A survival and reproduction trade-off is resolved in accordance with resource availability by virgin female mosquitoes

A study on the effectiveness of (+)-usnic acid as oral toxic sugar bait against adult male and female Anopheles gambiae

BACKGROUND

Despite the application of various tools for the control of vectors of Plasmodium falciparum, malaria remains the major killer disease in sub-Saharan Africa accounting for up to 90% of deaths due to the disease. Due to limitations of the useage of chemical insecticides such as resistance, negative impact on the environment and to nontarget organisms, the World Health Organization (WHO) requires that affected countries find alternative vector control tools. This study evaluated the effectiveness of ( +)-usnic acid (UA) as an insecticide through oral administration to male and female Anopheles gambiae as an alternative or additional active ingredient to be used in toxic sugar bait.

METHODS

( +)-usnic acid was diluted using acetone at 5, 10, and 15 mg/ml concentrations in three replicates. A 5 ml mixture of 2% food dye and 10% sugar using chlorine-free water mixed with the dilutions of the ( +)-usnic acid and negative control was made containing 2% food dye and 10% sugar solution. The preparations were soaked on a ball of cotton wool and placed over the net of a cup. 5 male and 5 non-blood-fed female newly hatched starved An. gambiae Kisumu strain were introduced together into a cup and monitored for knockdown and mortalities after 4, 24 48, and 72 h. The data were analysed using a multiple linear regression model using the lm function, a base R function and a posthoc test were conducted on the significant main effects and interaction terms using the emmeans function from the emmeans R package. All analyses were performed in RStudio using base R (version 4.3.3).

RESULTS

There was high mortality of both male and female An. gambiae after ingestion of the toxic sugar bait. 15 mg/ml usnic acid caused the highest mortality (50%) within the first 4 h compared to 5 and 10 mg/ml ( +)-UA. There was a decline in the mortality rate with increased exposure time from 24 to 72 h, however, there was a significant difference in mortality at 5, 10 and 15 mg/ml. Acute toxicity was associated with ingestion of 15 mg/ml after 24 h. 72 h post-mortality was lower in all concentrations than in the control. High mortality was observed among females over the first 4 h (60%) compared to males (40%) due to higher feeding rate of the toxic agent. The proportion of dead males and females was equal after 24 h while after 48 h, the proportion of dead males was high.There was a significantly lower mortality rate after 72 h for both males and females (0 to 13.3%). Compared to all the treatments, high mortality of males was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study indicate that ( +)-UA when administered as oral sugar bait to An. gambiae has insecticidal properties and is a suitable ingredient to be used as a toxic agent in the novel attractive toxic sugar bait for the control of malaria vectors. ( +)-UA may be an alternative active ingredient as toxic bait in the effort to reduce and eliminate the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in Africa.

Adaptive Strategies and Underlying Response Mechanisms of Ciliates to Salinity Change with Note on Fluctuation Properties

The adaptability of marine organisms to changes in salinity has been a significant research area under global climate change. However, the underlying mechanisms of this adaptability remain a debated subject. We hypothesize that neglecting salinity fluctuation properties is a key contributing factor to the controversy. The ciliate Euplotes vannus was used as the model organism, with two salinity fluctuation period sets: acute (24 h) and chronic (336 h). We examined its population growth dynamics and energy metabolism parameters following exposure to salinity levels from 15‱ to 50‱. The carrying capacity (K) decreased with increasing salinity under both acute and chronic stresses. The intrinsic growth rate (r) decreased with increasing salinity under acute stress. Under chronic stress, the r initially increased with stress intensity before decreasing when salinity exceeded 40‱. Overall, glycogen and lipid content decreased with stress increasing and were significantly higher in the acute stress set compared to the chronic one. Both hypotonic and hypertonic stresses enhanced the activities of metabolic enzymes. A trade-off between survival and reproduction was observed, prioritizing survival under acute stress. Under chronic stress, the weight on reproduction increased in significance. In conclusion, the tested ciliates adopted an r-strategy in response to salinity stress. The trade-off between reproduction and survival is a significant biological response mechanism varying with salinity fluctuation properties.

