Mitochondrial abnormality associates with type-specific neuronal loss and cell morphology changes in the pedunculopontine nucleus in Parkinson disease

The mesopontine tegmentum in reward and aversion: From cellular heterogeneity to behaviour

The mesopontine tegmentum, comprising the pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPN) and the laterodorsal tegmentum (LDT), is intricately connected to various regions of the basal ganglia, motor systems, and limbic systems. The PPN and LDT can regulate the activity of different brain regions of these target systems, and in this way are in a privileged position to modulate motivated behaviours. Despite recent findings, the PPN and LDT have been largely overlooked in discussions about the neural circuits associated with reward and aversion. This review aims to provide a timely and comprehensive resource on past and current research, highlighting the PPN and LDT's connectivity and influence on basal ganglia and limbic, and motor systems. Seminal studies, including lesion, pharmacological, and optogenetic/chemogenetic approaches, demonstrate their critical roles in modulating reward/aversive behaviours. The review emphasizes the need for further investigation into the associated cellular mechanisms, in order to clarify their role in behaviour and contribution for different neuropsychiatric disorders.

Impaired Mitochondrial Respiration in REM-Sleep Behavior Disorder: A Biomarker of Parkinson's Disease?

BACKGROUND

Idiopathic rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (iRBD) is associated with prodromal Parkinson's disease (PD), but the mechanisms linking phenoconversion of iRBD to PD have not yet been clarified. Considering the association between mitochondrial dysfunction and sleep disturbances in PD, we explored mitochondrial activity in fibroblasts derived from iRBD patients to identify a biochemical profile that could mark the presence of impending neurodegeneration.

METHODS

The study involved 28 participants, divided into three groups: patients diagnosed with iRBD, PD patients converted from iRBD (RBD-PD), and healthy controls. We performed a comprehensive assessment of mitochondrial function, including an examination of mitochondrial morphology, analysis of mitochondrial protein expression levels by western blot, and measurement of mitochondrial respiration using the Seahorse XFe24 analyzer.

RESULTS

In basal conditions, mitochondrial respiration did not differ between iRBD and control fibroblasts, but when cells were challenged with a higher energy demand, iRBD fibroblasts exhibited a significant (P = 0.006) drop in maximal and spare respiration compared to controls. Interestingly, RBD-PD patients showed the same alterations with a further significant reduction in oxygen consumption linked to adenosine triphosphate production (P = 0.032). Moreover, RBD-PD patients exhibited a significant decrease in protein levels of complexes III (P = 0.02) and V (P = 0.002) compared to controls, along with fragmentation of the mitochondrial network. iRBD patients showed similar, but milder alterations.

CONCLUSIONS

Altogether, these findings suggest that mitochondrial dysfunctions in individuals with iRBD might predispose to worsening of the bioenergetic profile observed in RBD-PD patients, highlighting these alterations as potential predictors of phenoconversion to PD. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Therapeutic Viewpoint on Rat Models of Locomotion Abnormalities and Neurobiological Indicators in Parkinson's Disease

BACKGROUND

Locomotion problems in Parkinson's syndrome are still a research and treatment difficulty. With the recent introduction of brain stimulation or neuromodulation equipment that is sufficient to monitor activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp, new locomotion investigations in patients having the capacity to move freely have sprung up.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to find rat models and locomotion-connected neuronal indicators and use them all over a closed-loop system to enhance the future and present treatment options available for Parkinson's disease.

METHODS

Various publications on locomotor abnormalities, Parkinson's disease, animal models, and other topics have been searched using several search engines, such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, Research Gate, and PubMed.

RESULTS

Based on the literature, we can conclude that animal models are used for further investigating the locomotion connectivity deficiencies of many biological measuring devices and attempting to address unanswered concerns from clinical and non-clinical research. However, translational validity is required for rat models to contribute to the improvement of upcoming neurostimulation-based medicines. This review discusses the most successful methods for modelling Parkinson's locomotion in rats.

CONCLUSION

This review article has examined how scientific clinical experiments lead to localised central nervous system injuries in rats, as well as how the associated motor deficits and connection oscillations reflect this. This evolutionary process of therapeutic interventions may help to improve locomotion- based treatment and management of Parkinson's syndrome in the upcoming years.

α-Synuclein pathology disrupts mitochondrial function in dopaminergic and cholinergic neurons at-risk in Parkinson's disease

Background

Pathological accumulation of aggregated α-synuclein (aSYN) is a common feature of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the mechanisms by which intracellular aSYN pathology contributes to dysfunction and degeneration of neurons in the brain are still unclear. A potentially relevant target of aSYN is the mitochondrion. To test this hypothesis, genetic and physiological methods were used to monitor mitochondrial function in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) dopaminergic and pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) cholinergic neurons after stereotaxic injection of aSYN pre-formed fibrils (PFFs) into the mouse brain.

Methods

aSYN PPFs were stereotaxically injected into the SNc or PPN of mice. Twelve weeks later, mice were studied using a combination of approaches, including immunocytochemical analysis, cell- type specific transcriptomic profiling, electron microscopy, electrophysiology and two-photon-laser- scanning microscopy of genetically encoded sensors for bioenergetic and redox status.

Results

In addition to inducing a significant neuronal loss, SNc injection of PFFs induced the formation of intracellular, phosphorylated aSYN aggregates selectively in dopaminergic neurons. In these neurons, PFF-exposure decreased mitochondrial gene expression, reduced the number of mitochondria, increased oxidant stress, and profoundly disrupted mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate production. Consistent with an aSYN-induced bioenergetic deficit, the autonomous spiking of dopaminergic neurons slowed or stopped. PFFs also up-regulated lysosomal gene expression and increased lysosomal abundance, leading to the formation of Lewy-like inclusions. Similar changes were observed in PPN cholinergic neurons following aSYN PFF exposure.

Conclusions

Taken together, our findings suggest that disruption of mitochondrial function, and the subsequent bioenergetic deficit, is a proximal step in the cascade of events induced by aSYN pathology leading to dysfunction and degeneration of neurons at-risk in PD.

Advances in the study of cholinergic circuits in the central nervous system

OBJECTIVE

Further understanding of the function and regulatory mechanism of cholinergic neural circuits and related neurodegenerative diseases.

METHODS

This review summarized the research progress of the central cholinergic nervous system, especially for the cholinergic circuit of the medial septal nucleus-hippocampus, vertical branch of diagonal band-hippocampus, basal nucleus of Meynert-cerebral cortex cholinergic loop, amygdala, pedunculopontine nucleus, and striatum-related cholinergic loops.

RESULTS

The extensive and complex fiber projection of cholinergic neurons form the cholinergic neural circuits, which regulate several nuclei in the brain through neurotransmission and participate in learning and memory, attention, emotion, movement, etc. The loss of cholinergic neurotransmitters, the reduction, loss, and degeneration of cholinergic neurons or abnormal theta oscillations and cholinergic neural circuits can induce cognitive disorders such as AD, PD, PDD, and DLB.

