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Powers AM, Williamson LE, Carnahan RH, Crowe JE, Hyde JL, Jonsson CB, Nasar F, Weaver SC. Developing a Prototype Pathogen Plan and Research Priorities for the Alphaviruses. J Infect Dis 2023; 228:S414-S426. [PMID: 37849399 PMCID: PMC11007399 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiac326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The Togaviridae family, genus, Alphavirus, includes several mosquito-borne human pathogens with the potential to spread to near pandemic proportions. Most of these are zoonotic, with spillover infections of humans and domestic animals, but a few such as chikungunya virus (CHIKV) have the ability to use humans as amplification hosts for transmission in urban settings and explosive outbreaks. Most alphaviruses cause nonspecific acute febrile illness, with pathogenesis sometimes leading to either encephalitis or arthralgic manifestations with severe and chronic morbidity and occasional mortality. The development of countermeasures, especially against CHIKV and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus that are major threats, has included vaccines and antibody-based therapeutics that are likely to also be successful for rapid responses with other members of the family. However, further work with these prototypes and other alphavirus pathogens should target better understanding of human tropism and pathogenesis, more comprehensive identification of cellular receptors and entry, and better understanding of structural mechanisms of neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Powers
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Lauren E Williamson
- The Vanderbilt Vaccine Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Robert H Carnahan
- The Vanderbilt Vaccine Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - James E Crowe
- The Vanderbilt Vaccine Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jennifer L Hyde
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Colleen B Jonsson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Farooq Nasar
- Emerging Infectious Diseases Branch and Viral Disease Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Scott C Weaver
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
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Park SL, Huang YJS, Vanlandingham DL. Re-Examining the Importance of Pigs in the Transmission of Japanese Encephalitis Virus. Pathogens 2022; 11:575. [PMID: 35631096 PMCID: PMC9146973 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11050575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus, is the leading cause of pediatric encephalitis in Southeast Asia. The enzootic transmission of JEV involves two types of amplifying hosts, swine and avian species. The involvement of pigs in the transmission cycle makes JEV a unique pathogen because human Japanese encephalitis cases are frequently linked to the epizootic spillover from pigs, which can not only develop viremia to sustain transmission but also signs of neurotropic and reproductive disease. The existing knowledge of the epidemiology of JEV largely suggests that viremic pigs are a source of infectious viruses for competent mosquito species, especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus in the endemic regions. However, several recently published studies that applied molecular detection techniques to the characterization of JEV pathogenesis in pigs described the shedding of JEV through multiple routes and persistent infection, both of which have not been reported in the past. These findings warrant a re-examination of the role that pigs are playing in the transmission and maintenance of JEV. In this review, we summarize discoveries on the shedding of JEV during the course of infection and analyze the available published evidence to discuss the possible role of the vector-free JEV transmission route among pigs in viral maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Lee Park
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (S.L.P.); (Y.-J.S.H.)
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Yan-Jang S. Huang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (S.L.P.); (Y.-J.S.H.)
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Dana L. Vanlandingham
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (S.L.P.); (Y.-J.S.H.)
