Importance of feed structure (particle size) and feed form (mash vs. pellets) in pig nutrition – A review

Impact of particle size of cereals and soyabean meal on the intestinal development of weanling pigs and growth performance after an enteric challenge with F4-positive enterotoxigenic E. coli

The objectives were to determine the interactive effect of particle size of soyabean meal (SBM) and whole wheat, barley and wheat bran (CER) on growth performance of weanling pigs after an enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli F4 challenge (Experiment 1) and on gastrointestinal (GIT) development immediately after weaning (Experiment 2). Experiment 1 consisted of 192 pigs (24 ± 3 days of age; 7.4 ± 1.1 kg weaning bodyweight [BW]) selected for Escherichia coli (E. coli) F4 susceptibility. Pigs were given an oral E. coli inoculum at postweaning day 7, to induce an enteric health challenge. Experiment 2 consisted of 40 pigs (24 ± 3 days of age; 7.2 ± 1.0 kg weaning BW) that were killed on postweaning day 8 or 9, to determine the effects of particle size on GIT development and functionality. Four experimental diets were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design: (1) coarse CER and coarse SBM, (2) coarse CER and fine SBM (CERcSBMf), (3) fine CER and coarse SBM, or (4) fine CER and fine SBM (CERfSBMf). Results showed no interaction between SBM and CER coarseness on growth performance, GIT development and functionality. Diarrhoea incidence was higher (p < 0.05) for CERfSBMf during the 2 weeks following the E. coli challenge compared to the other diets. Daily gain and feed intake during this period were higher (p < 0.05) for pigs fed CERc compared to CERf. Empty stomach weight tended to be greater by 8% (p = 0.09) for CERc compared to CERf. Gastric protein (p = 0.05) and starch (p = 0.04) disappearances were greater for SBMf compared to SBMc. Thus, CERcSBMf resulted in the best growth performance and lowest diarrhoea incidence during the 2 weeks following the E. coli challenge, which may be explained by changes in stomach functionality but not by changes in other parts of the GIT.

Feeding a Multi-Enzyme Blend to Enhance the Nutrient Digestibility of Wheat-Canola Expeller Diets in Ileal-Cannulated Weaned Pigs

Canola expeller (CE) contains ~200 g/kg residual oil, but also fiber that impairs nutrient digestibility in weaned pigs. To study if feed enzymes increase digestibility, six diets containing either the basal or two CE samples mixed in at 250 g/kg (CE-A or CE-B) were formulated with or without a multi-enzyme blend containing cellulase, xylanase, glucanase, amylase, protease, invertase, and pectinase. The basal diet containing 620 g/kg wheat and 150 g/kg barley served as control. Twelve ileal-cannulated barrows (9-15 kg) were fed the six diets in a replicated 6 (pigs) × 3 (periods) Youden square. Ileal digestibility of gross energy and amino acids was 5% greater for basal than CE diets without differences between CE samples. Diet energy values were 4% greater for CE than basal diets due to residual oil in CE. Inclusion of the multi-enzyme blend increased total tract digestibility of energy of the basal but not CE diets by 2%. Net energy value was greater for CE-A than CE-B because CE-A contained more residual oil. In conclusion, feeding 250 g/kg CE increased diet energy values; thus, CE can substitute added fat in weaned pig diets. Feeding the multi-enzyme blend increased the energy digestibility of wheat and barley-based diets fed to weaned pigs. However, research is needed to identify enzyme combinations that increase the nutrient digestibility of CE.

Pelleting and particle size reduction of corn increase net energy and digestibility of fiber, protein, and fat in corn-soybean meal diets fed to group-housed pigs

BACKGROUND

Reduction of the particle size of corn increases energy digestibility and concentrations of digestible and metabolizable energy. Pelleting may also reduce particle size of grain, but it is not known if there are interactions between particle size reduction and pelleting. The objective of this experiment was to test the hypothesis that particle size reduction and pelleting, separately or in combination, increase N balance, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of fiber and fat, and net energy (NE) in corn-soybean meal diets fed to group-housed pigs.

METHODS

Six corn-soybean meal-based diets were used in a 3 × 2 factorial design with 3 particle sizes of corn (i.e., 700, 500, or 300 μm) and 2 diet forms (i.e., meal or pelleted). Pigs were allowed ad libitum access to feed and water. Twenty-four castrated male pigs (initial weight: 29.52 kg; standard diviation: 1.40) were allotted to the 6 diets using a 6 × 6 Latin square design with 6 calorimeter chambers (i.e., 4 pigs/chamber) and 6 periods. Oxygen consumption and CO2 and CH4 productions were measured during fed and fasting states and fecal and urine samples were collected.

RESULTS

Regardless of particle size of corn, the ATTD of gross energy (GE), N, and acid-hydrolyzed ether extract (AEE), and the concentration of NE were greater (P < 0.05) in pelleted diets than in meal diets. Regardless of diet form, the ATTD of GE, N, and AEE, and the concentration of NE were increased (linear; P < 0.05) by reducing the particle size of corn, but the increase was greater in meal diets than in pelleted diets (interaction; P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Both pelleting and reduction of corn particle size increased nutrient digestibility and NE, but increases were greater in meal diets than in pelleted diets.

Dietary fiber and weaning age affect stress and immune markers in saliva of sows and their offspring

Diet, especially the intake of dietary fiber, and weaning practices may influence pig wellbeing. This study assessed changes in salivary stress and immune markers in sows and their offspring fed either hay (HAY) or sugar beet pulp (SBP), either fine (F) or coarse (C), during gestation and lactation. The effect of weaning age (conventional-CW, late-LW) on these markers was also evaluated. Saliva was analyzed for chromogranin A (CgA), cortisol, alpha-amylase, oxytocin, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and adenosine deaminase (ADA). CgA was higher at CW versus LW in sows fed SBP-F (P = 0.038). Alpha-amylase was higher in sows fed HAY-C at CW versus LW (P = 0.005) and in sows fed SBP-C at LW versus CW (P = 0.096). CgA and oxytocin were higher in sows fed SBP-F at CW versus LW (P = 0.038 and P = 0.017, respectively). ADA was higher in sows fed SBP-C versus HAY-C (P = 0.035) at LW and at LW versus CW in sows fed SBP-C (P = 0.002). Piglet salivary CgA was higher at CW versus LW in HAY-F (P = 0.002) and SBP-F (P = 0.031). Oxytocin was higher at CW versus LW in piglets fed HAY-F (P = 0.006). Piglet salivary IgA was higher in HAY-C versus HAY-F at CW (P = 0.010) and at LW versus CW in piglets fed HAY-F (P = 0.021). ADA was higher in piglets fed SBP-F versus HAY-F (P = 0.053) at CW and SBP-F versus SBP-C (P = 0.042) at LW. Dietary fiber type, weaning age, and to a lesser extent grinding degree affect stress and immune markers in pigs. These findings highlight the impact of diet and weaning practice on pig welfare.