INTERPRETATION

The projection and function of cholinergic fibers in some nuclei and the precise regulatory mechanisms of cholinergic neural circuits in the brain remain unclear. Further investigation of cholinergic fiber projections in various brain regions and the underlying mechanisms of the neural circuits are expected to open up new avenues for the prevention and treatment of senile neurodegenerative diseases.

Monoterpenoid Epoxidiol Ameliorates the Pathological Phenotypes of the Rotenone-Induced Parkinson’s Disease Model by Alleviating Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Parkinson’s disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. Unfortunately, there is still no definitive disease-modifying therapy. In our work, the antiparkinsonian potential of trans-epoxide (1S,2S,3R,4S,6R)-1-methyl-4-(prop-1-en-2-yl)-7-oxabicyclo [4.1.0]heptan-2,3-diol (E-diol) was analyzed in a rotenone-induced neurotoxicity model using in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo approaches. It was conducted as part of the study of the mitoprotective properties of the compound. E-diol has been shown to have cytoprotective properties in the SH-SY5Y cell line exposed to rotenone, which is associated with its ability to prevent the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and restore the oxygen consumption rate after inhibition of the complex I function. Under the conditions of rotenone modeling of Parkinson’s disease in vivo, treatment with E-diol led to the leveling of both motor and non-motor disorders. The post-mortem analysis of brain samples from these animals demonstrated the ability of E-diol to prevent the loss of dopaminergic neurons. Moreover, that substance restored functioning of the mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes and significantly reduced the production of reactive oxygen species, preventing oxidative damage. Thus, E-diol can be considered as a new potential agent for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.

The PPN and motor control: Preclinical studies to deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is the major part of the mesencephalic locomotor region, involved in the control of gait and locomotion. The PPN contains glutamatergic, cholinergic, and GABAergic neurons that all make local connections, but also have long-range ascending and descending connections. While initially thought of as a region only involved in gait and locomotion, recent evidence is showing that this structure also participates in decision-making to initiate movement. Clinically, the PPN has been used as a target for deep brain stimulation to manage freezing of gait in late Parkinson's disease. In this review, we will discuss current thinking on the role of the PPN in locomotor control. We will focus on the cytoarchitecture and functional connectivity of the PPN in relationship to motor control.

The Therapeutic Potential of Mitochondria Transplantation Therapy in Neurodegenerative and Neurovascular Disorders

Neurodegenerative and neurovascular disorders affect millions of people worldwide and account for a large and increasing health burden on the general population. Thus, there is a critical need to identify potential disease-modifying treatments that can prevent or slow the disease progression. Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles and play an important role in energy metabolism and redox homeostasis, and mitochondrial dysfunction threatens cell homeostasis, perturbs energy production, and ultimately leads to cell death and diseases. Impaired mitochondrial function has been linked to the pathogenesis of several human neurological disorders. Given the significant contribution of mitochondrial dysfunction in neurological disorders, there has been considerable interest in developing therapies that can attenuate mitochondrial abnormalities and proffer neuroprotective effects. Unfortunately, therapies that target specific components of mitochondria or oxidative stress pathways have exhibited limited translatability. To this end, mitochondrial transplantation therapy (MTT) presents a new paradigm of therapeutic intervention, which involves the supplementation of healthy mitochondria to replace the damaged mitochondria for the treatment of neurological disorders. Prior studies demonstrated that the supplementation of healthy donor mitochondria to damaged neurons promotes neuronal viability, activity, and neurite growth and has been shown to provide benefits for neural and extra-neural diseases. In this review, we discuss the significance of mitochondria and summarize an overview of the recent advances and development of MTT in neurodegenerative and neurovascular disorders, particularly Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and stroke. The significance of MTT is emerging as they meet a critical need to develop a diseasemodifying intervention for neurodegenerative and neurovascular disorders.

Exploring the Role of Lipid-Binding Proteins and Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Disorders: A Focus on the Neuroprotective Effects of Nutraceutical Supplementation and Physical Exercise

The human brain is primarily composed of lipids, and their homeostasis is crucial to carry on normal neuronal functions. In order to provide an adequate amount of lipid transport in and out of the central nervous system, organisms need a set of proteins able to bind them. Therefore, alterations in the structure or function of lipid-binding proteins negatively affect brain homeostasis, as well as increase inflammation and oxidative stress with the consequent risk of neurodegeneration. In this regard, lifestyle changes seem to be protective against neurodegenerative processes. Nutraceutical supplementation with antioxidant molecules has proven to be useful in proving cognitive functions. Additionally, regular physical activity seems to protect neuronal vitality and increases antioxidant defenses. The aim of the present review was to investigate mechanisms that link lipid-binding protein dysfunction and oxidative stress to cognitive decline, also underlining the neuroprotective effects of diet and exercise.

The roles of connectivity and neuronal phenotype in determining the pattern of α-synuclein pathology in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder, and motor dysfunction has been attributed to loss of dopaminergic neurons. However, motor dysfunction is only one of many symptoms experienced by patients. A neuropathological hallmark of PD is intraneuronal protein aggregates called Lewy pathology (LP). Neuropathological staging studies have shown that dopaminergic neurons are only one of the many cell types prone to manifest LP. Progressive appearance of LP in multiple brain regions, as well as peripheral nerves, has led to the popular hypothesis that LP and misfolded forms of one of its major components - α-synuclein (aSYN) - can spread through synaptically connected circuits. However, not all brain regions or neurons within connected circuits develop LP, suggesting that cell autonomous factors modulate the development of pathology. Here, we review studies about how LP develops and progressively engages additional brain regions. We focus on how connectivity constrains progression and discuss cell autonomous factors that drive pathology development. We propose a mixed model of cell autonomous factors and trans-synaptic spread as mediators of pathology progression and put forward this model as a framework for future experiments exploring PD pathophysiology.

Protective effect of curcumin against rotenone-induced substantia nigra pars compacta neuronal dysfunction

Rotenone is involved in the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, and curcumin may prevent or effectively slow the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). Previous research has shown that the naturally occurring phenolic compound curcumin can reduce inflammation and oxidation, making it a potential therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases. The present study involves investigation of rotenone-induced histological changes in the brain area, hippocampus using Nissl staining after 35 day of subcutaneous injection of rotenone in adult male rats. We sought to determine whether curcumin could protect against rotenone-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity in a rat model by in vivo electrical recording from Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Curcumin treatment significantly improved electrical activity of neurons in the SNc of rotenone-induced PD model rats. The pattern of histological alterations corresponds with electrophysiological manifestations.