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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Bai Y, Zhang Y, Su Z, Tang S, Wang J, Wu Q, Yang J, Moming A, Zhang Y, Bell-Sakyi L, Sun S, Shen S, Deng F. Discovery of Tick-Borne Karshi Virus Implies Misinterpretation of the Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Seroprevalence in Northwest China. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:872067. [PMID: 35685931 PMCID: PMC9173002 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.872067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite few human cases of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), high rates of TBEV seroprevalence were reported among humans and animals in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in Northwestern China. In this study, the Karshi virus (KSIV) was identified and isolated from Hyalomma asiaticum ticks in Xinjiang. It belongs to the genus Flavivirus of the family Flaviviridae and is closely related to TBEV. KSIV infects cell lines from humans, other mammals and ticks, and causes encephalitis in suckling mice. High minimum infection rates (4.96%) with KSIV were detected among tick groups. KSIV infections have occurred in sheep and marmots, resulting in antibody-positive rates of 2.43 and 2.56%, respectively. We further found that, of the KSIV antibody-positive serum samples from animals, 13.9% had TBEV exposure showing cross-reaction to KSIV, and 11.1% had KSIV infection resulting in cross-reaction to TBEV; 8.3% were likely to have co-exposure to both viruses (or may be infected with one of them and present cross-reactivity with the other). The results revealed a substantial KSIV prevalence among ticks in Xinjiang, indicating exposure of animals to KSIV and TBEV. The findings implied misinterpretation of the high rates of TBEV seroprevalence among humans and animals in previous studies. There is a need to develop detection methods to distinguish KSIV from TBEV and to perform an in-depth investigation of KSIV and TBEV prevalence and incidence in Northwestern China, which would enhance our preparation to provide medical treatment of emerging diseases caused by tick-borne viral pathogens such as KSIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanfang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhengyuan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Shuang Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Jun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiaoli Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Juan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Abulimiti Moming
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Yujiang Zhang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, China
| | - Lesley Bell-Sakyi
- Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Surong Sun
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, China
| | - Shu Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Centre, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
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Sethi M, Das T, Tomar N, John JK, Dubal ZB, Rajak KK, Singh R, Saikumar G. Japanese encephalitis virus-induced neuropathology in mouse model infected through the conjunctival route. Indian J Med Res 2020; 150:498-503. [PMID: 31939394 PMCID: PMC6977363 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_2078_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & objectives: Mouse is a preferred animal model for studying pathogenesis of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infections, and different routes of inoculation have been tried. Some neurotropic viruses can reach the brain following infection through ocular route. This study was undertaken to establish JEV-induced clinical disease in mouse model through conjunctival route and document the neuropathological effects. Methods: Ten two-week old Swiss albino mice were inoculated with 5 μl Vero cell cultured virus containing 104.7 TCID50 JEV through conjunctival route. Clinical signs of mice were observed twice daily. After necropsy examination, different organs including eyes and olfactory bulbs were collected for histopathological examination, quantification of viral copy number and antigen by real-time TaqMan assay and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Results: Infected mice showed characteristic clinical signs of JE by 4 days post-infection (dpi). Histopathological lesions in brain included perivascular cuffing by mononuclear cells, focal gliosis, necrosis of neurons and neuronophagia and astrocytosis in the cerebrum, cerebellum and the brainstem. JEV viral load was highest in the brain followed by intestine, heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney. JEV antigen was detected in the bipolar and ganglion cells of the retina and in the mitral cells and periglomerular cells of olfactory bulb and other parts of the brain. Interpretation & conclusions: JEV infection in mice through conjunctival route produced characteristic clinical signs of the disease and neuropathological lesions. Demonstration of JEV antigen in association with neuropathological lesions in the central nervous system and neuronal cells of the eye showed that conjunctival route could be an effective alternate route for virus invasion into the brain. These findings have biosafety implications for researchers, veterinary practitioners and pig farmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menaka Sethi
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Tareni Das
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Neelam Tomar
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Jeny K John
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Zunjar B Dubal
- Division of Veterinary Public Health, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Kaushal K Rajak
- Division of Biological Products, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rajendra Singh
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - G Saikumar
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Comparative Pathology of West Nile Virus in Humans and Non-Human Animals. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9010048. [PMID: 31935992 PMCID: PMC7168622 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9010048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) continues to be a major cause of human arboviral neuroinvasive disease. Susceptible non-human vertebrates are particularly diverse, ranging from commonly affected birds and horses to less commonly affected species such as alligators. This review summarizes the pathology caused by West Nile virus during natural infections of humans and non-human animals. While the most well-known findings in human infection involve the central nervous system, WNV can also cause significant lesions in the heart, kidneys and eyes. Time has also revealed chronic neurologic sequelae related to prior human WNV infection. Similarly, neurologic disease is a prominent manifestation of WNV infection in most non-human non-host animals. However, in some avian species, which serve as the vertebrate host for WNV maintenance in nature, severe systemic disease can occur, with neurologic, cardiac, intestinal and renal injury leading to death. The pathology seen in experimental animal models of West Nile virus infection and knowledge gains on viral pathogenesis derived from these animal models are also briefly discussed. A gap in the current literature exists regarding the relationship between the neurotropic nature of WNV in vertebrates, virus propagation and transmission in nature. This and other knowledge gaps, and future directions for research into WNV pathology, are addressed.
