of perivascular spaces along which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and interstitial solutes exchange. Astrocyte endfeet encircling the perivascular space form a physical barrier in between these two compartments, and fluid and solutes that are not taken up by astrocytes move out of the perivascular space through the junctions in between astrocyte endfeet. However, little is known about the anatomical structure and the physiological roles of the astrocyte endfeet in regulating the local perivascular exchange. Here, visualizing astrocyte endfoot-endfoot junctions with immunofluorescent labeling against the protein megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts-1 (MLC1), we characterized endfoot dimensions along the mouse cerebrovascular tree. We observed marked heterogeneity in endfoot dimensions along vessels of different sizes, and of different types. Specifically, endfoot size was positively correlated with the vessel diameters, with large vessel segments surrounded by large endfeet and small vessel segments surrounded by small endfeet. This association was most pronounced along arterial, rather than venous segments. Computational modeling simulating vascular trees with uniform or varying endfeet dimensions demonstrates that varying endfoot dimensions maintain near constant perivascular-interstitial flux despite correspondingly declining perivascular pressures along the cerebrovascular tree through the cortical depth. These results describe a novel anatomical feature of perivascular astroglial endfeet and suggest that endfoot heterogeneity may be an evolutionary adaptation to maintain perivascular CSF-interstitial fluid exchange through deep brain structures.

Astrocytes in the regulation of cerebrovascular functions

Astrocytes are the most numerous type of neuroglia in the brain and have a predominant influence on the cerebrovascular system; they control perivascular homeostasis, the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, the dialogue with the peripheral immune system, the transfer of metabolites from the blood, and blood vessel contractility in response to neuronal activity. These regulatory processes occur in a specialized interface composed of perivascular astrocyte extensions that almost completely cover the cerebral blood vessels. Scientists have only recently started to study how this interface is formed and how it influences cerebrovascular functions. Here, we review the literature on the astrocytes' role in the regulation of the cerebrovascular system. We cover the anatomy and development of the gliovascular interface, the known gliovascular functions, and molecular factors, the latter's implication in certain pathophysiological situations, and recent cutting-edge experimental tools developed to examine the astrocytes' role at the vascular interface. Finally, we highlight some open questions in this field of research.

Cerebellar Astrocyte Transduction as Gene Therapy for Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a rare genetic disorder belonging to the group of vacuolating leukodystrophies. It is characterized by megalencephaly, loss of motor functions, epilepsy, and mild mental decline. In brain biopsies of MLC patients, vacuoles were observed in myelin and in astrocytes surrounding blood vessels. There is no therapy for MLC patients, only supportive treatment. We show here a preclinical gene therapy approach for MLC using the Mlc1 knock-out mouse. An adeno-associated virus coding for human MLC1 under the control of the glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter was injected in the cerebellar subarachnoid space of Mlc1 knock-out and wild-type animals at 2 months of age, before the onset of the disease, as a preventive approach. We also tested a therapeutic strategy by injecting the animals at 5 months, once the histopathological abnormalities are starting, or at 15 months, when they have progressed to a more severe pathology. MLC1 expression in the cerebellum restored the adhesion molecule GlialCAM and the chloride channel ClC-2 localization in Bergmann glia, which both are mislocalized in Mlc1 knock-out model. More importantly, myelin vacuolation was extremely reduced in treated mice at all ages and correlated with the amount of expressed MLC1 in Bergmann glia, indicating not only the preventive potential of this strategy but also its therapeutic capacity. In summary, here we provide the first therapeutic approach for patients affected with MLC. This work may have also implications to treat other diseases affecting motor function such as ataxias.

Glial cells in the driver seat of leukodystrophy pathogenesis

Glia cells are often viewed as support cells in the central nervous system, but recent discoveries highlight their importance in physiological functions and in neurological diseases. Central to this are leukodystrophies, a group of progressive, neurogenetic disease affecting white matter pathology. In this review, we take a closer look at multiple leukodystrophies, classified based on the primary glial cell type that is affected. While white matter diseases involve oligodendrocyte and myelin loss, we discuss how astrocytes and microglia are affected and impinge on oligodendrocyte, myelin and axonal pathology. We provide an overview of the leukodystrophies covering their hallmark features, clinical phenotypes, diverse molecular pathways, and potential therapeutics for clinical trials. Glial cells are gaining momentum as cellular therapeutic targets for treatment of demyelinating diseases such as leukodystrophies, currently with no treatment options. Here, we bring the much needed attention to role of glia in leukodystrophies, an integral step towards furthering disease comprehension, understanding mechanisms and developing future therapeutics.