Dopaminergic but not cholinergic neurodegeneration is correlated with gait disturbances in PINK1 knockout rats

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by gait dysfunction in later stages of the disease. PD hallmarks include a decrease in stride length, run speed, and swing time; an increase in stride time, stance time, and base of support; dopaminergic degeneration in the basal ganglia; and cholinergic degeneration in the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN). A progressive animal model of PD is needed to identify treatments for gait dysfunction. The goal of this study was to quantify progressive gait degeneration in PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 knockout (P1KO) rats and investigate neurodegeneration as potential underlying mechanisms. Gait analysis was performed in male P1KO and wild-type rats at 5 and 8 months of age and immunohistochemical analysis at 8 months. Multiple parameters of volitional gait were measured using a runway system. P1KO rats exhibited significant gait deficits at 5 months, but not 8 months. Gait abnormalities improved over time suggesting compensation during behavioral testing. At 8 months a 15% loss of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the striatum, a 27% loss of TH-positive cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta, and no significant loss of choline acetyltransferase-positive cells in the PPN was found. Dopaminergic cell loss may contribute to gait deficits in the P1KO model, but not cholinergic cell loss. The P1KO rat with the greatest dopamine loss exhibited the most pronounced PD-like gait deficits, highlighting variability within the model. Further analysis is required to determine the suitability of the P1KO rat as a progressive model of gait abnormalities in PD.

Cholinergic systems, attentional-motor integration, and cognitive control in Parkinson's disease

Dysfunction and degeneration of CNS cholinergic systems is a significant component of multi-system pathology in Parkinson's disease (PD). We review the basic architecture of human CNS cholinergic systems and the tools available for studying changes in human cholinergic systems. Earlier post-mortem studies implicated abnormalities of basal forebrain corticopetal cholinergic (BFCC) and pedunculopontine-laterodorsal tegmental (PPN-LDT) cholinergic projections in cognitive deficits and gait-balance deficits, respectively. Recent application of imaging methods, particularly molecular imaging, allowed more sophisticated correlation of clinical features with regional cholinergic deficits. BFCC projection deficits correlate with general and domain specific cognitive deficits, particularly for attentional and executive functions. Detailed analyses suggest that cholinergic deficits within the salience and cingulo-opercular task control networks, including both neocortical, thalamic, and striatal nodes, are a significant component of cognitive deficits in non-demented PD subjects. Both BFCC and PPN-LDT cholinergic projection systems, and striatal cholinergic interneuron (SChI), abnormalities are implicated in PD gait-balance disorders. In the context of experimental studies, these results indicate that disrupted attentional functions of BFCC and PPN-LDT cholinergic systems underlie impaired gait-balance functions. SChI dysfunction likely impairs intra-striatal integration of attentional and motor information. Thalamic and entorhinal cortex cholinergic deficits may impair multi-sensory integration. Overt degeneration of CNS systems may be preceded by increased activity of cholinergic neurons compensating for nigrostriatal dopaminergic deficits. Subsequent dysfunction and degeneration of cholinergic systems unmasks and exacerbates functional deficits secondary to dopaminergic denervation. Research on CNS cholinergic systems dysfunctions in PD requires a systems-level approach to understanding PD pathophysiology.

Progressive Pontine-Medullary Dysfunction Leads to REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Symptoms in a Chronic Model of Parkinson's Disease

BACKGROUND

Clinical observations reveal that rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) often develops prior to alpha-synucleinopathies including Parkinson's disease (PD). However, a causal relationship between alpha-synucleinopathy and Parkinsonian neurodegeneration has not been delineated.

METHODS

Rats were chronically treated with rotenone and EEG and EMG signals were recorded for analysis of sleep behavior, assisted by video recording of body movements. C-fos expression and TUNEL staining were used to assess neuronal activation and apoptosis, respectively. Chemogenetic manipulation of brain stem nuclei was conducted to ameliorate RBD symptoms in rotenone-treated rats.

RESULTS

Rats chronically exposed to rotenone exhibited progressive RBD features, from EEG slowing to REM sleep motor behavior and NREM muscle activities. Temporally, these phenomena correlated well with progressive alpha-synuclein aggregation and neuronal apoptosis in the sublaterodorsal tegmental nucleus (SLD) and gigantocellular ventricular reticular nucleus in the brainstem. Chemogenetic activation of glutamatergic neurons in SLD alleviated RBD symptoms in the rotenone model.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these results are consistent with a progressive degeneration in the REM sleep promoting and atonia circuit in early Parkinsonism that underlies the emergence of RBD symptoms, and demonstrate that the rotenone model is useful for further studies into RBD and its relationship to PD.

Determinants of seeding and spreading of α-synuclein pathology in the brain

In Parkinson's disease (PD), fibrillar forms of α-synuclein are hypothesized to propagate through synaptically coupled networks, causing Lewy pathology (LP) and neurodegeneration. To more rigorously characterize the determinants of spreading, preformed α-synuclein fibrils were injected into the mouse pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN), a brain region that manifests LP in PD patients and the distribution of developing α-synuclein pathology compared to that ascertained by anterograde and retrograde connectomic mapping. Within the PPN, α-synuclein pathology was cell-specific, being robust in PD-vulnerable cholinergic neurons but not in neighboring noncholinergic neurons. While nearly all neurons projecting to PPN cholinergics manifested α-synuclein pathology, the kinetics, magnitude, and persistence of the propagated pathology were unrelated to the strength of those connections. Thus, neuronal phenotype governs the somatodendritic uptake of pathological α-synuclein, and while the afferent connectome restricts the subsequent spreading of pathology, its magnitude and persistence is not a strict function of the strength of coupling.

Heterogeneous expression of dopaminergic markers and Vglut2 in mouse mesodiencephalic dopaminergic nuclei A8-A13

Co-transmission of glutamate by brain dopaminergic (DA) neurons was recently proposed as a potential factor influencing cell survival in models of Parkinson's disease. Intriguingly, brain DA nuclei are differentially affected in Parkinson's disease. Whether this is associated with different patterns of co-expression of the glutamatergic phenotype along the rostrocaudal brain axis is unknown in mammals. We hypothesized that, as in zebrafish, the glutamatergic phenotype is present preferentially in the caudal mesodiencephalic DA nuclei. Here, we used in mice a cell fate mapping strategy based on reporter protein expression (ZsGreen) consecutive to previous expression of the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (Vglut2) gene, coupled with immunofluorescence experiments against tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) or dopamine transporter (DAT). We found three expression patterns in DA cells, organized along the rostrocaudal brain axis. The first pattern (TH-positive, DAT-positive, ZsGreen-positive) was found in A8-A10. The second pattern (TH-positive, DAT-negative, ZsGreen-positive) was found in A11. The third pattern (TH-positive, DAT-negative, ZsGreen-negative) was found in A12-A13. These patterns should help to refine the establishment of the homology of DA nuclei between vertebrate species. Our results also uncover that Vglut2 is expressed at some point during cell lifetime in DA nuclei known to degenerate in Parkinson's disease and largely absent from those that are preserved, suggesting that co-expression of the glutamatergic phenotype in DA cells influences their survival in Parkinson's disease.

