Attitudes toward beef and vegetarians in Argentina, Brazil, France, and the USA

Beyond gender: Exploring sexual orientation, race and motivations among Brazilian flexitarians

In this study, we analyzed 989 Brazilian individuals identified as flexitarians to explore the relationship between gender, sexual orientation, and meat consumption reduction behavior, while evaluating the impact of motivations driving individuals towards this dietary model. To achieve this goal, we tested the following hypotheses: women consume less meat than men; LGBT women consume less meat than heterosexual women; LGBT men consume less meat than heterosexual men; and women are more motivated by the environmental impact of meat. Our findings revealed that although gender significantly influences motivations, with women showing a greater influence from animal ethics, flexitarians of both genders exhibit similar meat consumption patterns. Neither sexual orientation nor gender influence meat reduction patterns among flexitarians. However, the race/ethnicity of white individuals is a predominant factor among those who reduce meat consumption the most. Consequently, we conclude that (i) the social theories applied to explain gender differences in meat exclusion behavior may not be the most suitable for explaining meat reduction behavior, and (ii) intersectional approaches are needed to investigate flexitarianism.

Effects of increasing the availability of vegetarian options on main meal choices, meal offer satisfaction and liking: a pre-post analysis in a French university cafeteria

BACKGROUND

Changing the food environment is an important public health lever for encouraging sustainable food choices. Targeting the availability of vegetarian main meals served in cafeterias substantially affects food choice, but acceptability has never been assessed. We examined the effects of an availability intervention at a French university cafeteria on students' main meal choices, meal offer satisfaction and liking.

METHODS

A four-week controlled trial was conducted in a university cafeteria in Dijon, France. During the two-week control period, vegetarian main meals constituted 24% of the offer. In the subsequent two-week intervention period, this proportion increased to 48%, while all the other menu items remained unchanged. Students were not informed of the change. Student choices were tracked using production data, and daily paper ballots were used to assess student satisfaction with the meal offer and liking of the main meal they chose (score range [1;5]). Nutritional quality, environmental impact, and cost of production of meal choices were calculated for each lunchtime. Food waste was measured over 4 lunchtimes during control and intervention periods. An online questionnaire collected student feedback at the end of the study.

RESULTS

Doubling availability of vegetarian main meals significantly increased the likelihood of choosing vegetarian options (OR = 2.57, 95% CI = [2.41; 2.74]). Responses of the paper ballots (n = 18,342) indicated slight improvements in meal offer satisfaction from 4.05 ± 0.92 to 4.07 ± 0.93 (p = 0.028) and in liking from 4.09 ± 0.90 to 4.13 ± 0.92 (p < 0.001) during control and intervention periods, respectively. The end-of-study questionnaire (n = 510) revealed that only 6% of students noticed a change the availability of vegetarian main meals. The intervention led to a decrease in the environmental impact of the main meals chosen, a slight decrease in nutritional quality, a slight increase in meal costs and no change in food waste.

CONCLUSIONS

Doubling availability of vegetarian main meals in a university cafeteria resulted in a twofold increase in their selection, with students reporting being more satisfied and liking the main meals more during the intervention period. These results suggest that serving an equal proportion of vegetarian and nonvegetarian main meals could be considered in French university cafeterias to tackle environmental issues.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Study protocol and analysis plan were pre-registered on the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/pf3x7/ ).

Exploring the role of the general interest in health on the perceptions of Healthy, Industrialized, and Ultra-processed foods among Brazilians

Food processing includes operations that transform raw materials into new products, ensuring the preservation and supply of safe food; however, this view is not always understood by consumers who tend to associate any type of processing with something negative and harmful to health. Given this, the objective of this study was to explore the associations of Brazilian consumers in relation to healthy foods, industrialized foods, and ultra-processed foods, as well as to evaluate the role of socio-demographic characteristics and interest in health in these associations. To this end, 512 Brazilians completed a word association task on these three concepts and then answered a questionnaire about interest in health and socio-demographic issues. In general, participants associated "Healthy food" mainly with "Unprocessed products." Conversely, "Industrialized foods" and "Ultra-processed foods" were associated with "Processed products," "Negative perceptions," "Health harm," and "Industry". Despite this, it was found that "Industrialized foods" were also perceived positively, mainly due to convenience. Consumer associations were influenced (p ≤ 0.05) both by interest in health and by socio-demographic profile. Individuals with a high interest in health mainly associated "Industrialized foods" and "Ultra-processed foods" with the presence of preservatives, additives, and pesticides, and with diseases. As for those with low interest in health, there was a greater lack of knowledge of the concepts. Doubts and lack of knowledge were observed for "Industrialized foods" and "Ultra-processed foods," mainly among consumers with low educational level. The results indicate the need to develop communication strategies that reach consumers to facilitate understanding and, in this way, help them to make more conscious food choices.