White matter abnormality in Jacobsen syndrome assessed by serial MRI

INTRODUCTION

Jacobsen syndrome (JS) is caused by a deletion at the terminus of the long arm of chromosome 11. There are few reports of JS associated with cerebral white matter abnormalities (WMA), and the etiology, pathophysiology, and time-dependent changes in WMA with JS still remain unclear.

CASE REPORT

The patient was a 2-month-old female with several morphological anomalies, including trigonocephaly, ectropion, flat nasal bridge, low-set ears, and sparse eyebrows. Chromosome analysis (G-banding karyotyping) of 46,XX,del(11)(q23.3) led to the diagnosis of JS. Head MRI performed at age 9 months indicated diffuse WMA with hyperintense signals on T2-weighted imaging. MRI at age 2.5 years demonstrated a decrease in the WMA and progressive myelination.

DISCUSSION

These findings suggested that the WMA in the present patient were due to chronic white matter edema associated with a deletion in the 11q terminal region of HEPACAM/GlialCAM, a causative gene for megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts type 2B (MLC2B). As with some of MLC2B patients, the WMA in the present patient improved over time. The present report is the first to document dramatic changes in WMA in JS visualized by serial MRI examinations from the neonatal period through early childhood.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study suggested that WMA in JS are due to chronic white matter edema associated with HEPACAM/GlialCAM deletion and show gradual improvement over time, as seen in some MLC2B patients.

Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy with Subcortical Cysts Disease-Linked MLC1 Protein Favors Gap-Junction Intercellular Communication by Regulating Connexin 43 Trafficking in Astrocytes

Astrocytes, the most numerous cells of the central nervous system, exert critical functions for brain homeostasis. To this purpose, astrocytes generate a highly interconnected intercellular network allowing rapid exchange of ions and metabolites through gap junctions, adjoined channels composed of hexamers of connexin (Cx) proteins, mainly Cx43. Functional alterations of Cxs and gap junctions have been observed in several neuroinflammatory/neurodegenerative diseases. In the rare leukodystrophy megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC), astrocytes show defective control of ion/fluid exchanges causing brain edema, fluid cysts, and astrocyte/myelin vacuolation. MLC is caused by mutations in MLC1, an astrocyte-specific protein of elusive function, and in GlialCAM, a MLC1 chaperon. Both proteins are highly expressed at perivascular astrocyte end-feet and astrocyte-astrocyte contacts where they interact with zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and Cx43 junctional proteins. To investigate the possible role of Cx43 in MLC pathogenesis, we studied Cx43 properties in astrocytoma cells overexpressing wild type (WT) MLC1 or MLC1 carrying pathological mutations. Using biochemical and electrophysiological techniques, we found that WT, but not mutated, MLC1 expression favors intercellular communication by inhibiting extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2)-mediated Cx43 phosphorylation and increasing Cx43 gap-junction stability. These data indicate MLC1 regulation of Cx43 in astrocytes and Cx43 involvement in MLC pathogenesis, suggesting potential target pathways for therapeutic interventions.

Transcriptome analysis of neural progenitor cells derived from Lowe syndrome induced pluripotent stem cells: identification of candidate genes for the neurodevelopmental and eye manifestations

BACKGROUND

Lowe syndrome (LS) is caused by loss-of-function mutations in the X-linked gene OCRL, which codes for an inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase that plays a key role in endosome recycling, clathrin-coated pit formation, and actin polymerization. It is characterized by congenital cataracts, intellectual and developmental disability, and renal proximal tubular dysfunction. Patients are also at high risk for developing glaucoma and seizures. We recently developed induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from three patients with LS who have hypomorphic variants affecting the 3' end of the gene, and their neurotypical brothers to serve as controls.

METHODS

In this study, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to obtain transcriptome profiles in LS and control neural progenitor cells (NPCs).

RESULTS

In a comparison of the patient and control NPCs (n = 3), we found 16 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at the multiple test adjusted p value (padj) < 0.1, with nine at padj < 0.05. Using nominal p value < 0.05, 319 DEGs were detected. The relatively small number of DEGs could be due to the fact that OCRL is not a transcription factor per se, although it could have secondary effects on gene expression through several different mechanisms. Although the number of DEGs passing multiple test correction was small, those that were found are quite consistent with some of the known molecular effects of OCRL protein, and the clinical manifestations of LS. Furthermore, using gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), we found that genes increased expression in the patient NPCs showed enrichments of several gene ontology (GO) terms (false discovery rate < 0.25): telencephalon development, pallium development, NPC proliferation, and cortex development, which are consistent with a condition characterized by intellectual disabilities and psychiatric manifestations. In addition, a significant enrichment among the nominal DEGs for genes implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was found (e.g., AFF2, DNER, DPP6, DPP10, RELN, CACNA1C), as well as several that are strong candidate genes for the development of eye problems found in LS, including glaucoma. The most notable example is EFEMP1, a well-known candidate gene for glaucoma and other eye pathologies.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the RNA-seq findings present several candidate genes that could help explain the underlying basis for the neurodevelopmental and eye problems seen in boys with LS.