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Azar SR, Rossi SL, Haller SH, Yun R, Huang JH, Plante JA, Zhou J, Olano JP, Roundy CM, Hanley KA, Weaver SC, Vasilakis N. ZIKV Demonstrates Minimal Pathologic Effects and Mosquito Infectivity in Viremic Cynomolgus Macaques. Viruses 2018; 10:v10110661. [PMID: 30469417 PMCID: PMC6267344 DOI: 10.3390/v10110661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
To evaluate the effects of ZIKV infection on non-human primates (NHPs), as well as to investigate whether these NHPs develop sufficient viremia to infect the major urban vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti, four cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) were subcutaneously infected with 5.0 log10 focus-forming units (FFU) of DNA clone-derived ZIKV strain FSS13025 (Asian lineage, Cambodia, 2010). Following infection, the animals were sampled (blood, urine, tears, and saliva), underwent daily health monitoring, and were exposed to Ae. aegypti at specified time points. All four animals developed viremia, which peaked 3⁻4 days post-infection at a maximum value of 6.9 log10 genome copies/mL. No virus was detected in urine, tears, or saliva. Infection by ZIKV caused minimal overt disease: serum biochemistry and CBC values largely fell within the normal ranges, and cytokine elevations were minimal. Strikingly, the minimally colonized population of Ae. aegypti exposed to viremic animals demonstrated a maximum infection rate of 26% during peak viremia, with two of the four macaques failing to infect a single mosquito at any time point. These data indicate that cynomolgus macaques may be an effective model for ZIKV infection of humans and highlights the relative refractoriness of Ae. aegypti for ZIKV infection at the levels of viremia observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha R Azar
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Institute for Translational Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Shannan L Rossi
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Sherry H Haller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Ruimei Yun
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Jing H Huang
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Jessica A Plante
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Jiehua Zhou
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Juan P Olano
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Christopher M Roundy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Institute for Translational Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Kathryn A Hanley
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA.
| | - Scott C Weaver
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Institute for Translational Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
| | - Nikos Vasilakis
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
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Marques RE, Del Sarto JL, Rocha RPF, Gomes GF, Cramer A, Rachid MA, Souza DG, Nogueira ML, Teixeira MM. Development of a model of Saint Louis encephalitis infection and disease in mice. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:61. [PMID: 28330482 PMCID: PMC5361699 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0837-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flaviviruses are a genre of closely related viral pathogens which emerged in the last decades in Brazil and in the world. Saint (St.) Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is a neglected flavivirus that can cause a severe neurological disease that may lead to death or sequelae. St. Louis encephalitis pathogenesis is poorly understood, which hinders the development of specific treatment or vaccine. METHODS To address this problem, we developed a model of SLEV infection in mice to study mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of severe disease. The model consists in the intracranial inoculation of the SLEV strain BeH 355964, a strain isolated from a symptomatic human patient in Brazil, in adult immunocompetent mice. RESULTS Inoculated mice presented SLEV replication in the brain, accompanied by tissue damage, disease signs, and mortality approximately 7 days post infection. Infection was characterized by the production of proinflammatory cytokines and interferons and by leukocyte recruitment to the brain, composed mainly by neutrophils and lymphocytes. In vitro experiments indicated that SLEV is able to replicate in both neurons and glia and caused neuronal death and cytokine production, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, intracranial SLEV infection leads to meningoencephalitis in mice, recapitulating several aspects of St. Louis encephalitis in humans. Our study indicates that the central nervous system (CNS) inflammation is a major component of SLEV-induced disease. This model may be useful to identify mechanisms of disease pathogenesis or resistance to SLEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Elias Marques