Effect of Corn Grinding Methods and Particle Size on the Nutrient Digestibility of Chahua Chickens

This study investigates the effect of grinding methods, including roller mill, hammer mill, and two-stage grinding, on the particle size distribution of corn and the effect of corn particle size on the nutrient digestibility of native chickens in Southwest China. The roller mill, hammer mill, and a combination of the hammer mill and roller mill were used to obtain corn with various coarseness. Corn with different coarseness obtained using a combination of the hammer mill and roller mill was fed to Chahua chicken No. 2-type chickens (CHC2s). A total of 192 CHC2s in weeks 12 and 19 were randomly allocated to eight groups in triplicate. The results show that the geometric mean diameter (d_gw) and the geometric standard deviation (S_gw) were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the grinding methods. The S_gw obtained when using a sieve of 2.0 mm in a hammer mill was lower (p < 0.05) than that obtained using a 4.5 mm sieve. Combining the roller mill and hammer mill increased the uniformity of the particle size when grinding coarse particles. For fine particles, the d_gw and S_gw obtained when using the hammer mill were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than those obtained when using the roller mill and two-stage grinding method. Reducing the particle size of the corn (<900 µm) significantly increased the dry matter, crude protein, amino acid digestibility, and apparent metabolizable energy in the chicken in weeks 12 and 19. Fine particles significantly increased the crude protein digestibility of the CHC2s at week 12, while there was no significant effect on the crude protein and amino acid digestibility in the CHC2s at week 19. In conclusion, different grinding methods can affect the particle size distribution. For a coarse particle size, combining the roller mill and hammer mill tends to produce a more uniform particle size. Finely ground corn (between 700 µm and 900 µm) improved the dry matter (DM), apparent metabolizable energy (AME), and crude protein (CP) digestibility of the CHC2s at week 12. An increased particle size did not impact the CP and amino acid (AA) digestibility of the CHC2s at week 19.

Effect of Particle Size of Wheat and Barley Grain on the Digestibility and Fermentation of Carbohydrates in the Small and Large Intestines of Growing Pigs

The objective of this investigation was to study the effects of different cereal types, barley and wheat, with different particle sizes (PS) on the recovery of ileal digesta and fecal excretion, digestion of nutrients and fiber components, mean transit time (MTT), and short-chain fatty acid content and composition in growing pigs studied in two experiments. Five barrows with ileal cannulas (initial BW 35.9 ± 1.5 kg) in Experiment 1 and thirty-two castrated pigs (30.8 ± 1.3 kg) in Experiment 2 were fed four different diets: barley fine, barley coarse, wheat fine and wheat coarse diets. The cereal type and PS did not influence the relative weight of the small and large intestines and pH of digesta, whereas MTT in the large intestine of pigs fed the coarse barley diet was lower compared to pigs fed other diets (p < 0.05). Pigs fed the coarse barley diet had lower apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients and fiber (p < 0.05), whereas pigs fed the fine barley diet had similar AID and ATTD to pigs fed wheat fine and coarse diets (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the barley diet was more influenced by PS in comparison to wheat, thereby inducing lower AID and ATTD of nutrient.

A strategy of co-fermentation of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and lignocellulosic feedstocks as swine feed

To meet the sustainable development of the swine feed industry, it is essential to find alternative feed resources and develop new feed processing technologies. Distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is a by-product from the ethanol industry consisting of adequate nutrients for swine and is an excellent choice for the swine farming industry. Here, a strategy of co-fermentation of DDGS and lignocellulosic feedstocks for production of swine feed was discussed. The potential of the DDGS and lignocellulosic feedstocks as feedstock for fermented pig feed and the complementary relationship between them were described. In order to facilitate the swine feed research in co-fermentation of DDGS and lignocellulosic feedstocks, the relevant studies on strain selection, fermentation conditions, targeted metabolism, product nutrition, as well as the growth and health of swine were collected and critically reviewed. This review proposed an approach for the production of easily digestible and highly nutritious swine feed via co-fermentation of DDGS and lignocellulosic feedstocks, which could provide a guide for cleaner swine farming, relieve stress on the increasing demand of high-value swine feed, and finally support the ever-increasing demand of the pork market.

Diet and stomach characteristics of feral piglets (Sus scrofa): Implications for farmed piglets

Evaluation of the diet of the pig (Sus scrofa) in natural settings may provide new views on diet optimization for growth and development of commercially raised piglets under farm conditions. A field study was conducted to gain insight in the diet and stomach characteristics of feral piglets. Forty animals (body weight: 4.6 ± 1.37 kg) were collected from the Bahía Samborombón (Buenos Aires, Argentina). Stomachs were weighed after storage in formalin and the particle size distribution of their contents was determined by wet sieving. Diet items present in their stomachs were classified and their proportional weight and relative abundance was calculated. Based on their dentition, 5, 16 and 19 piglets were approximately 1, 3-6 and 6-16 weeks of age respectively. Vegetable matter (mainly 'leaves and stems') was predominantly present in 39 animals. It represented on average 83 ± 36.4% of total stomach contents by weight. The stomachs of 12 piglets contained curd and represented on average 16 ± 35.1% by weight. Other diet items were less abundant or absent. The proportion of stomach particles retained were 24%, 13%, 22%, 13% and 28% for sieves with mesh sizes of 2000, 1000, 420, 210 and <210 µm respectively. For comparison, we used data of farmed piglets of similar age and fed a nutrient-dense, finely ground diet. Feral piglets' relative empty stomach weights increased with age (p < 0.050), whereas this was not the case for farmed piglets. Relative stomach contents weight increased significantly with age only for farmed piglets (p < 0.050). We infer from our data that feral suckling piglets consumed a variety of non-milk items, mainly consisting of vegetable material with a coarse particle size from their first week in life onwards. Their diet is associated with an enhanced stomach development compared to those of farmed piglets.