Plasma membrane localization of MLC1 regulates cellular morphology and motility

Background

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a rare form of infantile-onset leukodystrophy. The disorder is caused primarily by mutations of MLC1 that leads to a series of phenotypic outcomes including vacuolation of myelin and astrocytes, subcortical cysts, brain edema, and macrocephaly. Recent studies have indicated that functional interactions among MLC1, GlialCAM, and ClC-2 channels play key roles in the regulation of neuronal, glial and vascular homeostasis. However, the physiological role of MLC1 in cellular homeostatic communication remains poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the cellular function of MLC1 and its effects on cell–cell interactions.

Methods

MLC1-dependent cellular morphology and motility were analyzed by using confocal and live cell imaging technique. Biochemical approaches such as immunoblotting, co-immunoprecipitation, and surface biotinylation were conducted to support data.

Results

We found that the altered MLC1 expression and localization led to a great alteration in cellular morphology and motility through actin remodeling. MLC1 overexpression induced filopodia formation and suppressed motility. And, MLC1 proteins expressed in patient-derived MLC1 mutants resulted in trapping in the ER although no changes in morphology or motility were observed. Interestingly knockdown of Mlc1 induced Arp3-Cortactin interaction, lamellipodia formation, and increased the membrane ruffling of the astrocytes. These data indicate that subcellular localization of expressed MLC1 at the plasma membrane is critical for changes in actin dynamics through ARP2/3 complex. Thus, our results suggest that misallocation of pathogenic mutant MLC1 may disturbs the stable cell-cell communication and the homeostatic regulation of astrocytes in patients with MLC.

Comparison of zebrafish and mice knockouts for Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy proteins indicates that GlialCAM/MLC1 forms a functional unit

Background

Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy with subcortical Cysts (MLC) is a rare type of leukodystrophy characterized by astrocyte and myelin vacuolization, epilepsy and early-onset macrocephaly. MLC is caused by mutations in MLC1 or GLIALCAM, coding for two membrane proteins with an unknown function that form a complex specifically expressed in astrocytes at cell-cell junctions. Recent studies in Mlc1^−/− or Glialcam^−/− mice and mlc1^−/− zebrafish have shown that MLC1 regulates glial surface levels of GlialCAM in vivo and that GlialCAM is also required for MLC1 expression and localization at cell-cell junctions.

Methods

We have generated and analysed glialcama^−/− zebrafish. We also generated zebrafish glialcama^−/−mlc1^−/− and mice double KO for both genes and performed magnetic resonance imaging, histological studies and biochemical analyses.

Results

glialcama^−/− shows megalencephaly and increased fluid accumulation. In both zebrafish and mice, this phenotype is not aggravated by additional elimination of mlc1. Unlike mice, mlc1 protein expression and localization are unaltered in glialcama^−/− zebrafish, possibly because there is an up-regulation of mlc1 mRNA. In line with these results, MLC1 overexpressed in Glialcam^−/− mouse primary astrocytes is located at cell-cell junctions.

Conclusions

This work indicates that the two proteins involved in the pathogenesis of MLC, GlialCAM and MLC1, form a functional unit, and thus, that loss-of-function mutations in these genes cause leukodystrophy through a common pathway.

Astroglia in Leukodystrophies

Leukodystrophies are genetically determined disorders affecting the white matter of the central nervous system. The combination of MRI pattern recognition and next-generation sequencing for the definition of novel disease entities has recently demonstrated that many leukodystrophies are due to the primary involvement and/or mutations in genes selectively expressed by cell types other than the oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells in the brain. This has led to a new definition of leukodystrophies as genetic white matter disorders resulting from the involvement of any white matter structural component. As a result, the research has shifted its main focus from oligodendrocytes to other types of neuroglia. Astrocytes are the housekeeping cells of the nervous system, responsible for maintaining homeostasis and normal brain physiology and to orchestrate repair upon injury. Several lines of evidence show that astrocytic interactions with the other white matter cellular constituents play a primary pathophysiologic role in many leukodystrophies. These are thus now classified as astrocytopathies. This chapter addresses how the crosstalk between astrocytes, other glial cells, axons and non-neural cells are essential for the integrity and maintenance of the white matter in health. It also addresses the current knowledge of the cellular pathomechanisms of astrocytic leukodystrophies, and specifically Alexander disease, vanishing white matter, megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts and Aicardi-Goutière Syndrome.