Morphological characterization of antennal sensilla in Toxorhynchites theobaldi, Toxorhynchites violaceus, and Lutzia bigoti adults: a comparative study using scanning electron microscopy

Some mosquitoes, including species of the genus Toxorhynchites, are known for actively preying on other mosquito larvae, making these predators valuable allies in the fight against vector-borne diseases. A comprehensive understanding of the anatomy and physiology of these potential biological control agents is helpful for the development of effective strategies for controlling vector populations. This includes the antennae, a crucial component in the search for hosts, mating, and selection of oviposition sites. This study utilized scanning electron microscopy to characterize the sensilla on the antennae of adult mosquitoes from two species that are exclusively phytophagous, including Toxorhynchites theobaldi and Toxorhynchites violaceus, as well as Lutzia bigoti, which females are allegedly hematophagous. The types of sensilla in each species were compared, and five basic types of antennal sensilla were identified: trichoid, chaetic, coeloconic, basiconic, and ampullacea. The analysis also found that they were morphologically similar across the three species, regardless of feeding habits or sex. The identification and characterization of basic types of antennal sensilla in T. theobaldi, T. violaceus, and L. bigoti suggest that these structures, which play a crucial role in the behavior and ecology, have common functions across different mosquito species, despite differences in feeding habits or sex.

A synthetic lure for Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) based on the attractive plant Parthenium hysterophorus

Sugar is the sole diet for male mosquitoes and a complementary meal for females. Searching for natural sources of sugar is mediated by semiochemicals. Floral nectars, extra floral nectaries, damaged tissues of plants and rotten fruits are the most common sources of sugar in nature. I provide laboratory evidence of the high attraction of Parthenium hysterophorus L., a weed that grows in tropical climates, to Anopheles gambiae Giles. This study has tried to identify the chemicals which might be involved in the chemical attraction of A. gambiae to this plant. Using quantitative GC-MS analysis, α-pinene, camphene, 1-octen-3-ol, β-pinene, cis-β-ocimene, bornyl acetate, α-caryophyllene, hexadecanoic acid, and α-linolenic acid were identified as the main constituents of P. hysterophorus volatiles. Successive olfactory assays helped a better understanding of the more attractive chemicals of P. hysterophorus to A. gambiae which was the basis for testing a possible synthetic blend. Olfactory experiments proved this synthetic blend to be as attractive as Parthenium intact plants for A. gambiae. A minimal blend, consisting of only α-pinene, camphene, and cis-β-ocimene, was also produced and laboratory experiments indicated its relative attraction for A. gambiae. This blend can be tested in the attractive toxic sugar bait stations for sampling, surveillance, or control programs of mosquitoes in tropical Africa, where A. gambiae sensu stricto transfer malaria among residents.

Maximizing the Potential of Attractive Targeted Sugar Baits (ATSBs) for Integrated Vector Management

Due to the limitations of the human therapeutics and vaccines available to treat and prevent mosquito-borne diseases, the primary strategy for disease mitigation is through vector control. However, the current tools and approaches used for mosquito control have proven insufficient to prevent malaria and arboviral infections, such as dengue, Zika, and lymphatic filariasis, and hence, these diseases remain a global public health threat. The proven ability of mosquito vectors to adapt to various control strategies through insecticide resistance, invasive potential, and behavioral changes from indoor to outdoor biting, combined with human failures to comply with vector control requirements, challenge sustained malaria and arboviral disease control worldwide. To address these concerns, increased efforts to explore more varied and integrated control strategies have emerged. These include approaches that involve the behavioral management of vectors. Attractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) are a vector control approach that manipulates and exploits mosquito sugar-feeding behavior to deploy insecticides. Although traditional approaches have been effective in controlling malaria vectors indoors, preventing mosquito bites outdoors and around human dwellings is challenging. ATSBs, which can be used to curb outdoor biting mosquitoes, have the potential to reduce mosquito densities and clinical malaria incidence when used in conjunction with existing vector control strategies. This review examines the available literature regarding the utility of ATSBs for mosquito control, providing an overview of ATSB active ingredients (toxicants), attractants, modes of deployment, target organisms, and the potential for integrating ATSBs with existing vector control interventions.