Quality of Oreochromis niloticus and Cynoscion virescens fillets and their by-products in flours make for inclusion in instant food products

The production of fish flour is an alternative for better use of the raw material, although it is rarely used in instant food. Thus, the aimed of this study was to evaluate Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) and Cynoscion virescens (croaker) fillets and the elaboration of flour with filleting by-products for inclusion in food products. Carcasses and heads of the two fish species were cooked, pressed, ground, subjected to drying and re-grinding to obtain standardized flours. These carcass flours were seasoned (sweet and salted). This study was organized into two experimental tests: Test 1: Yield, physicochemical and microbiological analyzes of fillets and flours made from carcass and head of Nile tilapia and croaker; Test 2: Seasoned flours made from Nile tilapia carcasses. There was a difference in fillets yield, where the croaker demonstrated 46.56% and the Nile tilapia 32.60%. Nile tilapia fillets had higher protein content (17.08%) and lower lipid content (0.89%) compared to croaker fillets (14.21 and 4.45%). Nile tilapia backbone flour had the highest protein content (55.41%) and the croaker the highest ash (45.55%) and the lowest Nile tilapia (28.38%). The head flours had lower protein contents (39.86%). Flours produced with croaker backbone had higher levels of calcium and phosphorus (9.34 and 9.27%). However, Nile tilapia backbone flour showed higher contents of essential amino acids. These flours demonstrated a fine granulometry (0.23 to 0.56 mm). Seasoned flours demonstrated interaction between fish species and flavors for moisture, ash, carbohydrates, calcium and phosphorus. The highest protein content (29.70%) was for Nile tilapia flour sweet flours (31.28%) had higher protein content, while salted lipids (8.06%). Nile tilapia has a lower fillet yield, although with a high protein content and low lipid content. Comparing the flours made from filleting by-products, the backbone flour has better nutritional quality, with Nile tilapia being superior to that of croaker, especially in terms of protein and amino acids.

Nutritional value of high protein ingredients fed to growing pigs in comparison to commonly used protein sources in swine diets

Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that two high protein dried distillers with solubles and yeast mass added (GDDY) products fed to growing pigs had comparable amino acid (AA) digestibility and metabolizable energy (ME) to feeds commonly used in swine diets. In experiment 1, seven barrows with an initial body weight (BW) of 25 ± 0.8 kg were fitted with a simple T-cannula at the distal ileum to allow for digesta collection. Experimental diets were N-free diets and six cornstarch-based diets containing six ingredients as the sole source of AA: spray dried GDDY, ring dried GDDY, corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), soybean meal (SBM), enzymatically treated soybean meal (ESBM), and fish meal (FM) provided at 4% of BW. The experiment was conducted as a 7 × 7 Latin square design with seven collection periods of 7 d (5 d adaptation and 2 d ileal digesta collection). In experiment 2, a total of 28 barrows (28.8 ± 1.4 kg BW) were used in a two-period switch-back design with seven diets and four replicate pigs in each period (n = 8 reps per diet). Experimental diets were a corn-based basal diet and six corn-based diets containing spray dried GDDY, ring dried GDDY, DDGS, SBM, ESBM, and FM. Fecal and urine samples were collected using the marker-to-marker approach for 5 d after 7 d of adaptation to determine ME concentration. Overall, standardized ileal digestibility (SID) values were within the mean ± SD of NRC (2012) values for all ingredients evaluated. The SID of AA was greater (P < 0.05) in ESBM than the other protein feedstuffs (90.09% vs. 78.71%-81.51%). There were no significant differences in SID of AA (P > 0.05) in SBM, FM, spray dried GDDY, and ring dried GDDY (81.49%, 78.71%, 81.52%, and 79.20%). With respect to the most common first limiting AA for swine, the SID of Lys was greater (P < 0.05) in spray dried GDDY than ring dried GDDY and DDGS (83.56% vs. 77.33% and 68.53%, respectively). There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) for ME in corn (3,313 kcal/kg), ESBM (3,323 kcal/kg), and FM (3,454 kcal/kg) when compared with spray dried GDDY and ring dried GDDY (3,995 and 3,442 kcal/kg respectively). However, spray dried GDDY had greater DE and ME when compared to SBM. Collectively, this study demonstrates that GDDY products have an AA profile and digestibility comparable to SBM; ME in GDDY products is not different from corn. Therefore, GDDY has the potential as a feed ingredient for pigs, which could provide an alternative source of protein and energy in swine diets.

Invited review: strategic adoption of antibiotic-free pork production: the importance of a holistic approach

The discovery of the use of antibiotics to enhance growth in the 1950s proved to be one of the most dramatic and influential in the history of animal agriculture. Antibiotics have served animal agriculture, as well as human and animal medicine, well for more than seven decades, but emerging from this tremendous success has been the phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance. Consequently, human medicine and animal agriculture are being called upon, through legislation and/or marketplace demands, to reduce or eliminate antibiotics as growth promotants and even as therapeutics. As explained in this review, adoption of antibiotic-free (ABF) pork production would represent a sea change. By identifying key areas requiring attention, the clear message of this review is that success with ABF production, also referred to as "no antibiotics ever," demands a multifaceted and multidisciplinary approach. Too frequently, the topic has been approached in a piecemeal fashion by considering only one aspect of production, such as the use of certain feed additives or the adjustment in health management. Based on the literature and on practical experience, a more holistic approach is essential. It will require the modification of diet formulations to not only provide essential nutrients and energy, but to also maximize the effectiveness of normal immunological and physiological capabilities that support good health. It must also include the selection of effective non-antibiotic feed additives along with functional ingredients that have been shown to improve the utility and architecture of the gastrointestinal tract, to improve the microbiome, and to support the immune system. This holistic approach will require refining animal management strategies, including selection for more robust genetics, greater focus on care during the particularly sensitive perinatal and post-weaning periods, and practices that minimize social and environmental stressors. A clear strategy is needed to reduce pathogen load in the barn, such as greater emphasis on hygiene and biosecurity, adoption of a strategic vaccine program and the universal adoption of all-in-all-out housing. Of course, overall health management of the herd, as well as the details of animal flows, cannot be ignored. These management areas will support the basic biology of the pig in avoiding or, where necessary, overcoming pathogen challenges without the need for antibiotics, or at least with reduced usage.

Effects of particle size and phytase supplementation on apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in hybrid rye fed to growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of particle size (PS) and levels of phytase supplementation on the apparent (ATTD) and standardized (STTD) total tract digestibility of P in hybrid rye fed to growing pigs. Thirty-six growing barrows (23.6 ± 1.5 kg initial BW) were individually housed in metabolism crates and randomly allotted to one of six dietary treatments to give six replicates per treatment. The six dietary treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial with main effects of PS and phytase supplementation levels (0, 500, or 2,500 FTU/kg). Hybrid rye was ground using a hammermill mounted with 4.0-mm and 3.2-mm screens to obtain material with coarse and fine PS, respectively. Pigs were fed experimental diets for 11 d, including 5 d for adaptation and 6 d for total collection of feces. All data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS with PS, phytase, and their interaction as fixed effects. Orthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to test linear and quadratic effects of phytase level in both coarse and fine hybrid rye diets. The ATTD and STTD of P were greater (P < 0.05) in diets with fine than in those with coarse hybrid rye. Increasing levels of phytase supplementation linearly (P < 0.01) and quadratically (P < 0.01) improved the ATTD and STTD of P in hybrid rye diets. There were no interaction effects between PS and phytase supplementation on the ATTD and STTD of P in hybrid rye diets. In conclusion, PS reduction improved the digestibility of P in hybrid rye, and supplementing increasing levels of phytase improved P digestibility in linear and quadratic manner in growing pigs fed hybrid rye diets.