Calcium, Bioenergetics, and Parkinson's Disease

Degeneration of substantia nigra (SN) dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons is responsible for the core motor deficits of Parkinson’s disease (PD). These neurons are autonomous pacemakers that have large cytosolic Ca²⁺ oscillations that have been linked to basal mitochondrial oxidant stress and turnover. This review explores the origin of Ca²⁺ oscillations and their role in the control of mitochondrial respiration, bioenergetics, and mitochondrial oxidant stress.

Dissecting Brainstem Locomotor Circuits: Converging Evidence for Cuneiform Nucleus Stimulation

There are a pressing and unmet need for effective therapies for freezing of gait (FOG) and other neurological gait disorders. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of a midbrain target known as the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) was proposed as a potential treatment based on its postulated involvement in locomotor control as part of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR). However, DBS trials fell short of expectations, leading many clinicians to abandon this strategy. Here, we discuss the potential reasons for this failure and review recent clinical data along with preclinical optogenetics evidence to argue that another nearby nucleus, the cuneiform nucleus (CnF), may be a superior target.

DREADD Activation of Pedunculopontine Cholinergic Neurons Reverses Motor Deficits and Restores Striatal Dopamine Signaling in Parkinsonian Rats

The brainstem-based pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) traditionally associates with motor function, but undergoes extensive degeneration during Parkinson's disease (PD), which correlates with axial motor deficits. PPN-deep brain stimulation (DBS) can alleviate certain symptoms, but its mechanism(s) of action remains unknown. We previously characterized rats hemi-intranigrally injected with the proteasomal inhibitor lactacystin, as an accurate preclinical model of PD. Here we used a combination of chemogenetics with positron emission tomography imaging for in vivo interrogation of discrete neural networks in this rat model of PD. Stimulation of excitatory designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs expressed within PPN cholinergic neurons activated residual nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons to produce profound motor recovery, which correlated with striatal dopamine efflux as well as restored dopamine receptor 1- and dopamine receptor 2-based medium spiny neuron activity, as was ascertained with c-Fos-based immunohistochemistry and stereological cell counts. By revealing that the improved axial-related motor functions seen in PD patients receiving PPN-DBS may be due to stimulation of remaining PPN cholinergic neurons interacting with dopaminergic ones in both the substantia nigra pars compacta and the striatum, our data strongly favor the PPN cholinergic-midbrain dopaminergic connectome as mechanism for PPN-DBS's therapeutic effects. These findings have implications for refining PPN-DBS as a promising treatment modality available to PD patients.

Potential mechanisms of retinal ganglion cell type-specific vulnerability in glaucoma

Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease characterised by progressive damage to the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the output neurons of the retina. RGCs are a heterogenous class of retinal neurons which can be classified into multiple types based on morphological, functional and genetic characteristics. This review examines the body of evidence supporting type-specific vulnerability of RGCs in glaucoma and explores potential mechanisms by which this might come about. Studies of donor tissue from glaucoma patients have generally noted greater vulnerability of larger RGC types. Models of glaucoma induced in primates, cats and mice also show selective effects on RGC types - particularly OFF RGCs. Several mechanisms may contribute to type-specific vulnerability, including differences in the expression of calcium-permeable receptors (for example pannexin-1, P2X7, AMPA and transient receptor potential vanilloid receptors), the relative proximity of RGCs and their dendrites to blood supply in the inner plexiform layer, as well as differing metabolic requirements of RGC types. Such differences may make certain RGCs more sensitive to intraocular pressure elevation and its associated biomechanical and vascular stress. A greater understanding of selective RGC vulnerability and its underlying causes will likely reveal a rich area of investigation for potential treatment targets.

Electrophysiological and Neurochemical Considerations of Distinct Neuronal Populations in the Rat Pedunculopontine Nucleus and Their Responsiveness Following 6-Hydroxydopamine Lesions

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is composed of a morphologically and neurochemically heterogeneous population of neurons, which is severely affected by Parkinson’s disease (PD). However, the role of each subtype of neurons within the PPN in the pathophysiology of PD has not been completely elucidated. In this study, we present the discharge profiles of three classified subtypes of PPN neurons and their alterations after 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion. Following 6-OHDA lesion, the spike timing of the Type II (GABAergic) and Type III (glutamatergic) neurons had phase-lock with the oscillations in the delta and beta band frequency range in the PPN, respectively. Morphological evidence has shown distinct alteration in three kinds of neurons after 6-OHDA lesion. These findings revealed that the changes in the firing characteristics of neurons in PPN in hemi-parkinsonism rats are closely associated with damaged neuronal morphology, which would make contributions to the divergence of dysfunctions in Parkinsonism.

Nurr1, Pitx3, and α7 nAChRs mRNA Expression in Nigral Tissue of Rats with Pedunculopontine Neurotoxic Lesion

Background and Objectives: The knowledge that the cholinergic neurons from pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) are vulnerable to the degeneration in early stages of the Parkinson disease progression has opened new perspectives to the development of experimental model focused in pontine lesions that could increase the risk of nigral degeneration. In this context it is known that PPN lesioned rats exhibit early changes in the gene expression of proteins responsible for dopaminergic homeostasis. At the same time, it is known that nicotinic cholinergic receptors (nAChRs) mediate the excitatory influence of pontine-nigral projection. However, the effect of PPN injury on the expression of transcription factors that modulate dopaminergic neurotransmission in the adult brain as well as the α7 nAChRs gene expression has not been studied. The main objective of the present work was the study of the effects of the unilateral neurotoxic lesion of PPN in nuclear receptor-related factor 1 (Nurr1), paired-like homeodomain transcription factor 3 (Pitx3), and α7 nAChRs mRNA expression in nigral tissue. Materials and Methods: The molecular biology studies were performed by means of RT-PCR. The following experimental groups were organized: Non-treated rats, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-lesioned rats, and Sham operated rats. Experimental subjects were sacrificed 24 h, 48 h and seven days after PPN lesion. Results: Nurr1 mRNA expression, showed a significant increase both 24 h (p < 0.001) and 48 h (p < 0.01) after PPN injury. Pitx3 mRNA expression evidenced a significant increase 24 h (p < 0.001) followed by a significant decrease 48 h and seven days after PPN lesion (p < 0.01). Finally, the α7 nAChRs nigral mRNA expression remained significantly diminished 24 h, 48 h (p < 0.001), and 7 days (p < 0.01) after PPN neurotoxic injury. Conclusion: Taking together these modifications could represent early warning signals and could be the preamble to nigral neurodegeneration events.