Targeting malaria parasites inside mosquitoes: ecoevolutionary consequences

Proof-of-concept studies demonstrate that antimalarial drugs designed for human treatment can also be applied to mosquitoes to interrupt malaria transmission. Deploying a new control tool is ideally undertaken within a stewardship programme that maximises a drug's lifespan by minimising the risk of resistance evolution and slowing its spread once emerged. We ask: what are the epidemiological and evolutionary consequences of targeting parasites within mosquitoes? Our synthesis argues that targeting parasites inside mosquitoes (i) can be modelled by readily expanding existing epidemiological frameworks; (ii) provides a functionally novel control method that has potential to be more robust to resistance evolution than targeting parasites in humans; and (iii) could extend the lifespan and clinical benefit of antimalarials used exclusively to treat humans.

Discrete roles of Ir76b ionotropic coreceptor impact olfaction, blood feeding, and mating in the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles coluzzii

Anopheline mosquitoes rely on their highly sensitive chemosensory apparatus to detect diverse chemical stimuli that drive the host-seeking and blood-feeding behaviors required to vector pathogens for malaria and other diseases. This process incorporates a variety of chemosensory receptors and transduction pathways. We used advanced in vivo gene-editing and -labeling approaches to localize and functionally characterize the ionotropic coreceptor AcIr76b in the malaria mosquito Anopheles coluzzii, where it impacts both olfactory and gustatory systems. AcIr76b has a broad expression pattern in female adult antennal grooved pegs, coeloconic sensilla, and T1 and T2 sensilla on the labellum, stylets, and tarsi, as well as the larval sensory peg. AcIr76b is colocalized with the Orco odorant receptor (OR) coreceptor in a subset of cells across the female antennae and labella. In contrast to Orco and Ir8a, chemosensory coreceptors that appear essential for the activity of their respective sets of chemosensory neurons in mosquitoes, AcIr76b−/− mutants maintain wild-type peripheral responses to volatile amines on the adult palps, labellum, and larval sensory cone. Interestingly, AcIr76b−/− mutants display significantly increased responses to amines in antennal grooved peg sensilla, while coeloconic sensilla reveal significant deficits in responses to several acids and amines. Behaviorally, AcIr76b mutants manifest significantly female-specific insemination deficits, and although AcIr76b−/− mutant females can locate, alight on, and probe artificial blood hosts, they are incapable of blood feeding successfully. Taken together, our findings reveal a multidimensional functionality of Ir76b in anopheline olfactory and gustatory pathways that directly impacts the vectorial capacity of these mosquitoes.

How Do Trait-Mediated Non-lethal Effects of Predation Affect Population-Level Performance of Mosquitoes?