Eating vegan due to cancer: A different social experience than other vegan dieters?

Many diagnosed with cancer change their diet in response to the diagnosis, with a vegan diet being a common choice. There may be health benefits to this, but research has demonstrated that following a vegan diet can have negative social ramifications. These social ramifications seem to be experienced to a lesser extent by those who following a vegan diet for health versus moral reasons, but this is a heterogeneous group; people may choose the diet for a myriad of different health reasons. In two pre-reregistered studies, we examined the social experience of those who adopt a vegan diet following a cancer diagnosis. Study 1, an experimental study, demonstrated that omnivores responded more positively to a friend who was vegan for cancer reasons than animal or general health reasons, which was explained by increased empathy. In Study 2, a cross-sectional survey study, those who adopted a vegan diet due to cancer reported (overall) less negative social experiences than those following a vegan diet more generally. These participants reported that cancer represented a greater social challenge than their diet. Taken together, these findings suggest that "vegan due to cancer" is a unique social identity and a unique social experience, relative to that of those motivated by other reasons, including general health reasons.

Gender and cross-country differences in the determinants of sustainable diet intentions: a multigroup analysis of the UK, China, Sweden, and Brazil

Introduction

Gender differences have been identified in both the engagement in and the determinants of sustainable diet behaviours. However, as engagement in pro-environmental behaviours varies across countries, the consistency of gender differences could follow similar patterns. Understanding the factors underlying gender and country differences in diet intentions is important for determining how to promote sustainable diets in different populations.

Methods

Using survey data from the UK, China, Sweden and Brazil (N=4,569), this paper examines the influence of subjective norms, diet-related identity, perceived status of meat consumption, environmental identity and environmental concern on sustainable diet intentions. Multigroup analysis was used to explore gender and country differences in the influence of these variables, and whether gender differences were consistent across the four countries.

Results

The findings show that there are gender differences in the influence of diet-related identity and perceived status of meat consumption, as well as cross-country differences in all factors except subjective norms. Holding a strong diet-related meat identity negatively affected sustainable diet intentions in all groups. Crucially, however, gender differences are not consistent across countries.

Discussion

These results suggest that individuals' intentions to engage in sustainable diet behaviours are influenced by nationally unique gender associations.

Differences in Portion Sizes in Brazil, France, and the USA

Portion size is recognized as a major determinant of food intake, at least over the short term, and could be related to overconsumption and obesity. In this study, we developed and evaluated a new visual measure of portion size (PS), examined whether the PS of chicken, ice cream, and soda varied among people in Brazil, France, and the USA, and tested whether PS was related to gender, body mass index, body weight, and socioeconomic status. We conducted a cross-sectional study using online convenience samples of university students (total N = 1391). Across all three foods, French personal and country PSs were significantly smaller than the other three countries. Estimated country PS was reliably larger than personal PS. Women's personal PSs were smaller than men's, but women's and men's estimates for country PS were similar. French personal and country PSs were the lowest. Some PSs had a weak but significant correlation with SES but were not significantly related to either weight or BMI. The study confirms French-American differences in personal PS and demonstrates that perceived norms correspond to individual PS.

Theory of Food: Unravelling the Lifelong Impact of Childhood Dietary Habits on Adult Food Preferences across Different Diet Groups

The study investigates the behavioral manifestations of the "Theory of Food" (ToF), a novel theoretical framework centered on the early development of food perceptions. The ToF posits that childhood experiences with food shape cognitive networks influencing adult dietary choices. Stemming from the "Theory of Mind," the ToF hypothesizes that individuals construct an associative world of food images and representations mirroring the socio-cognitive world shaped by proper theory of mind development. The study, involving 249 healthy adults, employs the Cognitive Food Preference Questionnaire (CFPQ) and the Adult Food Preference Profile (AFPP) to explore the correlation between childhood and adult food preferences across diet groups (omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans). Results reveal robust correlations in omnivores, varied patterns in vegetarians, and mixed outcomes in vegans. Notably, omnivores show correlations in grains, fast food, dairy products, vegetables, meat, soft drinks, and snack consumption. Vegetarians exhibit correlations in grains, fast food, dairy products, vegetables, snacks, and, surprisingly, meat consumption. Vegans display correlations in grains, fast food, vegetables, and snacks. The study suggests that childhood dietary habits tend to influence adult food choices, offering insights for future research in the field of theory of food (ToF).

Flexitarians in Brazil: Who are they, what do they eat, and why?