Regional mitochondrial DNA and cell-type changes in post-mortem brains of non-diabetic Alzheimer's disease are not present in diabetic Alzheimer's disease

Diabetes increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated in both diseases, however the impact of both diabetes and AD on brain mitochondria is not known. We measured mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), an indicator of mitochondrial function, in frontal, parietal, and cerebellar regions of post-mortem human brains (n = 74) from non-cognitively impaired controls (NCI), mild-cognitively impaired (MCI) and AD cases. In a subset of parietal cortices, we measured mRNAs corresponding to cell types and mitochondrial function and semi-automated stereological assessment was performed on immune-staining of parietal cortex sections. mtDNA showed significant regional variation, highest in parietal cortex, and lowest in cerebellum. Irrespective of cognitive status, all brain regions had significantly higher mtDNA in diabetic cases. In the absence of diabetes, AD parietal cortices had decreased mtDNA, reduced MAP2 (neuronal) and increased GFAP (astrocyte) mRNA, relative to NCI. However, in the presence of diabetes, we did not observe these AD-related changes, suggesting that the pathology observed in diabetic AD may be different to that seen in non-diabetic AD. The lack of clear functional changes in mitochondrial parameters in diabetic AD suggest different cellular mechanisms contributing to cognitive impairment in diabetes which remain to be fully understood.

Characterization of functional subgroups among genetically identified cholinergic neurons in the pedunculopontine nucleus

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is a part of the reticular activating system which is composed of cholinergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons. Early electrophysiological studies characterized and grouped PPN neurons based on certain functional properties (i.e., the presence or absence of the A-current, spike latency, and low threshold spikes). Although other electrophysiological characteristics of these neurons were also described (as high threshold membrane potential oscillations, great differences in spontaneous firing rate and the presence or absence of the M-current), systematic assessment of these properties and correlation of them with morphological markers are still missing. In this work, we conducted electrophysiological experiments on brain slices of genetically identified cholinergic neurons in the PPN. Electrophysiological properties were compared with rostrocaudal location of the neuronal soma and selected morphometric features obtained with post hoc reconstruction. We found that functional subgroups had different proportions in the rostral and caudal subregions of the nucleus. Neurons with A-current can be divided to early-firing and late-firing neurons, where the latter type was found exclusively in the caudal subregion. Similar to this, different parameters of high threshold membrane potential oscillations also showed characteristic rostrocaudal distribution. Furthermore, based on our data, we propose that high threshold oscillations rather emerge from neuronal somata and not from the proximal dendrites. In summary, we demonstrated the existence and spatial distribution of functional subgroups of genetically identified PPN cholinergic neurons, which are in accordance with differences found in projection and in vivo functional findings of the subregions. Being aware of functional differences of PPN subregions will help the design and analysis of experiments using genetically encoded opto- and chemogenetic markers for in vivo experiments.

Current Progress of Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases of Salvianolic Acid B

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Lamiaceae), one of the most commonly used traditional Chinese herbs, is widely used for the treatment of cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease in clinical practice. Salvianolic acid B (Sal B, C₃₆H₃₀O₁₆, FW = 718.62) is the main water-soluble active ingredient of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, which performs prophylactic and therapeutic activities against neurodegenerative diseases. So far, numerous studies have proved that multiple factors and mechanisms are involved in the pathological process of neurodegenerative diseases, including amyloid β (Aβ) aggregation and fibril formation, hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, neuroinflammation, oxidative-stress damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuron apoptosis. This study is aimed at reviewing experimental studies and describing the possible mechanisms of Sal B on neurodegenerative diseases.

Normal and pathological neuronal distribution of the human mesencephalic locomotor region

BACKGROUND

Deep brain stimulation of the pedunculopontine nucleus has been performed to treat dopamine-resistant gait and balance disorders in patients with degenerative diseases. The outcomes, however, are variable, which may be the result of the lack of a well-defined anatomical target.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were to identify the main neuronal populations of the pedunculopontine and the cuneiform nuclei that compose the human mesencephalic locomotor region and to compare their 3-dimensional distribution with those found in patients with Parkinson's disease and progressive supranuclear palsy.

METHODS

We used high-field MRI, immunohistochemistry, and in situ hybridization to characterize the distribution of the different cell types, and we developed software to merge all data within a common 3-dimensional space.

RESULTS

We found that cholinergic, GABAergic, and glutamatergic neurons comprised the main cell types of the mesencephalic locomotor region, with the peak densities of cholinergic and GABAergic neurons similarly located within the rostral pedunculopontine nucleus. Cholinergic and noncholinergic neuronal losses were homogeneous in the mesencephalic locomotor region of patients, with the peak density of remaining neurons at the same location as in controls. The degree of denervation of the pedunculopontine nucleus was highest in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy, followed by Parkinson's disease patients with falls.

CONCLUSIONS

The peak density of cholinergic and GABAergic neurons was located similarly within the rostral pedunculopontine nucleus not only in controls but also in pathological cases. The neuronal loss was homogeneously distributed and highest in the pedunculopontine nucleus of patients with falls, which suggests a potential pathophysiological link. © 2018 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

The pedunclopontine nucleus and Parkinson's disease

In the last decade, scientific and clinical interest in the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) has grown dramatically. This growth is largely a consequence of experimental work demonstrating its connection to the control of gait and of clinical work implicating PPN pathology in levodopa-insensitive gait symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD). In addition, the development of optogenetic and chemogenetic approaches has made experimental analysis of PPN circuitry and function more tractable. In this brief review, recent findings in the field linking PPN to the basal ganglia and PD are summarized; in addition, an attempt is made to identify key gaps in our understanding and challenges this field faces in moving forward.

Spike discharge characteristic of the caudal mesencephalic reticular formation and pedunculopontine nucleus in MPTP-induced primate model of Parkinson disease

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) included in the caudal mesencephalic reticular formation (cMRF) plays a key role in the control of locomotion and wake state. Regarding its involvement in the neurodegenerative process observed in Parkinson disease (PD), deep brain stimulation of the PPN was proposed to treat levodopa-resistant gait disorders. However, the precise role of the cMRF in the pathophysiology of PD, particularly in freezing of gait and other non-motor symptoms is still not clear. Here, using micro electrode recording (MER) in 2 primates, we show that dopamine depletion did not alter the mean firing rate of the overall cMRF neurons, particularly the putative non-cholinergic ones, but only a decreased activity of the regular neurons sub-group (though to be the cholinergic PPN neurons). Interestingly, a significant increase in the relative proportion of cMRF neurons with a burst pattern discharge was observed after MPTP intoxication. The present results question the hypothesis of an over-inhibition of the CMRF by the basal ganglia output structures in PD. The decreased activity observed in the regular neurons could explain some non-motor symptoms in PD regarding the strong involvement of the cholinergic neurons on the modulation of the thalamo-cortical system. The increased burst activity under dopamine depletion confirms that this specific spike discharge pattern activity also observed in other basal ganglia nuclei and in different pathologies could play a mojor role in the pathophysiology of the disease and could explain several symptoms of PD including the freezing of gait. The present data will have to be replicated in a larger number of animals and will have to investigate more in details how the modification of the spike discharge of the cMRF neurons in the parkinsonian state could alter functions such as locomotion and attentional state. This will ultimely allow a better comprehension of the pathophysiology of freezing of gait.