Non-lethal, trait-mediated effects of predation impact prey behavior and life-history traits. Studying how these effects in turn influence prey demography is crucial to understand prey life-history evolution. Mosquitoes are important vectors that claim several million lives every year worldwide by transmitting a range of pathogens. Several ecological factors affect life-history traits of both larval and adult mosquitoes, creating effects that cascade to population-level consequences. Few studies have comprehensively explored the non-lethal effects of predation and its interactions with resources and competition on larval, adult, and population traits of mosquitoes. Understanding these interactions is important because the effects of predation are hypothesized to rescue prey populations from the effects of density-dependence resulting from larval competition. Aedes aegypti larvae reared at two different larval densities and subjected to three non-lethal predator treatments were monitored for survival, development time, and adult size through the larval stages to adult eclosion, and adult females were monitored for survival and reproduction through their first gonotrophic cycle. Intraspecific competition increased larval development time, yielded small-bodied adults, and reduced fecundity in individuals exposed to predatory chemical cues as larvae. Exposure to cues from a living predator affected both body size and latency to blood feed in females. Analysis of life-table traits revealed significant effects of competition on net reproductive rate (R ₀) of mosquitoes. The interaction between competition and predator treatments significantly affected the cohort rate of increase (r) and the index of performance (r'). The index of performance, which estimates rate of population change based on the size-fecundity relationship, was significantly and positively correlated with r, but overestimated r slightly. Lack of significant effect of predator treatments and larval density on cohort generation time (T _c) further suggests that the observed effects of treatments on r and r' were largely a consequence of the effects on R ₀. Also, the significant effects of treatment combinations on larval development time, adult body size and fecundity were ultimately manifested as effects on life-table traits estimated from adult survival and reproduction.

Mosquitoes of field and forest: the scale of habitat segregation in a diverse mosquito assemblage

Knowledge of the distribution of arthropod vectors across a landscape is important in determining the risk for vector-borne disease. This has been well explored for ticks, but not for mosquitoes, despite their importance in the transmission of a variety of pathogens. This study examined the importance of habitat, habitat edges, and the scale at which mosquito abundance and diversity vary in a rural landscape by trapping along transects from grassland areas into forest patches. Significant patterns of vector diversity and distinct mosquito assemblages across habitats were found. The scale of individual species' responses to habitat edges was often dramatic, with several species rarely straying even 10 m from the edge. The present results suggest blood-seeking mosquito species are faithful to certain habitats, which has consequences for patterns of vector diversity and risk for pathogen transmission. This implies that analysts of risk for pathogen transmission and foci of control, and developers of land management strategies should assess habitat at a finer scale than previously considered.

Orientation of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) to Plant-Host Volatiles in a Novel Diffusion-Cage Olfactometer

A novel diffusion-cage olfactometer tested the responses of Anopheles gambiae Giles to plant volatiles. Green-leaf volatiles are often released from cut or injured plant tissue and may alter the headspace of plants used in olfactometer assays. The diffusion-cage olfactometer is designed for use with whole, intact plants, hence giving a more realistic behavioral assay. Its simple plastic construction, ease of assembly, and accommodation to whole plants makes it a useful tool for measuring mosquito orientation to plant volatiles within large enclosures. We compared its performance to that of the more commonly used T-tube wind-tunnel olfactometer, by testing the orientation of mosquitoes to volatiles of a few prevalent plants of eastern Africa reportedly utilized by An. gambiae for sugar: Parthenium hysterophorus (Asteraceae), Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), and Senna occidentalis (Fabaceae). Results indicate that the diffusion-cage olfactometer is an effective alternative to conventional wind-tunnel olfactometers, to test mosquito orientation to plant volatiles under seminatural conditions.

Evaluation of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis as a Control Agent for Adult Anopheles gambiae

Unlike the application of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) for the control of larval mosquitoes, studies of its effects on adults, for its possible use in attractive toxic sugar baits, have resulted in conflicting results. Five species have shown a decrease in adult survival due to Bti ingestion, whereas adults of Anopheles arabiensis have not. We sought to determine if ingestion of Bti by adults of Anopheles gambiae, a sibling species of An. arabiensis, increases their mortality. Laboratory-reared adults were provided continuously from emergence with water only, a sucrose solution, or a Bti suspension in sucrose solution. After 3 days, the Bti suspension was replaced with untainted sucrose solution. The mosquitoes with only water were all dead by day 3. The survivorships of those in the sucrose and sucrose-Bti treatments were insignificantly different, both with an LT50 (Lethal Time, time until 50% of individuals died) of 25 days. The results support the conclusion that adult survivorship of An. gambiae-complex members is unaffected by the ingestion of Bti in sugar meals.