- Immunopharmacology, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil. .,Present address: Laboratório Nacional de Biociências, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa em Energia e Materiais, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Juliana L Del Sarto
- Immunopharmacology, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rebeca P F Rocha
- Immunopharmacology, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Giovanni F Gomes
- Laboratório de Investigação em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil
| | - Allysson Cramer
- Laboratório de Imunorregulação de Doenças Infecciosas, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Milene A Rachid
- Laboratório de Apoptose, Departamento de Patologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Danielle G Souza
- Laboratório de Interação Microrganismo-Hospedeiro, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Maurício L Nogueira
- Laboratório de Pesquisas em Virologia, Departamento de Doenças dermatológicas, Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mauro M Teixeira
- Immunopharmacology, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Ronca SE, Dineley KT, Paessler S. Neurological Sequelae Resulting from Encephalitic Alphavirus Infection. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:959. [PMID: 27379085 PMCID: PMC4913092 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent surge in viral clinical cases and associated neurological deficits have reminded us that viral infections can lead to detrimental, long-term effects, termed sequelae, in survivors. Alphaviruses are enveloped, single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses in the Togaviridae family. Transmission of alphaviruses between and within species occurs mainly via the bite of an infected mosquito bite, giving alphaviruses a place among arboviruses, or arthropod-borne viruses. Alphaviruses are found throughout the world and typically cause arthralgic or encephalitic disease in infected humans. Originally detected in the 1930s, today the major encephalitic viruses include Venezuelan, Western, and Eastern equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV, WEEV, and EEEV, respectively). VEEV, WEEV, and EEEV are endemic to the Americas and are important human pathogens, leading to thousands of human infections each year. Despite awareness of these viruses for nearly 100 years, we possess little mechanistic understanding regarding the complications (sequelae) that emerge after resolution of acute infection. Neurological sequelae are those complications involving damage to the central nervous system that results in cognitive, sensory, or motor deficits that may also manifest as emotional instability and seizures in the most severe cases. This article serves to provide an overview of clinical cases documented in the past century as well as a summary of the reported neurological sequelae due to VEEV, WEEV, and EEEV infection. We conclude with a treatise on the utility of, and practical considerations for animal models applied to the problem of neurological sequelae of viral encephalopathies in order to decipher mechanisms and interventional strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon E Ronca
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA; Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA
| | - Kelly T Dineley
- Department of Neurology, Center for Addiction Research, Rodent In Vivo Assessment Core, Mitchell Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX USA
| | - Slobodan Paessler
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA; Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Galveston National Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA
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Monoclonal antibody against Saint Louis encephalitis prM viral protein. J Virol Methods 2015; 218:14-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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10
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Pijlman GP. Enveloped virus-like particles as vaccines against pathogenic arboviruses. Biotechnol J 2015; 10:659-70. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201400427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Abstract
As the threat of exposure to emerging and reemerging viruses within a naive population increases, it is vital that the basic mechanisms of pathogenesis and immune response be thoroughly investigated. By using animal models in this endeavor, the response to viruses can be studied in a more natural context to identify novel drug targets, and assess the efficacy and safety of new products. This is especially true in the advent of the Food and Drug Administration's animal rule. Although no one animal model is able to recapitulate all the aspects of human disease, understanding the current limitations allows for a more targeted experimental design. Important facets to be considered before an animal study are the route of challenge, species of animals, biomarkers of disease, and a humane endpoint. This chapter covers the current animal models for medically important human viruses, and demonstrates where the gaps in knowledge exist.