Applications of Smart Technology as a Sustainable Strategy in Modern Swine Farming

The size of the pork market is increasing globally to meet the demand for animal protein, resulting in greater farm size for swine and creating a great challenge to swine farmers and industry owners in monitoring the farm activities and the health and behavior of the herd of swine. In addition, the growth of swine production is resulting in a changing climate pattern along with the environment, animal welfare, and human health issues, such as antimicrobial resistance, zoonosis, etc. The profit of swine farms depends on the optimum growth and good health of swine, while modern farming practices can ensure healthy swine production. To solve these issues, a future strategy should be considered with information and communication technology (ICT)-based smart swine farming, considering auto-identification, remote monitoring, feeding behavior, animal rights/welfare, zoonotic diseases, nutrition and food quality, labor management, farm operations, etc., with a view to improving meat production from the swine industry. Presently, swine farming is not only focused on the development of infrastructure but is also occupied with the application of technological knowledge for designing feeding programs, monitoring health and welfare, and the reproduction of the herd. ICT-based smart technologies, including smart ear tags, smart sensors, the Internet of Things (IoT), deep learning, big data, and robotics systems, can take part directly in the operation of farm activities, and have been proven to be effective tools for collecting, processing, and analyzing data from farms. In this review, which considers the beneficial role of smart technologies in swine farming, we suggest that smart technologies should be applied in the swine industry. Thus, the future swine industry should be automated, considering sustainability and productivity.

Different sieving methods for determining the physical characteristics in ground corn

We evaluated various sieving methods to estimate particle size (PS) and geometric standard deviation (GSD) of ground corn. The corn had been previously divided in six fractions and each one ground in a hammermill (1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5- or 12-mm sieves). The stacked sieving method, with prior drying at 105ºC without agitators was the reference. We evaluated eight sieving methods, distributed in a factorial design (2 x 2 x 2 x 6), consisting of the following treatments: i) with and without agitators (two 25-mm rubber spheres), ii) with and without previous drying, iii) with a nest of test sieves set in a stacked or reverse, and iv) employing six ground corn degrees, totaling 48 treatments (four replicates). There was a linear increase in PS estimation for methods without drying and stacking and quadratic increases for the others. Reverse, drying, and agitator methodologies gave better sieving of corn, and consequently gave the lowest PS and highest GSD. The results were more pronounced for high-intensity grinding (hammermill sieve with small apertures) in which the differences between the reference method with the drying and reverse methods were up to 210 µm. Reverse sieving combined with agitators allowed the greatest passage of corn particles through the test sieves and promoted better characterization of ground corn.

Maintaining continuity of nutrient intake after weaning. II. Review of post-weaning strategies

Low feed consumption during the first 3 d post-weaning disrupts nutrient intake and results in what is commonly known as a post-weaning growth check. While most pigs recover from this initial reduction in feed intake (FI), some pigs fail to successfully make this transition leading to morbidity and mortality. In this review, our objective is to describe the different post-weaning strategies that can be used to minimize nutrient intake disruption and improve FI in the immediate post-weaning period. Providing weanling pigs with an environment that encourages them to search out and consume feed is important. This includes appropriate barn temperatures, resource availability, and nursery placement strategies. Research is needed to better understand the ideal environmental temperatures to encourage pen exploration and reduce time to initial FI. Likewise, mat and gruel feeding are commonly practiced throughout the industry to increase feed accessibility; however, limited research data is available to validate protocols or benefits. Nursery placement strategies include sorting light weight pigs into uniform body weight groups and average or heavy weight pigs into variable body weight groups to provide benefit to light pigs while reducing initial aggression in heavy pigs. Furthermore, water enrichment with nutrient dense products have been shown to improve growth performance and reduce morbidity and mortality in the early post-weaning period. Because young pigs are sensitive to palatability, diet form and complexity should also be considered. Weanling pigs prefer diets manufactured with coarse ground corn (700 μm) compared to fine ground corn. Additionally, weanling pigs are more attracted to large diameter pellets (12 mm) compared with small pellets. Despite these preferences, impacts on growth are relatively small. Feeding complex diets with high levels of lactose, animal protein products, or other palatable ingredients is another strategy shown to improve growth performance during the first week post-weaning; however, the initial benefits quickly diminished as pigs become older. Other strategies that warrant further investigation include the effect of crumble diets on feed preference and the concept of perinatal or social interaction flavor learning. In summary, strategic post-weaning nutrition and management practices must focus on maintaining continuity of nutrient intake in order to reduce morbidity and mortality in the immediate post-weaning period.

Microbial Quality of Liquid Feed for Pigs and Its Impact on the Porcine Gut Microbiome

Simple Summary

Liquid feed is produced by mixing dry feed ingredients with water, and sometimes liquid co-products from the food and beverage industry, at a defined ratio. Liquid feeding of pigs is popular, particularly in parts of northern and western Europe, and can be associated with lower feed costs, improved dry matter intake, growth rate and gut health, compared to dry feeding. However, spontaneous/uncontrolled fermentation upon mixing of feed with water or co-products can decrease the microbial and nutritional quality of the feed, resulting in poorer pig health and growth. For this reason, strategies aimed at optimising liquid feed microbial quality are frequently employed. These include: deliberate fermentation with/without the use of lactic acid bacteria starter cultures that produce lactic acid and lower the feed pH, thereby preventing growth of pathogens. Fermenting only the cereal component of the diet is preferred to whole diet fermentation to minimise loss of free amino acids from the diet during fermentation. This review examines the microbiome of liquid feed and explores how optimisation strategies impact both feed microbial quality and the gut microbiota and growth of liquid-fed pigs. It also covers cleaning and disinfection of liquid feeding systems and how this might impact liquid feed microbial quality.

Abstract

There is evidence that spontaneous fermentation frequently occurs in liquid pig feed that is intended to be delivered as fresh liquid feed, often with a resultant deterioration in the microbial and nutritional quality of the feed, which can negatively affect pig health and growth. Strategies including controlled fermentation with microbial inoculants, pre-fermentation or soaking of the cereal fraction of the diet, enzyme supplementation and dietary acidification have been employed to inhibit pathogens and prevent deterioration of feed nutritional quality, with promising results obtained in many cases. This review evaluates the impact of these strategies on the microbial quality of liquid feed and discusses how they can be further improved. It also investigates if/how these strategies impact the pig gut microbiota and growth performance of liquid-fed pigs. Finally, we review liquid feed system sanitisation practices, which are highly variable from farm to farm and discuss the impact of these practices and whether they are beneficial or detrimental to liquid feed microbial quality. Overall, we provide a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge on liquid feed for pigs, focusing on factors affecting microbial quality and strategies for its optimisation, as well as its impact on the pig gut microbiome.