Sugar-feeding behaviour and longevity of European Culicoides biting midges

Most haematophagous insect vectors can also use sugar as an energy source; thus their sugar-feeding behaviour influences their longevity and blood-feeding rate and hence their vectorial capacity. Scant information is available on the sugar-feeding behaviour of Culicoides Latreille biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), which are vectors of bluetongue and Schmallenberg viruses. The longevity of laboratory-reared Culicoides nubeculosus (Meigen) under fluctuating temperatures (16 and 28 °C) and with access to water or water and blood was on average 6.4 days and 8.9 days, respectively, which was around one third of the lifespan of siblings with access to sugar or sugar and blood (22.2 days and 27.1 days, respectively). Access to honeydew significantly increased the midge's longevity, whereas the provision of extrafloral nectaries had no impact. Females with access to sugar produced a significantly higher number of eggs (65.5 ± 5.2) than their starved sisters (45.4 ± 8.4). More than 80% of field-caught female Culicoides from the two most abundant European groups, Obsoletus (n = 2243) and Pulicaris (n = 805), were fructose-positive. Fructose-positivity was high in all physiological stages and no seasonal variability was noted. The high rate of natural sugar feeding of Culicoides offers opportunities for the development of novel control strategies using toxic sugar baits and for the monitoring of vector-borne diseases using sugar-treated FTA (nucleic acid preservation) cards in the field.

A low-cost mesocosm for the study of behaviour and reproductive potential in Afrotropical mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vectors of malaria

A large-scale mesocosm was constructed and tested for its effectiveness for use in experiments on behaviour, reproduction and adult survivorship in the Afrotropical malaria vector Anopheles gambiae s.s. Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) in temperate climates. The large space (82.69 m(3) ) allowed for semi-natural experiments that increased demand on a mosquito's energetic reserves in an environment of widely distributed resources. A one-piece prefabricated enclosure, made with white netting and vinyl, prevented the ingress of predators and the egress of mosquitoes. Daylight and white materials prompted the mosquitoes to seclude themselves in restricted daytime resting sites and allowed the easy collection of dead bodies so that daily mortality could be assessed accurately using a method that accounts for the loss of a proportion of bodies. Here, daily, age-dependent mortality rates of males and females were estimated using Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo simulation. In overnight experiments, mosquitoes successfully located plants and took sugar meals. A 3-week survival trial with a single cohort demonstrated successful mating, blood feeding, oviposition and long life. The relatively low cost of the mesocosm and the performance of the mosquitoes in it make it a viable option for any behavioural or ecological study of tropical mosquitoes in which space and seasonal cold are constraining factors.

A spatial individual-based model predicting a great impact of copious sugar sources and resting sites on survival of Anopheles gambiae and malaria parasite transmission

Background

Agent-based modelling (ABM) has been used to simulate mosquito life cycles and to evaluate vector control applications. However, most models lack sugar-feeding and resting behaviours or are based on mathematical equations lacking individual level randomness and spatial components of mosquito life. Here, a spatial individual-based model (IBM) incorporating sugar-feeding and resting behaviours of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae was developed to estimate the impact of environmental sugar sources and resting sites on survival and biting behaviour.

Methods

A spatial IBM containing An. gambiae mosquitoes and humans, as well as the village environment of houses, sugar sources, resting sites and larval habitat sites was developed. Anopheles gambiae behaviour rules were attributed at each step of the IBM: resting, host seeking, sugar feeding and breeding. Each step represented one second of time, and each simulation was set to run for 60 days and repeated 50 times. Scenarios of different densities and spatial distributions of sugar sources and outdoor resting sites were simulated and compared.