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Fan YC, Chen JM, Chiu HC, Chen YY, Lin JW, Shih CC, Chen CM, Chang CC, Chang GJJ, Chiou SS. Partially neutralizing potency against emerging genotype I virus among children received formalin-inactivated Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1834. [PMID: 23029592 PMCID: PMC3459827 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Genotype I (GI) Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) that replaced GIII virus has become the dominant circulating virus in Asia. Currently, all registered live and inactivated JEV vaccines are derived from genotype III viruses. In Taiwan, the compulsory JEV vaccination policy recommends that children receives four doses of formalin-inactivated Nakayama (GIII) JEV vaccine. Methodology/Principal Findings To evaluate the influence of genotype replacement on the post-vaccination viral neutralizing ability by GIII and GI viruses, the small panel of vaccinated-children serum specimens was assembled, and the reciprocal 50% plaque-reduction neutralizing antibody titers (PRNT50) were measured against Nakayama vaccine strain, CJN GIII human brain isolate and TC2009-1 GI mosquito isolate. The seropositivity rate (PRNT50≥1∶10) and geometric mean titers (GMT) against the TC2009-1 virus were the lowest among the three viruses. The protective threshold against the CJN and TC2009-1 viruses could only be achieved when the GMT against Nakayama virus was ≥1∶20 or ≥1∶80, respectively. Using undiluted vaccinees' sera, the enhancement of JEV infection in K562 cells was observed in some low or non-neutralizing serum specimens. Conclusions/Significance Our preliminary study has shown that neutralizing antibodies, elicited by the mouse brain-derived and formalin-inactivated JEV Nakayama vaccine among a limited number of vaccinees, have reduced neutralizing capacity against circulating GI virus, but more detailed studies are needed to address the potential impact on the future vaccine policy. Genotype I (GI) Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) that replaced GIII virus has become the dominant circulating virus in Asia; however, all available JEV vaccines are derived from genotype III viruses, and no study has been conducted on the cross-neutralization and protection elicited by GIII JEV vaccines against GI viruses using vaccinated children’s serum specimens collected from the general population. Genotype I virus was first detected in Taiwan in 2008, and became the dominant circulating JEV, and was island-wide within a year. In the present study, the small panel of GIII virus vaccinated-children serum specimens were not only showed lower strain-specific neutralization against GI virus as compared to the GIII vaccine and human isolates but also observed the enhancement of GI virus infection in K562 cells in some low or non-neutralizing serum specimens. These preliminary results indicated the reduced neutralization potency due to genotype replacement should be closely monitored in the JE epidemic/endemic regions in the future.
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MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Animals
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/blood
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Asia
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Encephalitis Virus, Japanese/classification
- Encephalitis Virus, Japanese/genetics
- Encephalitis Virus, Japanese/immunology
- Encephalitis, Japanese/immunology
- Encephalitis, Japanese/prevention & control
- Encephalitis, Japanese/virology
- Genotype
- Humans
- Infant
- Japanese Encephalitis Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Japanese Encephalitis Vaccines/immunology
- Mice
- Neutralization Tests
- Taiwan
- Vaccines, Inactivated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Inactivated/immunology
- Viral Plaque Assay
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chin Fan
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jo-Mei Chen
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Chung Chiu
- Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry, National Defense Medical Center and Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ying Chen
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Wei Lin
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Chang Shih
- Department of Neurology, Mennonite Christian Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ming Chen
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Tungs' Taichung MetroHarbor Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chao-Chin Chang
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Gwong-Jen J. Chang
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Shyan-Song Chiou
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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13
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Orthobunyavirus entry into neurons and other mammalian cells occurs via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and requires trafficking into early endosomes. J Virol 2012; 86:7988-8001. [PMID: 22623766 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00140-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
La Crosse virus (LACV) is a leading cause of pediatric encephalitis and aseptic meningitis in the midwestern and southern United States, where it is considered an emerging human pathogen. No specific therapies or vaccines are available for LACV or any other orthobunyaviruses. Inhibition of LACV entry into cells is a potential target for therapeutic intervention, but this approach is limited by our current knowledge of the entry process. Here, we determined that clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the primary mechanism of orthobunyavirus entry and identified key cellular factors in this process. First, we demonstrated that LACV colocalized with clathrin shortly after infection in HeLa cells; we then confirmed the functional requirement of dynamin- and clathrin-mediated endocytosis for orthobunyavirus entry using several independent assays and, importantly, extended these findings to primary neuronal cultures. We also determined that macropinocytosis and caveolar endocytosis, both established routes of virus entry, are not critical for cellular entry of LACV. Moreover, we demonstrated that LACV infection is dependent on Rab5, which plays an important regulatory role in early endosomes, but not on Rab7, which is associated with late endosomes. These findings provide the first description of bunyavirus entry into cells of the central nervous system, where infection can cause severe neurological disease, and will aid in the design and development of antivirals and therapeutics that may be useful in the treatment of LACV and, more broadly, arboviral infections of the central nervous system.