Effect of pelleting on nutrients and energy digestibility in growing pigs fed corn-soybean meal-based diet or diet containing corn distillers dried grains with solubles (cDDGS), wheat middlings, and bakery meal

This study was conducted to determine the effect of pelleting and diet type on the apparent ileal (AID) and total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients and energy in growing pigs. Six pigs were cannulated at the ileum and were assigned to treatments following a crossover design. One diet was a control diet based on corn and soybean meal (CT). Part of it was replaced by corn distillers dried grains with solubles (cDDGS), wheat middlings, and bakery meal in the second diet (ByP). Diets were in mash (CT-MH and ByP-MH) or pelleted (CT-PT and ByP-PT) form. Results showed that pelleting increased digestibility in all diets with a distinct effect on the CT diet (interaction diet × pelleting, P < 0.05). Pelleting improved the AID of dry matter, crude protein, and energy by 17%, 27%, and 17% in the CT diet and by 10%, 9%, and 17% in the ByP diet (P < 0.01). The AID of amino acids followed the effect observed on crude protein (P < 0.01). Pelleting increased AID of total non-starch polysaccharides for the CT diet by 63% and 42% for the ByP diet (P < 0.01). The pelleting conditions improved the degradability of the compounds in the diets during digestion in pigs.

Effect of oat particle size on energy and nutrient utilization in growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to determine the energy content of oats and to investigate the effects of oat particle size on nutrient and energy balance in growing pigs. Eighteen barrows (23.56 ± 0.94 kg initial body weight) were randomly assigned to one of the three dietary treatments with six replicates per treatment. Whole oats were ground with a hammermill fitted with 4.8- and 3.2-mm screens to make coarse and medium particle size oats, respectively. Medium oats were further ground with a rotary steel cutting grinder fitted with a 2.0-mm screen, and the further ground oats were mixed with medium oats in a 1:3 ratio to make fine oats. Three experimental diets consisted of 96.3% of the coarse, medium, or fine oats as a sole source of energy were used. Pigs were fed diets for 16 d, including 10 d for adaptation and 6 d for total fecal and urine collection. Pigs were then moved into indirect calorimetry chambers to determine 24-h heat production and 12-h fasting heat production. All data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS with the individual pig as the experimental unit. The geometric mean particle sizes for coarse, medium, and fine oats were 765, 619, and 569 μm, respectively. Pigs fed the medium oats diet tended to have (P < 0.10) greater apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of starch, neutral detergent fiber, and gross energy than those fed coarse oats diet. The medium oats diet contained greater (P < 0.05) digestible energy (DE), metabolizable energy (ME), and net energy (NE) than the coarse oats diet. Pigs fed the fine oats diet had lower (P < 0.05) ATTD of Ca and P than those fed the coarse oats diet. The DE, ME, and NE contents of fine oats were comparable with those of coarse oats. The determined NE contents for coarse, medium, and fine oats were 2,335, 2,615, and 2,521 kcal/kg on a dry matter basis, respectively. The NE content in medium oats was greater (P < 0.05) than the NE values predicted using published equations. In conclusion, it was suggested to grind whole oats for 619 μm concerning energy utilization. Further grinding to 569 μm reduces Ca and P digestibility.

Effects of corn particle size on energy and nutrient digestibility in diets fed to young pigs and adult sows

Objective

This research was carried out to investigate the effects of corn particle size on the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of energy and nutrients fed to pigs at four different growth stages and therefore to provide basis for better application of corn in pig feeds.

Methods

Eighteen weanling piglets, 18 growing barrows, 24 gestating sows and 24 lactating sows were used in this study. Within each stage, pigs were allotted to 1 of 3 or 4 corn-soybean meal diets which were formulated with different corn particle size in a completely randomized design with 6 replicate pigs per diet. Each stage lasted for 19 days, including 7 days for cages adaptation, 7 days for adaptation to diets and followed by 5 days for total collection of feces and urine.

Results

For nursery and growing stages, the results showed that digestible energy content and ATTD of gross energy (GE), dry matter (DM), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF) was increased (p<0.05) as the corn particle size reduced. Meanwhile, the metabolizable energy content and ATTD of crude protein (CP) tended to increase. For gestating sows, no differences were found in the ATTD of nutrients among dietary treatments. As for lactating sows, there were linear and quadratic increases (p<0.05) in the ATTD of DM, GE, NDF as the corn being finer milled. Quadratic response in ATTD of ADF and CP (p<0.05) were observed as sows fed with four different diets.

Conclusion

Reducing corn particle size can increase digestibility of nutrients fed to young pigs and lactating sows. No effects were observed in present experiment when gestating sows were fed with different particle sized corn.

Using Nutritional Strategies to Shape the Gastro-Intestinal Tracts of Suckling and Weaned Piglets

This is a comprehensive review on the use of nutritional strategies to shape the functioning of the gastro-intestinal tract in suckling and weaned piglets. The progressive development of a piglet's gut and the associated microbiota and immune system offers a unique window of opportunity for supporting gut health through dietary modulation. This is particularly relevant for large litters, for which sow colostrum and milk are insufficient. The authors have therefore proposed the use of supplemental milk and creep feed with a dual purpose. In addition to providing nutrients to piglets, supplemental milk can also serve as a gut modulator in early life by incorporating functional ingredients with potential long-term benefits. To prepare piglets for weaning, it is important to stimulate the intake of solid feed before weaning, in addition to stimulating the number of piglets eating. The use of functional ingredients in creep feed and a transition diet around the time of weaning helps to habituate piglets to solid feed in general, while also preparing the gut for the digestion and fermentation of specific ingredients. In the first days after weaning (i.e., the acute phase), it is important to maintain high levels of feed intake and focus on nutritional strategies that support good gastric (barrier) function and that avoid overloading the impaired digestion and fermentation capacity of the piglets. In the subsequent maturation phase, the ratio of lysine to energy can be increased gradually in order to stimulate piglet growth. This is because the digestive and fermentation capacity of the piglets is more mature at this stage, thus allowing the inclusion of more fermentable fibres. Taken together, the nutritional strategies addressed in this review provide a structured approach to preparing piglets for success during weaning and the period that follows. The implementation of this approach and the insights to be developed through future research can help to achieve some of the most important goals in pig production: reducing piglet mortality, morbidity and antimicrobial use.