Results

When the number of natural sugar sources was increased from 0 to 100 while the number of resting sites was held constant, mean daily survival rate increased from 2.5% to 85.1% for males and from 2.5% to 94.5% for females, mean human biting rate increased from 0 to 0.94 bites per human per day, and mean daily abundance increased from 1 to 477 for males and from 1 to 1,428 for females. When the number of outdoor resting sites was increased from 0 to 50 while the number of sugar sources was held constant, mean daily survival rate increased from 77.3% to 84.3% for males and from 86.7% to 93.9% for females, mean human biting rate increased from 0 to 0.52 bites per human per day, and mean daily abundance increased from 62 to 349 for males and from 257 to 1120 for females. All increases were significant (P < 0.01). Survival was greater when sugar sources were randomly distributed in the whole village compared to clustering around outdoor resting sites or houses.

Conclusions

Increases in densities of sugar sources or outdoor resting sites significantly increase the survival and human biting rates of An. gambiae mosquitoes. Survival of An. gambiae is more supported by random distribution of sugar sources than clustering of sugar sources around resting sites or houses. Density and spatial distribution of natural sugar sources and outdoor resting sites modulate vector populations and human biting rates, and thus malaria parasite transmission.

Effects of fungal infection on feeding and survival of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) on plant sugars

BACKGROUND

The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae shows great promise for the control of adult malaria vectors. A promising strategy for infection of mosquitoes is supplying the fungus at plant feeding sites.

METHODS

We evaluated the survival of fungus-exposed Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes (males and females) fed on 6% glucose and on sugars of Ricinus communis (Castor oil plant) and Parthenium hysterophorus (Santa Maria feverfew weed). Further, we determined the feeding propensity, quantity of sugar ingested and its digestion rate in the mosquitoes when fed on R. communis for 12 hours, one and three days post-exposure to fungus. The anthrone test was employed to detect the presence of sugar in each mosquito from which the quantity consumed and the digestion rates were estimated.

RESULTS

Fungus-exposed mosquitoes lived for significantly shorter periods than uninfected mosquitoes when both were fed on 6% glucose (7 versus 37 days), R. communis (7 versus 18 days) and P. hysterophorus (5 versus 7 days). Significantly fewer male and female mosquitoes, one and three days post-exposure to fungus, fed on R. communis compared to uninfected controls. Although the quantity of sugar ingested was similar between the treatment groups, fewer fungus-exposed than control mosquitoes ingested small, medium and large meals. Digestion rate was significantly slower in females one day after exposure to M. anisopliae compared to controls but remained the same in males. No change in digestion rate between treatments was observed three days after exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that (a) entomopathogenic fungi strongly impact survival and sugar-feeding propensity of both sexes of the malaria vector An. gambiae but do not affect their potential to feed and digest meals, and (b) that plant sugar sources can be targeted as fungal delivery substrates. In addition, targeting males for population reduction using entomopathogenic fungi opens up a new strategy for mosquito vector control.

Olfactory basis of floral preference of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) among common African plants

Mosquitoes of both sexes feed on plants to obtain sugar. Nocturnal species probably locate the plants primarily by their volatile semiochemicals that also form the basis for the mosquitoes' innate plant-species preferences. To evaluate these olfactory preferences quantitatively, we used a two-choice wind-tunnel olfactometer to measure the upwind orientation of Anopheles gambiae Giles, an important vector of malaria in equatorial Africa, toward odor plumes produced by nine plant species common where this mosquito occurs. These plants are reported to induce feeding behaviors in An. gambiae and to produce floral or extrafloral nectar. Results presented here demonstrated that the volatiles of S. didymobotrya, P. hysterophorus, S. occidentalis, and L. camara, in descending order of numbers of mosquitoes responding, were all attractive, compared to a control plant species, whereas D. stramonium, R. communis, S. bicapsularis, T. stans, and T. diversifolia were not. As expected, chromatographic analysis of the headspace of attractive plants whose volatiles were captured by stir-bar sorptive extraction revealed a wide range of compounds, primarily terpenoids. Once their bioactivity and attractiveness for An. gambiae, alone and in blends, has been firmly established, some of these semiochemicals may have applications in population sampling and control.