On Cell Loss and Selective Vulnerability of Neuronal Populations in Parkinson's Disease

Significant advances have been made uncovering the factors that render neurons vulnerable in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the critical pathogenic events leading to cell loss remain poorly understood, complicating the development of disease-modifying interventions. Given that the cardinal motor symptoms and pathology of PD involve the loss of dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), a majority of the work in the PD field has focused on this specific neuronal population. PD however, is not a disease of DA neurons exclusively: pathology, most notably in the form of Lewy bodies and neurites, has been reported in multiple regions of the central and peripheral nervous system, including for example the locus coeruleus, the dorsal raphe nucleus and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Cell and/or terminal loss of these additional nuclei is likely to contribute to some of the other symptoms of PD and, most notably to the non-motor features. However, exactly which regions show actual, well-documented, cell loss is presently unclear. In this review we will first examine the strength of the evidence describing the regions of cell loss in idiopathic PD, as well as the order in which this loss occurs. Secondly, we will discuss the neurochemical, morphological and physiological characteristics that render SNc DA neurons vulnerable, and will examine the evidence for these characteristics being shared across PD-affected neuronal populations. The insights raised by focusing on the underpinnings of the selective vulnerability of neurons in PD might be helpful to facilitate the development of new disease-modifying strategies and improve animal models of the disease.

Tyrosine Hydroxylase, Vesicular Monoamine Transporter and Dopamine Transporter mRNA Expression in Nigrostriatal Tissue of Rats with Pedunculopontine Neurotoxic Lesion

BACKGROUND

The degeneration of the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) precedes the degeneration of the nigral cells in the pre-symptomatic stages of Parkinson's disease (PD). Although the literature recognizes that a lesion of the PPN increases the vulnerability of dopaminergic cells, it is unknown if this risk is associated with the loss of capability of handling the dopaminergic function.

METHODS

In this paper, the effects of a unilateral neurotoxic lesion of the PPN in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and dopamine transporter (DAT) mRNA expression in nigrostriatal tissue were evaluated. Three experimental groups were organized: non-treated rats, NMDA-lesioned rats and Sham-operated rats.

RESULTS

Seven days after the PPN lesion, in nigral tissue, TH mRNA expression was higher in comparison with control groups (p < 0.05); in contrast, VMAT2 mRNA expression showed a significant decrease (p < 0.01). DAT mRNA expression showed a significant decrease (p < 0.001) in the striatal tissue. Comparing nigral neuronal density of injured and control rats revealed no significant difference seven days post-PPN injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that the PPN lesion modifies the mRNA expression of the proteins associated with dopaminergic homeostasis at nigrostriatal level. It could represent vulnerability signals for nigral dopaminergic cells and further increase the risk of degeneration of these cells.

Temporal-Spatial Profiling of Pedunculopontine Galanin-Cholinergic Neurons in the Lactacystin Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is conventionally seen as resulting from single-system neurodegeneration affecting nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. However, accumulating evidence indicates multi-system degeneration and neurotransmitter deficiencies, including cholinergic neurons which degenerate in a brainstem nucleus, the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN), resulting in motor and cognitive impairments. The neuropeptide galanin can inhibit cholinergic transmission, while being upregulated in degenerating brain regions associated with cognitive decline. Here we determined the temporal-spatial profile of progressive expression of endogenous galanin within degenerating cholinergic neurons, across the rostro-caudal axis of the PPN, by utilizing the lactacystin-induced rat model of PD. First, we show progressive neuronal death affecting nigral dopaminergic and PPN cholinergic neurons, reflecting that seen in PD patients, to facilitate use of this model for assessing the therapeutic potential of bioactive peptides. Next, stereological analyses of the lesioned brain hemisphere found that the number of PPN cholinergic neurons expressing galanin increased by 11%, compared to sham-lesioned controls, and increasing by a further 5% as the neurodegenerative process evolved. Galanin upregulation within cholinergic PPN neurons was most prevalent closest to the intra-nigral lesion site, suggesting that galanin upregulation in such neurons adapt intrinsically to neurodegeneration, to possibly neuroprotect. This is the first report on the extent and pattern of galanin expression in cholinergic neurons across distinct PPN subregions in both the intact rat CNS and lactacystin-lesioned rats. The findings pave the way for future work to target galanin signaling in the PPN, to determine the extent to which upregulated galanin expression could offer a viable treatment strategy for ameliorating PD symptoms associated with cholinergic degeneration.

Mitochondrial DNA changes in pedunculopontine cholinergic neurons in Parkinson disease

In Parkinson disease (PD), mitochondrial dysfunction associates with nigral dopaminergic neuronal loss. Cholinergic neuronal loss co-occurs, particularly within a brainstem structure, the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN). We isolated single cholinergic neurons from postmortem PPNs of aged controls and PD patients. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number and mtDNA deletions were increased significantly in PD patients compared to controls. Furthermore, compared to controls the PD patients had significantly more PPN cholinergic neurons containing mtDNA deletion levels exceeding 60%, a level associated with deleterious effects on oxidative phosphorylation. The current results differ from studies reporting mtDNA depletion in nigral dopaminergic neurons of PD patients. Ann Neurol 2017;82:1016-1021.

Dopamine and the Brainstem Locomotor Networks: From Lamprey to Human

In vertebrates, dopamine neurons are classically known to modulate locomotion via their ascending projections to the basal ganglia that project to brainstem locomotor networks. An increased dopaminergic tone is associated with increase in locomotor activity. In pathological conditions where dopamine cells are lost, such as in Parkinson's disease, locomotor deficits are traditionally associated with the reduced ascending dopaminergic input to the basal ganglia. However, a descending dopaminergic pathway originating from the substantia nigra pars compacta was recently discovered. It innervates the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) from basal vertebrates to mammals. This pathway was shown to increase locomotor output in lampreys, and could very well play an important role in mammals. Here, we provide a detailed account on the newly found dopaminergic pathway in lamprey, salamander, rat, monkey, and human. In lampreys and salamanders, dopamine release in the MLR is associated with the activation of reticulospinal neurons that carry the locomotor command to the spinal cord. Dopamine release in the MLR potentiates locomotor movements through a D1-receptor mechanism in lampreys. In rats, stimulation of the substantia nigra pars compacta elicited dopamine release in the pedunculopontine nucleus, a known part of the MLR. In a monkey model of Parkinson's disease, a reduced dopaminergic innervation of the brainstem locomotor networks was reported. Dopaminergic fibers are also present in human pedunculopontine nucleus. We discuss the conserved locomotor role of this pathway from lamprey to mammals, and the hypothesis that this pathway could play a role in the locomotor deficits reported in Parkinson's disease.