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14
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Sotelo E, Gutierrez-Guzmán AV, del Amo J, Llorente F, El-Harrak M, Pérez-Ramírez E, Blanco JM, Höfle U, Jiménez-Clavero MA. Pathogenicity of two recent Western Mediterranean West Nile virus isolates in a wild bird species indigenous to Southern Europe: the red-legged partridge. Vet Res 2011; 42:11. [PMID: 21314967 PMCID: PMC3037891 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-42-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2010] [Accepted: 09/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen whose geographic spread and incidence in humans, horses and birds has increased significantly in recent years. WNV has long been considered a mild pathogen causing self-limiting outbreaks. This notion has changed as WNV is causing large epidemics with a high impact on human and animal health. This has been particularly noteworthy since its introduction into North America in 1999. There, native bird species have been shown to be highly susceptible to WNV infection and disease with high mortalities. For this reason, the effect of WNV infection in North American bird species has been thoroughly studied by means of experimental inoculations in controlled trials. To a lesser extent, European wild birds have been shown to be affected clinically by WNV infection. Yet experimental studies on European wild bird species are lacking. The red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) is a gallinaceous bird indigenous to the Iberian Peninsula, widely distributed in South Western Europe. It plays a key role in the Mediterranean ecosystem and constitutes an economically important game species. As such it is raised intensively in outdoor facilities. In this work, red-legged partridges were experimentally infected with two recent WNV isolates from the Western Mediterranean area: Morocco/2003 and Spain/2007. All inoculated birds became viremic and showed clinical disease, with mortality rates of 70% and 30%, respectively. These results show that Western Mediterranean WNV variants can be pathogenic for some European bird species, such as the red-legged partridge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Sotelo
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal del Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (CISA-INIA), Ctra Algete-El Casar, s/n, 28130 Valdeolmos (Madrid), Spain.
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15
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Kimura T, Sasaki M, Okumura M, Kim E, Sawa H. Flavivirus encephalitis: pathological aspects of mouse and other animal models. Vet Pathol 2010; 47:806-18. [PMID: 20551474 DOI: 10.1177/0300985810372507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Encephalitic flaviviruses are important arthropod-borne pathogens of humans and other animals. In particular, the recent emergence of the West Nile virus (WNV) and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in new geographic areas has caused a considerable public health alert and international concern. Among the experimental in vivo models of WNV and JEV infection, mice and other laboratory rodents are the most thoroughly studied and well-characterized systems, having provided data that are important for understanding the infectious process in humans. Macaca monkeys have also been used as a model for WNV and JEV infection, mainly for the evaluation of vaccine efficacy, although a limited number of published studies have addressed pathomorphology. These animal models demonstrate the development of encephalitis with many similarities to the human disease; however, the histological events that occur during infection, especially in peripheral tissues, have not been fully characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kimura
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, West 10 North 20, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020 Japan.