The impact of low erythrocyte density in human blood on the fitness and energetic reserves of the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae

Background

Anaemia is a common health problem in the developing world. This condition is characterized by a reduction in erythrocyte density, primarily from malnutrition and/or infectious diseases such as malaria. As red blood cells are the primary source of protein for haematophagous mosquitoes, any reduction could impede the ability of mosquito vectors to transmit malaria by influencing their fitness or that of the parasites they transmit. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of differences in the density of red blood cells in human blood on malaria vector (Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto) fitness. The hypotheses tested are that mosquito vector energetic reserves and fitness are negatively influenced by reductions in the red cell density of host human blood meals commensurate with those expected from severe anaemia.

Methods

Mosquitoes (An. gambiae s.s.) were offered blood meals of different packed cell volume (PCV) of human blood consistent with those arising from severe anaemia (15%) and normal PCV (50%). Associations between mosquito energetic reserves (lipid, glucose and glycogen) and fitness measures (reproduction and survival) and blood meal PCV were investigated.

Results

The amount of protein that malaria vectors acquired from blood feeding (indexed by haematin excretion) was significantly reduced at low blood PCV. However, mosquitoes feeding on blood of low PCV had the same oviposition rates as those feeding on blood of normal PCV, and showed an increase in egg production of around 15%. The long-term survival of An. gambiae s.s was reduced after feeding on low PCV blood, but PCV had no significant impact on the proportion of mosquitoes surviving through the minimal period required to develop and transmit malaria parasites (estimated as 14 days post-blood feeding). The impact of blood PCV on the energetic reserves of mosquitoes was relatively minor.

Conclusions

These results suggest that feeding on human hosts whose PCV has been depleted due to severe anaemia does not significantly reduce the fitness or transmission potential of malaria vectors, and indicates that mosquitoes may be able exploit resources for reproduction more efficiently from blood of low rather than normal PCV.

Temperature-dependent pre-bloodmeal period and temperature-driven asynchrony between parasite development and mosquito biting rate reduce malaria transmission intensity

A mosquito needs to bite at least twice for malaria transmission to occur: once to acquire parasites and, after these parasites complete their development in their mosquito host, once to transmit the parasites to the next vertebrate host. Here we investigate the relationship between temperature, parasite development, and biting frequency in a mosquito-rodent malaria model system. We show that the pre-bloodmeal period (the time lag between mosquito emergence and first bloodmeal) increases at lower temperatures. In addition, parasite development time and feeding exhibit different thermal sensitivities such that mosquitoes might not be ready to feed at the point at which the parasite is ready to be transmitted. Exploring these effects using a simple theoretical model of human malaria shows that delays in infection and transmission can reduce the vectorial capacity of malaria mosquitoes by 20 to over 60%, depending on temperature. These delays have important implications for disease epidemiology and control, and should be considered in future transmission models.

An eco-physiological model of the impact of temperature on Aedes aegypti life history traits

Physiological processes mediate the impact of ecological conditions on the life histories of insect vectors. For the dengue/chikungunya mosquito, Aedes aegypti, three life history traits that are critical to urban population dynamics and control are: size, development rate and starvation mortality. In this paper we make use of prior laboratory experiments on each of these traits at 2°C intervals between 20 and 30°C, in conjunction with eco-evolutionary theory and studies on A.aegypti physiology, in order to develop a conceptual and mathematical framework that can predict their thermal sensitivity. Our model of reserve dependent growth (RDG), which considers a potential tradeoff between the accumulation of reserves and structural biomass, was able to robustly predict laboratory observations, providing a qualitative improvement over the approach most commonly used in other A.aegypti models. RDG predictions of reduced size at higher temperatures, but increased reserves relative to size, are supported by the available evidence in Aedes spp. We offer the potentially general hypothesis that temperature-size patterns in mosquitoes are driven by a net benefit of finishing the growing stage with proportionally greater reserves relative to structure at warmer temperatures. By relating basic energy flows to three fundamental life history traits, we provide a mechanistic framework for A.aegypti development to which ecological complexity can be added. Ultimately, this could provide a framework for developing and field testing hypotheses on how processes such as climate variation, density dependent regulation, human behavior or control strategies may influence A.aegypti population dynamics and disease risk.