Influence of Particle Size and Xylanase in Corn-Soybean Pelleted Diets on Performance, Nutrient Utilization, Microbiota and Short-Chain Fatty Acid Production in Young Broilers

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of particle size and xylanase supplementation in corn-based pellet diets on the performance and digestive traits in young broilers. A total of 512 male Ross 308 broilers were used in a 21-day study. The treatments were designed in a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement with four levels of geometric mean diameter (Dgw) of corn (540, 660, 1390, and 1700 µm), and two levels of xylanase (0 or 16,000 BXU/kg diet). Feeding coarse corn diets (1390 and 1700 µm Dgw) and xylanase supplementation showed an inferior coefficient of variation of body weight. Higher gizzard weight, microbiome alpha-diversity, and clustered separately beta-diversity (p < 0.05) were observed in birds fed coarse diets. The addition of xylanase promoted changes in relative bacteria abundance, increasing Lachnospiraceae, Defluviitaleaceae, Bacteroidaceae, Bacillaceae, Eggerthellaceae, and Streptococcaceae families in the 1700 µm group, and Christensenellaceae and Lachnospiraceae families in the 540 µm Dgw group. In conclusion, xylanase supplementation and particle size of corn interact in the intestinal environment, showing changes in microbial composition. Coarse diets and xylanase supplementation showed improved body weight homogeneity, which might be related to a better gut development and microbiota modulation.

The effect of feed form and delivery method on feed microbiology and growth performance in grow-finisher pigs

There is no generally accepted optimal feed form and delivery method for feeding finisher pigs. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of feed form (meal and pellet) and delivery method (liquid, dry, and wet/dry) on feed microbiology and growth, gain-to-feed ratio (G:F), and carcass quality of finisher pigs. Two batches of pigs were used, each with six pen replicates per treatment. In each batch 216 pigs (32.7 kg; ± 0.48 SE) housed in same-sex (entire male or female) pens of six pigs per pen were on treatment for ~62 d prior to slaughter. The experiment was a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement with two factors for diet form (meal and pellets) and three factors for feed delivery (dry, wet/dry, liquid). The treatments were 1) meal from dry feeder, 2) meal from wet/dry feeder, 3) meal from liquid system, 4) pellet from dry feeder, 5) pellet from wet/dry feeder, and 6) pellet from liquid system. Pig growth performance was determined, blood samples collected at slaughter for hematological analysis and microbiological and proximate analysis of feed performed. A significant feed form × delivery interaction was found for G:F. During the overall period G:F was 0.446, 0.433, 0.423, 0.474, 0.459, and 0.418 g/g (SE = 0.0080; P < 0.01) for treatments 1 through 6, respectively. When feed was pelleted, G:F was improved when feed delivery was dry or wet/dry compared to meal but when the delivery was liquid, pelleting did not affect G:F. There were no interactive effects for overall average daily gain (ADG). Overall ADG was 1,114 and 1,156 g/d (SE = 16.9; P < 0.01) for pigs fed diets in meal and pellet form, respectively and 1,080, 1,114, and 1,210 g/d (SE = 18.4; P < 0.001) for dry-, wet/dry-, and liquid-fed pigs, respectively. Carcass weight was 76.6 and 79.0 kg (SE = 0.55; P < 0.001) for pigs fed in meal and pellet form, respectively, while it was 74.7, 77.3, and 81.5 kg (SE = 0.60; P < 0.001) for pigs delivered dry, wet/dry, and liquid diets, respectively. Lactic acid bacteria (P < 0.05) and yeast (P < 0.01) counts in troughs were greater for the liquid than the dry diet in both meal and pelleted form. There was also evidence of lysine degradation in the liquid diet but this did not impact pig growth. Feeding the diet in pelleted vs. meal form led to lower hemoglobin and greater white blood cell and neutrophil counts (P < 0.05). To conclude, wet/dry feeding of a pelleted diet is recommended to maximize growth rate while optimizing G:F in grow-finisher pigs.

Evaluation of Extrusion Temperatures, Pelleting Parameters, and Vitamin Forms on Vitamin Stability in Feed

Simple Summary

Since African Swine Fever is a pandemic in China, the Chinese feed mills implemented specific thermal processing to inactivate the virus. Farmers and animal nutritionists gradually focus on the destructive effects of feed processing on substances, e.g., vitamins, because vitamins are labile nutrients that are sensitive to the chemical and physical factors during thermal processing. The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of vitamin forms, extrusion temperature, and pelleting parameters on vitamin stability, and to determine which vitamins are destroyed by thermal processing. The deleterious impact of feed processing is of practical relevance to vitamin stability. The majority of B complex vitamins have great stability in feed processing, but the stability of fat-soluble vitamins was negatively affected by feed processing. In addition, microencapsulated vitamins had greater stability compared to non-microencapsulated vitamins. Based on the current results, decreasing the strength of feed processing and choice of suitable forms of the vitamin could be recommended in feed production.

Abstract

Two experiments were conducted to determine the stability of microencapsulated and non-microencapsulated forms of vitamins in diets during extrusion and pelleting. We investigated the recovery of vitamins in swine diets after extrusion at 100 °C, 140 °C, or 180 °C. Next, two diets were conditioned at 65 °C (low temperature; LT) or 85 °C (high temperature; HT), and pellets were formed using a 2.5 × 15.0 mm (low length-to-diameter ratio; LR) or 2.5 × 20.0 mm (high length-to-diameter ratio; HR) die. The extrusion temperature had a significant effect on the recovery of vitamins E, B₁, B₂, B₃, and B₅ in the diets. The diet extruded at 100 °C had higher B₁, B₂, B₃, and B₅ vitamin recoveries than diets extruded at 140 °C and 180 °C. Microencapsulated vitamins A and K₃ had greater stability than non-microencapsulated vitamins A and K₃ at 100 °C and 140 °C extrusion. In the diet extruded at 180 °C, microencapsulated vitamins A, D₃, and K₃ had higher recoveries than non-microencapsulated vitamins A, D₃, and K₃. The recovery of vitamin K₃ in diets after LTLR (low temperature + low length-to-diameter ratio) or HTLR (high temperature + low length-to-diameter ratio) pelleting was greater (p < 0.05) than after LTHR (low temperature + high length-to-diameter ratio) and HTHR (high temperature + high length-to-diameter ratio) pelleting. Our results clearly show that low extrusion temperature and low pellet temperature, and a low length-to-diameter ratio (L:D ratio) for pellet mill die are recommended for pig feed. Moreover, microencapsulated vitamins had greater stability compared to non-microencapsulated vitamins.