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16
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Wigerius M, Melik W, Elväng A, Johansson M. Rac1 and Scribble are targets for the arrest of neurite outgrowth by TBE virus NS5. Mol Cell Neurosci 2010; 44:260-71. [PMID: 20363326 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2010.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 03/09/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) causes extensive CNS disease in humans known as TBE, however, relatively little is known of the molecular mechanisms for its progress. Here, we now show that TBEV produces defects in neuronal development of PC12 cells through a function of the viral NS5 protein. The methyltransferase domain of NS5 is critical and sufficient for restriction of nerve growth factor induced neurite outgrowth. This effect is reversed by expression of NS5 mutants unable to bind Scribble and unexpectedly, in Scribble depleted cells with binding-competent NS5. Furthermore, we also demonstrate that the Rho GTPase Rac1 and the guanine nucleotide-exchange factor, betaPIX are outcompeted by NS5 for binding to Scribble, linking to effects on neurite outgrowth by TBEV. Together, these findings provide the first experimental evidence that Rac1 and betaPIX are indirect targets of NS5 acting through the multifunctional polarity protein Scribble to oppose neuronal differentiation. In conclusion, our results offer a potential mechanism by which TBEV alters neuronal circuitry and opens new avenues for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Wigerius
- School of Life Sciences, Södertörn University, SE-141 89 Huddinge, Sweden
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17
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Cysteine-free proteins in the immunobiology of arthropod-borne diseases. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:171537. [PMID: 20069123 PMCID: PMC2804111 DOI: 10.1155/2010/171537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
One approach to identify epitopes that could be used in the design of vaccines to control several arthropod-borne diseases simultaneously is to look for common structural features in the secretome of the pathogens that cause them. Using a novel bioinformatics technique, cysteine-abundance and distribution analysis, we found that many different proteins secreted by several arthropod-borne pathogens, including Plasmodium falciparum, Borrelia burgdorferi, and eight species of Proteobacteria, are devoid of cysteine residues. The identification of three cysteine-abundance and distribution patterns in several families of proteins secreted by pathogenic and nonpathogenic Proteobacteria, and not found when the amino acid analyzed was tryptophan, provides evidence of forces restricting the content of cysteine residues in microbial proteins during evolution. We discuss these findings in the context of protein structure and function, antigenicity and immunogenicity, and host-parasite relationships.
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18
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19
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Holbrook MR, Gowen BB. Animal models of highly pathogenic RNA viral infections: encephalitis viruses. Antiviral Res 2007; 78:69-78. [PMID: 18031836 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2007] [Revised: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 10/11/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The highly pathogenic RNA viruses that cause encephalitis include a significant number of emerging or re-emerging viruses that are also considered potential bioweapons. Many of these viruses, including members of the family Flaviviridae, the genus Alphavirus in the family Togaviridae, and the genus Henipavirus in the family Paramyxoviridae, circulate widely in their endemic areas, where they are transmitted by mosquitoes or ticks. They use a variety of vertebrate hosts, ranging from birds to bats, in their natural life cycle. As was discovered in the United States, the introduction of a mosquito-borne encephalitis virus such as West Nile virus can cause significant health and societal concerns. There are no effective therapeutics for treating diseases caused by any of these viruses and there is limited, if any, vaccine availability for most. In this review we provide a brief summary of the current status of animal models used to study highly pathogenic encephalitic RNA viruses for the development of antiviral therapeutics and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Holbrook
- Department of Pathology, 301 University Boulevard, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, United States.