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The Cellular Diversity of the Pedunculopontine Nucleus: Relevance to Behavior in Health and Aspects of Parkinson's Disease

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is a rostral brainstem structure that has extensive connections with basal ganglia nuclei and the thalamus. Through these the PPN contributes to neural circuits that effect cortical and hippocampal activity. The PPN also has descending connections to nuclei of the pontine and medullary reticular formations, deep cerebellar nuclei, and the spinal cord. Interest in the PPN has increased dramatically since it was first suggested to be a novel target for treating patients with Parkinson's disease who are refractory to medication. However, application of frequency-specific electrical stimulation of the PPN has produced inconsistent results. A central reason for this is that the PPN is not a heterogeneous structure. In this article, we review current knowledge of the neurochemical identity and topographical distribution of neurons within the PPN of both humans and experimental animals, focusing on studies that used neuronally selective targeting strategies to ascertain how the neurochemical heterogeneity of the PPN relates to its diverse functions in relation to movement and cognitive processes. If the therapeutic potential of the PPN is to be realized, it is critical to understand the complex structure-function relationships that exist here.

Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders of Basal Ganglia Origin: Restoring Function or Functionality?

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is highly effective for both hypo- and hyperkinetic movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. The clinical use of DBS is, in part, empiric, based on the experience with prior surgical ablative therapies for these disorders, and, in part, driven by scientific discoveries made decades ago. In this review, we consider anatomical and functional concepts of the basal ganglia relevant to our understanding of DBS mechanisms, as well as our current understanding of the pathophysiology of two of the most commonly DBS-treated conditions, Parkinson's disease and dystonia. Finally, we discuss the proposed mechanism(s) of action of DBS in restoring function in patients with movement disorders. The signs and symptoms of the various disorders appear to result from signature disordered activity in the basal ganglia output, which disrupts the activity in thalamocortical and brainstem networks. The available evidence suggests that the effects of DBS are strongly dependent on targeting sensorimotor portions of specific nodes of the basal ganglia-thalamocortical motor circuit, that is, the subthalamic nucleus and the internal segment of the globus pallidus. There is little evidence to suggest that DBS in patients with movement disorders restores normal basal ganglia functions (e.g., their role in movement or reinforcement learning). Instead, it appears that high-frequency DBS replaces the abnormal basal ganglia output with a more tolerable pattern, which helps to restore the functionality of downstream networks.

The anterior and posterior pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus are involved in behavior and neuronal activity of the cuneiform and entopeduncular nuclei

Loss of cholinergic neurons in the mesencephalic locomotor region, comprising the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) and the cuneiform nucleus (CnF), is related to gait disturbances in late stage Parkinson's disease (PD). We investigate the effect of anterior or posterior cholinergic lesions of the PPN on gait-related motor behavior, and on neuronal network activity of the PPN area and basal ganglia (BG) motor loop in rats. Anterior PPN lesions, posterior PPN lesions or sham lesions were induced by stereotaxic microinjection of the cholinergic toxin AF64-A or vehicle in male Sprague-Dawley rats. First, locomotor activity (open field), postural disturbances (Rotarod) and gait asymmetry (treadmill test) were assessed. Thereafter, single-unit and oscillatory activities were measured in the non-lesioned area of the PPN, the CnF and the entopeduncular nucleus (EPN), the BG output region, with microelectrodes under urethane anesthesia. Additionally, ECoG was recorded in the motor cortex. Injection of AF64-A into the anterior and posterior PPN decreased cholinergic cell counts as compared to naive controls (P<0.001) but also destroyed non-cholinergic cells. Only anterior PPN lesions decreased the front limb swing time of gait in the treadmill test, while not affecting other gait-related parameters tested. Main electrophysiological findings were that anterior PPN lesions increased the firing activity in the CnF (P<0.001). Further, lesions of either PPN region decreased the coherence of alpha (8-12 Hz) band between CnF and motor cortex (MCx), and increased the beta (12-30 Hz) oscillatory synchronization between EPN and the MCx. Lesions of the PPN in rats had complex effects on oscillatory neuronal activity of the CnF and the BG network, which may contribute to the understanding of the pathophysiology of gait disturbance in PD.

Pharmacogenetic stimulation of cholinergic pedunculopontine neurons reverses motor deficits in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

Patients with advanced Parkinson's disease (PD) often present with axial symptoms, including postural- and gait difficulties that respond poorly to dopaminergic agents. Although deep brain stimulation (DBS) of a highly heterogeneous brain structure, the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN), improves such symptoms, the underlying neuronal substrate responsible for the clinical benefits remains largely unknown, thus hampering optimization of DBS interventions. Choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)::Cre(+) transgenic rats were sham-lesioned or rendered parkinsonian through intranigral, unihemispheric stereotaxic administration of the ubiquitin-proteasomal system inhibitor, lactacystin, combined with designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADD), to activate the cholinergic neurons of the nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontine (PPTg), the rat equivalent of the human PPN. We have previously shown that the lactacystin rat model accurately reflects aspects of PD, including a partial loss of PPTg cholinergic neurons, similar to what is seen in the post-mortem brains of advanced PD patients.

RESULTS

In this manuscript, we show that transient activation of the remaining PPTg cholinergic neurons in the lactacystin rat model of PD, via peripheral administration of the cognate DREADD ligand, clozapine-N-oxide (CNO), dramatically improved motor symptoms, as was assessed by behavioral tests that measured postural instability, gait, sensorimotor integration, forelimb akinesia and general motor activity. In vivo electrophysiological recordings revealed increased spiking activity of PPTg putative cholinergic neurons during CNO-induced activation. c-Fos expression in DREADD overexpressed ChAT-immunopositive (ChAT+) neurons of the PPTg was also increased by CNO administration, consistent with upregulated neuronal activation in this defined neuronal population.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these findings provide evidence that functional modulation of PPN cholinergic neurons alleviates parkinsonian motor symptoms.

Deep brain stimulation of different pedunculopontine targets in a novel rodent model of parkinsonism

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) has been proposed as a target for deep brain stimulation (DBS) in parkinsonian patients, particularly for symptoms such as gait and postural difficulties refractory to dopaminergic treatments. Several patients have had electrodes implanted aimed at the PPTg, but outcomes have been disappointing, with little evidence that gait and posture are improved. The PPTg is a heterogeneous structure. Consequently, exact target sites in PPTg, possible DBS mechanisms, and potential benefits still need systematic investigation in good animal models. We have investigated the role of PPTg in gait, developed a refined model of parkinsonism including partial loss of the PPTg with bilateral destruction of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons that mimics human pathophysiology, and investigated the effect of DBS at different PPTg locations on gait and posture using a wireless device that lets rats move freely while receiving stimulation. Neither partial nor complete lesions of PPTg caused gait deficits, underlining questions raised previously about the status of PPTg as a motor control structure. The effect of DBS in the refined and standard model of parkinsonism were very different despite minimal behavioral differences in nonstimulation control conditions. Anterior PPTg DBS caused severe episodes of freezing and worsened gait, whereas specific gait parameters were mildly improved by stimulation of posterior PPTg. These results emphasize the critical importance of intra-PPTg DBS location and highlight the need to take PPTg degeneration into consideration when modeling parkinsonian symptoms. They also further implicate a role for PPTg in the pathophysiology of parkinsonism.