Effect of Corn Particle Size on the Particle Size of Intestinal Digesta or Feces and Nutrient Digestibility of Corn–Soybean Meal Diets for Growing Pigs

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of corn particle size on the particle size of intestinal digesta or feces and nutrient digestibility of corn–soybean meal diets. Twenty-four growing barrows (initial BW: 21.9 ± 1.62 kg) were randomly divided into 4 groups of 6 pigs. A T-cannula was surgically placed in the anterior duodenum (about 50 cm from pylorus) of pigs in Groups 1 and 2 or in the distal ileum of pigs in Groups 3 and 4. Corn used to formulate diets had mean particle size (MPS) of 365 µm (Corn 1) or 682 µm (Corn 2), resulting in diets with MPS of 390 µm (Diet 1) or 511 μm (Diet 2). Diet 1 or 2 were randomly assigned within pig Groups 1 or 2 and 3 or 4. The digestive enzyme activities of duodenal fluid, particle size of intestinal digesta and feces, as well as nutrient digestibility, were determined for each pig as the experiment unit. The MPS of duodenal digesta (181 vs. 287 µm, p < 0.01), ileal digesta (253 vs. 331 µm, p < 0.01), and feces (195 vs. 293 µm, p < 0.01) was significantly reduced for pigs fed Diet 1 vs. Diet 2, respectively. Compared with Diet 2, Diet 1 significantly reduced the proportion of particles above 0.5 mm, but significantly increased the proportion of particles between 0.072 and 0.5 mm (p < 0.01) in digesta and feces (p < 0.01). Diet 1 significantly increased solubles percentage (<0.072 mm) in duodenal digesta (p < 0.05) but did not affect solubles percentage in ileal digesta and feces. The MPS of diet did not affect the activities of amylase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin in the duodenal fluid and the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter, gross energy, crude protein, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) in pigs offered Diet 1 compared to Diet 2. The in vitro digestible energy (IVDE) (3706 vs. 3641 kcal/kg; p = 0.03) was greater for Corn 1 vs. Corn 2. However, no significant difference was observed in IVDE (3574 vs. 3561 kcal/kg; p = 0.47) for Diet 1 vs. Diet 2. In conclusion, the particle size of digesta and feces was dependent on the dietary particle size. However, the digestive enzyme activities of duodenal fluid and ATTD of energy and nutrients were not affected by reducing dietary MPS from 511 to 390 µm.

Subluminal Focal Lesions in Peyer's Patches in the Terminal Ileum of Pigs Fed With Different Physical Forms of One Same Diet

Retrograde backflow of cecum chyme and consequent ascendent colonization of the foregut may occur via the ileocecal valve (IV) under predisposing circumstances. The Peyer's patches (PPs) in the terminal ileum (TI) play a crucial role in targeting antigens and act as a first line of blockage of pathogens in the small intestine. In view of the established impact of the physical form of the diet (grinding and compaction of ingredients) on the physicochemical and microbiological composition of digesta throughout the different gastrointestinal tracts, special attention was paid to PP reaction following different dietary treatments. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of different physical forms of one diet (identical for botanical and chemical composition) administered to growing pigs on macro- and microscopic morphology of PPs in the last 3 cm of the TI, as a region of interest immediately close to the IV involved in the prevention of retrograde contamination of the small intestine. The diet effect was tested after 4 weeks of experimental feeding on PPs of 32 growing pigs, fed with four dietary treatments differing for the physical form: FP—finely ground pelleted diet (dMEAN, 0.463 mm); CM—coarsely ground meal diet (dMEAN, 0.880 mm); CP—coarsely ground pelleted diet (dMEAN, 0.836); and CE—coarsely ground extruded diet (dMEAN, 0.659). A higher prevalence of subluminal focal liquefactive necrosis (FLN) in the last 3 cm of the TI was observed in pigs fed with the CE and the FP diet (n. 3/8 or 37.5% and n. = 1/8 or 12.5%, respectively) (p = 0.076). FLN negatively and significantly correlated with the pH value of digesta of the last part of the small intestine (ρ = −0.361; p = 0.026). All animals enrolled appeared clinically healthy throughout the trial. Growth performance were not affected by the different dietary treatments, but fecal dry matter and pH values were affected in a significant way. Results about the morphology of PPs assessed in this trial can be suggestive of the physical form of the diet as a contributing factor to the onset of different antigenic potentials of the intestinal chyme.

Evaluation of lipid matrix microencapsulation for intestinal delivery of thymol in weaned pigs

Essential oils (EO) are defined as plant-derived natural bioactive compounds, which can have positive effects on animal growth and health due to their antimicrobial and antioxidative properties. However, EO are volatile, can evaporate quickly, and be rapidly absorbed in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Also, due to their labile nature, the stability of EO during feed processing is often questionable, leading to variations in the final concentration in feed. Encapsulation has become one of the most popular methods of stabilizing EO during feed processing, storage, and delivery into the lower gut. The objectives of the present study were to 1) evaluate the stability of thymol microencapsulated in combination with organic acids in commercially available lipid matrix microparticles during the feed pelleting process and storage; 2) validate and demonstrate the slow release of thymol from the lipid matrix microparticles in a simulated pig gastric fluid (SGF) and a simulated pig intestinal fluid (SIF); and 3) evaluate in vivo release of thymol from the lipid matrix microparticles along the pig gut. The results showed that thymol concentration was not significantly different in the mash and pelleted feeds (P > 0.05). In the in vitro study, 26.04% thymol was released in SGF, and the rest of the thymol was progressively released in SIF until completion, which was achieved by 24 h. The in vivo study showed that 15.5% of thymol was released in the stomach, and 41.85% of thymol was delivered in the mid-jejunum section. Only 2.21% of thymol was recovered in feces. In conclusion, the lipid matrix microparticles were able to maintain the stability of thymol during a feed pelleting process and storage and allow a slow and progressive intestinal release of thymol in weaned pigs.

Effects of particle size and lipid form of corn on energy and nutrient digestibility in diets for growing pigs

Objective

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of corn particle size and lipid form on the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of energy and nutrients in diets for growing pigs.

Methods

In Exp. 1, thirty barrows (initial body weight [BW], 53.1±3.9 kg) were allotted to 1 of 5 diets formulated with 96.9% corn ground to 441, 543, 618, 659, and 768 μm, respectively. In Exp. 2, thirty-six barrows (initial BW, 54.7±3.6 kg) were allotted to 1 of 6 diets formulated by including 2% or 15% corn germ (CG 2 or CG 15), 1% or 6% corn oil (CO 1 or CO 6), 1% CO+2% corn germ meal (CO 1+CGM 2), or 6% CO+15% corn germ meal (CO 6+CGM 15), respectively.

Results

The ATTD of gross energy (GE) and the digestible energy (DE) in diet and corn grain linearly decreased as the corn particle size increased (p<0.05) from 441 to 768 μm. Particle size had a quadratic effect (p<0.05) on the ATTD of neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber in diets, and which firstly increased and then decreased as the corn particle size increased from 441 to 618 μm and 618 to 768 μm, respectively. The ATTD of GE, ether extract (EE), and the DE in CO 1 diet and CO 6 diet was greater (p<0.05) than that in CG 2 diet and CG 15 diet, respectively. The ATTD of EE in CO 6 diet and CO 6+CGM 15 diet was greater (p<0.05) than that in CO 1 diet and CO 1+CGM 2 diet.