Effects of plant-community composition on the vectorial capacity and fitness of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae

Dynamics of Anopheles gambiae abundance and malaria transmission potential rely strongly on environmental conditions. Female and male An. gambiae use sugar and are affected by its absence, but how the presence or absence of nectariferous plants affects An. gambiae abundance and vectorial capacity has not been studied. We report on four replicates of a cohort study performed in mesocosms with sugar-poor and sugar-rich plants, in which we measured mosquito survival, biting rates, and fecundity. Survivorship was greater with access to sugar-rich plant species, and mortality patterns were age-dependent. Sugar-poor populations experienced Weibull mortality patterns, and of four populations in the sugar-rich environment, two female and three male subpopulations were better fitted by Gompertz functions. A tendency toward higher biting rates in sugar-poor mesocosms, particularly for young females, was found. Therefore, vectorial capacity was pulled in opposing directions by nectar availability, resulting in highly variable vectorial capacity values.

Energy-state dependent responses of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) to simulated bednet-protected hosts

In nature, Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes are found at various energy levels and such females must choose between seeking somatic energy from sugar sources and obtaining both somatic and gametic energy from blood hosts. We used a straight-tube olfactometer containing a simulated unobtainable blood host (human foot smell protected by a net) as well as a sugar source (honey odor). We assessed female probing rate and residence time at the net as a function of energy state (0, 24, 48, 72-h starved). In our trials, 0-h starved females showed low response to human odor, low probing rate, and residence time at the human odor site. By contrast, both 48 and 72-h individuals showed high response to foot odor, longer residence time, and higher probing rates. Seventy-two-h females also flew towards the honey source less often than other groups. Our findings suggest that managing sugar sources might be a viable strategy for influencing mosquito biting behavior.

Effects of bed net use, female size, and plant abundance on the first meal choice (blood vs sugar) of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae

Background

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the sugar-or-blood meal choice of Anopheles gambiae females one day after emergence is influenced by blood-host presence and accessibility, nectariferous plant abundance, and female size. This tested the hypothesis that the initial meal of female An. gambiae is sugar, even when a blood host is available throughout the night, and, if not, whether the use of a bed net diverts mosquitoes to sugar sources.

Methods

Females and males <1-day post-emergence were released in a mesocosm. Overnight they had access to either one or six Senna didymobotrya plants. Simultaneously they had access to a human blood host, either for 8 h or for only 30 min at dusk and dawn (the remainder of the night being excluded by an untreated bed net). In a third situation, the blood host was not present. All mosquitoes were collected in the morning. Their wing lengths, an indicator of pre-meal energetic state, were measured, and their meal choice was determined by the presence of midgut blood and of fructose.

Results

Female sugar feeding after emergence was facultative. When a blood host was accessible for 8 h per night, 92% contained blood, and only 3.7% contained sugar. Even with the use of a bed net, 78% managed to obtain a blood meal during the 30 min of accessibility at dusk or dawn, but 14% of females were now fructose-positive. In the absence of a blood host, and when either one or six plants were available, a total of 21.7% and 23.6% of females and 30.8% and 43.5% of males contained fructose, respectively. Feeding on both sugar and blood was more likely with bed net use and with greater plant abundance. Further, mosquitoes that fed on both resources were more often small and had taken a sugar meal earlier than the blood meal. The abundance of sugar hosts also affected the probability of sugar feeding by males and the amount of fructose obtained by both males and females.

Conclusion

Even in an abundance of potential sugar sources, female An. gambiae appear to prefer a nearby human source of blood. However, the decision to take sugar was more likely if energy reserves were low. Results probably would differ if sugar hosts were more attractive or yielded larger sugar meals. The diversion of energetically deprived mosquitoes to sugar sources suggests a possible synergy between bed nets and sugar-based control methods.