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20
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Powers AM, Logue CH. Changing patterns of chikungunya virus: re-emergence of a zoonotic arbovirus. J Gen Virol 2007; 88:2363-2377. [PMID: 17698645 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82858-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 524] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Powers
- Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, 3150 Rampart Road, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Christopher H Logue
- Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, 3150 Rampart Road, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
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21
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Childs JE, Mackenzie JS, Richt JA. Pre-spillover prevention of emerging zoonotic diseases: what are the targets and what are the tools? Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2007; 315:389-443. [PMID: 17848073 PMCID: PMC7120954 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The uneven standards of surveillance, human- or animal-based, for zoonotic diseases or pathogens maintained and transmitted by wildlife H(R)s, or even domestic species, is a global problem, readily apparent even within the United States, where investment in public health, including surveillance systems, has a long and enviable history. As of 2006, there appears to be little scientific, social, or political consensus that animal-based surveillance for zoonoses merits investment in international infrastructure, other than the fledgling efforts with avian influenza, or targeted nontraditional avenues of surveillance and research. National institutions charged with strategic planning for emerging diseases or intentional releases of zoonotic agents have emphasized improving diagnostic capabilities for detecting human infections, modifying the immune status of human or domestic animals through vaccines, producing better antiviral or antibacterial drugs, and enhancing human-based surveillance as an early warning system. With the possible exception of extensive human vaccination, each of these approaches target post-spillover events and none of these avenues of research will have the slightest impact on reducing the risk of additional emergence of viruses or other pathogens from wildlife. Novel schemes of preventing spillover of human pathogens from animal H(R)s can only spring from improving our understanding of the ecological context and biological interactions of pathogen maintenance among H(R)s. Although the benefit derived from investments to improve surveillance and knowledge of zoonotic pathogens circulating among wildlife H(R) populations is uncertain, our experience with HIV and the looming threat of pandemic avian influenza A inform us of the outcomes we can expect by relying on detection of post-spillover events among sentinel humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E. Childs
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health and Center for Eco-Epidemiolog, Yale University School of Medicine, 60 College St, 208034, 06520-8034 New Haven, CT USA
| | - John S. Mackenzie
- Centre for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Australian Biosecurity Cooperative Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology, U1987, 6845 Perth, WA Australia
| | - Jürgen A. Richt
- Virus and Prion Diseases of Livestock Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center USDA, 2300 Dayton Ave Ames, 50010 IA USA
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22
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Samina I, Khinich Y, Simanov M, Malkinson M. An inactivated West Nile virus vaccine for domestic geese-efficacy study and a summary of 4 years of field application. Vaccine 2005; 23:4955-8. [PMID: 16023273 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2004] [Revised: 10/17/2004] [Accepted: 03/07/2005] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Following the isolation in 1997 of West Nile virus from the brains of geese with an acute neuroparalytic disease in Israel, which reappeared in the following years, an inactivated vaccine was prepared from suckling mouse brains. The brain homogenate was inactivated with formaldehyde and blended with mineral oil adjuvant. In 2000, the first flocks were vaccinated according to a schedule of two subcutaneous doses, commencing at the age of 2 weeks and given with a 2-weeks interval. In efficacy trials, the challenge virus was injected at 7 weeks by the intracranial route, and over 85% protection was recorded in vaccinated geese. In extensive field trials conducted in 2001--2003, the vaccine was demonstrated to be safe and efficacious, and over 3 million doses were manufactured in 2000--2003.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itzchak Samina
- Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 12, Beit Dagan 50250, Israel.
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23
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Sánchez MD, Pierson TC, McAllister D, Hanna SL, Puffer BA, Valentine LE, Murtadha MM, Hoxie JA, Doms RW. Characterization of neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus. Virology 2005; 336:70-82. [PMID: 15866072 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2004] [Revised: 01/30/2005] [Accepted: 02/24/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We produced nine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed against the West Nile virus E glycoprotein using three different immunization strategies: inactivated virus, naked DNA, and recombinant protein. Most of the MAbs bound to conformation dependent epitopes in domain III of the E protein. Four of the MAbs neutralized WNV infection and bound to the same region of domain III with high affinity. The neutralizing MAbs were obtained from mice immunized with inactivated virus alone or in combination with a DNA plasmid. In contrast, MAbs obtained by immunization with a soluble version of the E glycoprotein did not exhibit neutralizing activity. These non-neutralizing antibodies were cross-reactive with several other flaviviruses, including Saint Louis encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, Yellow Fever and Powassan viruses. Interestingly, some non-neutralizing MAbs bound with high affinity to domains I or III, indicating that both affinity and the precise epitope recognized by an antibody are important determinants of WNV neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa D Sánchez
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, 225 Johnson Pavilion, 3610 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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