Conclusion

Less than 618 μm was recommended for corn particle size in growing pig’s diet and extracted lipid had greater digestibility than the intact lipid in corn. Higher concentration of extracted CO had greater digestibility of EE compared with lower concentrations of CO diet.

Role of Feed Processing on Gut Health and Function in Pigs and Poultry: Conundrum of Optimal Particle Size and Hydrothermal Regimens

The aim is to give an overview of available literature data on the role of feed processing on gut health and function with specific focus on particle size and hydrothermal processing. In addition, influence of feed processing on efficacy of exogenous feed enzymes will be discussed. The current feed processing technologies are such that ingredient choices and diet form are refined to improve feed intake and nutrient utilization efficiency. Finer feed particle size enables optimal nutrient utilization and enhances animal performance due to increased surface area allowing better contact with digestive enzymes. Moreover, adequate diminution of feed ingredients is beneficial to feed manufacturing processes such as mixing and hydrothermal treatments including pelleting, extrusion, and expansion. However, emerging trends in consumer and regulatory demands for restriction or cessation of animal production practices such as use of antimicrobial growth promoters are challenging current approaches to feed processing. There is limit as to the fineness of the particle size, as very fine particles negatively affect gut health due to higher incidences of stomach ulceration in pigs and gizzard dysfunction in poultry. Coarse particle size increases stomach and hindgut acidification which may be beneficial in controlling proliferation of enteric pathogens such as salmonella and E. coli. Optimal particle size could be designed in the grinding process using roller or hammer mill. However, since most commercial pigs and poultry diets are subjected to hydrothermal processes, additional reduction of feed particle size is inevitable. The need to achieve high physical quality and to reduce potential levels of feed-borne pathogens such as Salmonella has led to the application of relatively high conditioning temperatures during conventional hydrothermal processes, a practice that does not favor high nutrient utilization and stability of heat sensitive feed additives such as feed enzymes. Therefore, with evolving pig and poultry production practices, the regimens for feed processing will no longer be appreciated only in terms of optimizing nutrients utilization, but also in terms of impact on feed hygienic status, efficacy of feed additives, animal health, and food safety.

Effects of brown rice particle size on energy and nutrient digestibility in diets for young pigs and adult sows

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of brown rice particle size on the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of energy and nutrients in diets fed to pigs at four different stages and determine the optimal particle size (OPS) of brown rice for young pigs and adult sows. Eighteen weanling piglets (initial body weight (BW): 10.2 ± 0.4 kg), 18 growing barrows (initial BW: 35.6 ± 1.5 kg), 24 gestating sows (initial BW: 220 ± 2.8 kg), and 24 lactating sows (initial BW: 208 ± 3.8 kg) were allotted to 1 of 3 or 4 diets based on completely randomized design with six replicates per diet. Within each stage, brown rice-soybean meal diets were formulated, and the only difference among diets was the brown rice used was ground to the specified particle size. Each stage lasted 19 days, including 7 days for cage adaptation, 7 days for diet adaptation, and 5 days for total feces and urine collection. For weanling and growing pigs, the results showed that pigs fed brown rice milled to 600 μm had a greater ATTD of dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE), and crude protein (CP) than pigs fed brown rice ground to 800 μm. However, there was no improvement in the ATTD of energy and nutrients for pigs fed brown rice milled to 600 μm versus 400 μm. The concentration of nitrogen (N) in feces significantly reduced (p < 0.01) as brown rice particle size decreased from 800 to 400 μm. However, there were no differences in phosphorus (P) output and absorbed P among diets. For gestating and lactating sows, a reduction in particle size from 1,000 to 800 μm significantly improved (p < 0.01) the ATTD of DM, GE, and CP in diets. However, there was also no improvement in the ATTD of energy and nutrients for pigs fed brown rice milled from 800 to 400 μm. In conclusion, considering the energy required for milling and nutrient digestibility, milling brown rice to 600 and 800 μm are recommended in diets for young pigs and adult sows, respectively. The OPS of brown rice for pigs at different physiological stages should be considered to economically and accurately formulate diets.

Effect of particle size of a mash concentrate on behavior, digestibility, and macroscopic and microscopic integrity of the digestive tract in Holstein bulls fed intensively

Twenty-four individually housed Holstein bulls (456 ± 6.9 kg of body weight and 292 ± 1.4 d of age) were enrolled in a complete randomized experiment involving four dietary treatments to evaluate the potential effect of mash particle size of diets in finishing beef diets on behavior, digestibility, and macro- and microscopic changes of the digestive tract. The four treatments were all ingredients sieved at 2 mm (HM2), all ingredients sieved at 3 mm (HM3), all ingredients, but corn, sieved at 2 mm and corn at 10 mm (HM210), and all ingredients, but corn, sieved a 3 mm and corn at 10 mm (HM310). For the HM210 and HM310 mashes, corn ground at 10 mm was mixed with the remaining concentrate ingredients ground at 2 or 3 mm, respectively. Concentrate (36% corn, 19% barley, 15% corn gluten feed, 8.4% wheat; 14% crude protein, 3.28 Mcal of ME/kg) consumption was recorded daily and straw consumption weekly. To register behavior, animals were filmed for 24 h on a weekly basis. At day 49 of study nutrient digestibility was estimated. Bulls were slaughtered after 56 d of exposure to treatments. Digestive tract and hepatic lesions were recorded, and tissue samples from the digestive tract collected. Geometric mean particle size was 0.61 ± 0.041, 0.76 ± 0.041, 0.62 ± 0.041, 0.73 ± 0.041 mm, and percentage of particles between 0.5 and 1 mm were 68 ± 2.9, 46 ± 1.7, 46 ± 5.0, and 39 ± 3.3 g/100 g for HM2, HM210, HM3, and HM310, respectively. Performance, total tract digestibility, or digestive tract integrity did not differ when ingredients were ground at 2 or 3 mm. Grinding corn with a hammer mill sieve size of 10 mm reduced feed efficiency and decreased total tract apparent dry matter, and organic matter digestibility compared with treatments from which all ingredients were ground at 2 or 3 mm. Straw intake was greatest and starch digestibility was least in the HM210 treatment. Last, only minor differences among treatments in rumen wall color, rumen papillae fusion, and histological conformation were observed. In summary, to improve feed efficiency, grinding corn at 10 mm is not recommended. In the present study, grinding procedure did not have a great effect on behavior and/or digestive tract health; however, under commercial conditions (group housing), grinding procedures that cause small mean particle sizes or particle size heterogeneity may increase the risk to suffer digestive tract lesions.