Pedunculopontine cell loss and protein aggregation direct microglia activation in parkinsonian rats

We previously reported a loss of cholinergic neurons within the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) in rats that had been intra-nigrally lesioned with the proteasomal inhibitor lactacystin, with levels of neuronal loss corresponding to that seen in the post-mortem pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) of advanced Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Here we reveal lower expression values of the acetylcholine synthesising enzyme, choline acetyltransferase, within the remaining PPTg cholinergic neurons of lesioned rats compared to sham controls. We further characterise this animal model entailing dopaminergic- and non-dopaminergic neurodegeneration by reporting on stereological counts of non-cholinergic neurons, to determine whether the toxin is neuro-type specific. Cell counts between lesioned and sham-lesioned rats were analysed in terms of the topological distribution pattern across the rostro-caudal extent of the PPTg. The study also reports somatic hypotrophy in the remaining non-cholinergic neurons, particularly on the side closest to the nigral lesion. The cytotoxicity affecting the PPTg in this rat model of PD involves overexpression and accumulation of alpha-synuclein (αSYN), affecting cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons as well as microglia on the lesioned hemispheric side. We ascertained that microglia within the PPTg become fully activated due to the extensive neuronal damage and neuronal death resulting from a lactacystin nigral lesion, displaying a distinct rostro-caudal distribution profile which correlates with PPTg neuronal loss, with the added implication that lactacystin-induced αSYN aggregation might trigger neuronophagia for promoting PPTg cell loss. The data provide critical insights into the mechanisms underlying the lactacystin rat model of PD, for studying the PPTg in health and when modelling neurodegenerative disease.

Mitochondrial biology, targets, and drug delivery

In recent years, mitochondrial medicine has emerged as a new discipline resting at the intersection of mitochondrial biology, pathology, and pharmaceutics. The central role of mitochondria in critical cellular processes such as metabolism and apoptosis has placed mitochondria at the forefront of cell science. Advances in mitochondrial biology have revealed that these organelles continually undergo fusion and fission while functioning independently and in complex cellular networks, establishing direct membrane contacts with each other and with other organelles. Understanding the diverse cellular functions of mitochondria has contributed to understanding mitochondrial dysfunction in disease states. Polyplasmy and heteroplasmy contribute to mitochondrial phenotypes and associated dysfunction. Residing at the center of cell biology, cellular functions, and disease pathology and being laden with receptors and targets, mitochondria are beacons for pharmaceutical modification. This review presents the current state of mitochondrial medicine with a focus on mitochondrial function, dysfunction, and common disease; mitochondrial receptors, targets, and substrates; and mitochondrial drug design and drug delivery with a focus on the application of nanotechnology to mitochondrial medicine. Mitochondrial medicine is at the precipice of clinical translation; the objective of this review is to aid in the advancement of mitochondrial medicine from infancy to application.

Mutual exacerbation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α deregulation and α-synuclein oligomerization

OBJECTIVE

Aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) and α-syn cytotoxicity are hallmarks of sporadic and familial Parkinson disease (PD), with accumulating evidence that prefibrillar oligomers and protofibrils are the pathogenic species in PD and related synucleinopathies. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), a key regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis and cellular energy metabolism, has recently been associated with the pathophysiology of PD. Despite extensive effort on studying the function of PGC-1α in mitochondria, no studies have addressed whether PGC-1α directly influences oligomerization of α-syn or whether α-syn oligomers impact PGC-1α expression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We tested whether pharmacological or genetic activation of PGC-1α or PGC-11α knockdown could modulate the oligomerization of α-syn in vitro by using an α-syn -fragment complementation assay.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that both PGC-1α reference gene (RG-PGC-1α) and the central nervous system (CNS)-specific PGC-1α (CNS-PGC-1α) are downregulated in human PD brain, in A30P α-syn transgenic animals, and in a cell culture model for α-syn oligomerization. Importantly, downregulation of both RG-PGC-1α and CNS-PGC-1α in cell culture or neurons from RG-PGC-1α-deficient mice leads to a strong induction of α-syn oligomerization and toxicity. In contrast, pharmacological activation or genetic overexpression of RG-PGC-1α reduced α-syn oligomerization and rescued α-syn-mediated toxicity.

INTERPRETATION

Based on our results, we propose that PGC-1α downregulation and α-syn oligomerization form a vicious circle, thereby influencing and/or potentiating each other. Our data indicate that restoration of PGC-1α is a promising approach for development of effective drugs for the treatment of PD and related synucleinopathies.

Continuous stimulation of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus at 40 Hz affects preparative and executive control in a delayed sensorimotor task and reduces rotational movements induced by apomorphine in the 6-OHDA parkinsonian rat

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) relays basal ganglia signals to the thalamus, lower brainstem and spinal cord. Using the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) rat model of parkinsonism, we investigated whether deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the PPTg (40 Hz, 60 μs, 200-400 μA) may influence the preparative and executive phases in a conditioned behavioural task, and the motor asymmetries induced by apomorphine. In the conditioned task, rats had to press two levers according to a fixed delay paradigm. The 6-OHDA lesion was placed in the right medial forebrain bundle, i.e. contralaterally to the preferred forepaw used by rats to press levers in the adopted task. The stimulating electrode was implanted in the right PPTg, i.e. contralateral to left side, which was expected to be most affected. The lesion significantly reduced correct responses from 63.4% to 16.6%. PPTg-DBS effects were episodic; however, when rats successfully performed in the task (18.9%), reaction time (468.8 ± 36.5 ms) was significantly increased (589.9 ± 45.9 ms), but not improved by PPTg-DBS (646.7 ± 33.8 ms). Movement time was significantly increased following the lesion (649.2 ± 42.6 ms vs. 810.9 ± 53.0 ms), but significantly reduced by PPTg-DBS (820.4 ± 39.4 ms) compared to sham PPTg-DBS (979.8 ± 47.6 ms). In a second group of lesioned rats, rotations induced by apomorphine were significantly reduced by PPTg-DBS compared to sham PPTg-DBS (12.2 ± 0.6 vs. 9.5 ± 0.4 mean turns/min). Thus, it appears that specific aspects of motor deficits in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats may be modulated by PPTg-DBS.