In this study, we conducted the first scientific investigation focusing on Brazilian flexitarians, aiming to characterize their socio-economic and demographic profiles, motivations for adopting flexitarianism, the frequency of animal-based meat consumption, and the primary meat substitutes they consume. To accomplish this, we distributed an online questionnaire with the assistance of university students and researchers from various regions of the country. Data were collected from 1029 individuals in Brazil who self-identified as flexitarians. Our findings reveal that the flexitarian dietary model is primarily adopted by women, constituting 76% of the sample (n = 786). Their motivations include concerns about the environmental impact of meat consumption (n = 361, 35%), personal health (n = 344, 33%), and animal welfare (n = 219, 21%). Flexitarians exhibit varying consumption patterns, which can be categorized into three groups: light flexitarians (consuming meat 36 times a week), medium flexitarians (consuming meat 7 times a week), and heavy flexitarians (consuming meat 4 times a week). The flexitarian dietary pattern is characterized by reduced beef consumption (less than 2 times per week) and higher consumption of chicken (3 times per week). It is complemented by plant-based protein sources and eggs as the primary meat substitutes. The recognition of legumes as the principal meat substitutes opens avenues for an expanded discussion on sustainable food systems and alternative meat products in Brazil. This provides opportunities to enhance the availability and accessibility of these foods and to develop nutritional interventions that prioritize plant-based proteins.

Legumes: A Vehicle for Transition to Sustainability

Legumes are an excellent source of protein and have been used in the human diet for centuries. Consumption of legumes has been linked to several health benefits, including a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and certain types of cancer, while legumes' high fiber content promotes digestive health. Aside from the positive health benefits, one of the most significant advantages of legumes is the low environmental footprint of their cultivation. They can be grown in a variety of climates and soil types, and they require less water and fertilizer than other crops, making them a sustainable option for farmers. Thanks to their nutritional and physicochemical properties, they are widely used by the food industry since the growing popularity of plant-based diets and the increasing demand for alternatives to meat offers the opportunity to develop legume-based meat substitutes. As the use of legumes as a source of protein becomes widespread, new market opportunities could be created for farmers and food industries, while the reduction in healthcare costs could have a potential economic impact. Achieving widespread adoption of legumes as a sustainable source of protein requires coordinated efforts by individuals, governments, and the private sector. The objective of this narrative review is to present the benefits coming from legume consumption in terms of health and environmental sustainability, and underline the importance of promoting their inclusion in the daily dietary pattern as well as their use as functional ingredients and plant-based alternatives to animal products.

Spontaneous verbal descriptions of vegans, non-vegan vegetarians, and omnivores and relationships between these descriptions and perceivers' diets

Participants, 672 US collegians, listed four words/terms that first came to mind when thinking of vegans, non-vegan vegetarians, and omnivores. Participants generated 1264 unique descriptors, which two sets of raters, who were blind to the source of the descriptors, rated on 10 dimensions that included the valence of the descriptors (i.e., positive, negative). A series of multilevel models in which descriptors were nested within persons, found that descriptors referring to environmental issues and health were used more frequently when describing both vegans and vegetarians than when describing omnivores. Descriptors referring to deviance, lifestyle, and politics were used more frequently when describing both vegans and vegetarians than when describing omnivores. Overall, vegans were viewed more negatively than vegetarians who were viewed more negatively than omnivores. These differences were moderated by the extent to which participants restricted meat from their diet. Those who restricted meat from their diets to a greater extent had more negative perceptions and fewer positive perceptions of omnivores, whereas they had more positive perceptions of vegans and vegetarians, and fewer positive perceptions of omnivores. The present study is the first to use spontaneous verbal reports to examine attitudes and perceptions of people based on their eating habits. The results suggest that dietary habits can serve as a basis for social identity, which in turn affects perceptions of others.

Food healthiness judgements among Brazilian and German lay adults

This study investigated which foods are most saliently judged as healthy and unhealthy in Brazil and Germany and the reasons for these judgements. Dietary guidelines in the two countries differ in that those in Brazil are based on a food processing classification rather than nutrient profiling, whereas dietary guidelines in Germany do not include the processing level of food. In an online study with 355 lay adults (Brazil n = 205, Germany n = 150), we explored which foods are listed as healthy and unhealthy using a free-listing method. The main reasons for these healthiness judgements were then identified with a one or two-word phrase and compared between countries. Saliency analysis was conducted to identify the 15 most salient healthy and unhealthy foods in each country. Principles of content analysis were used to assess the reasons why these 15 items were listed as most salient by the participants. Results showed that both Brazilians and Germans listed mostly natural or minimally processed food (e.g. fruits, vegetables, grains, fish and milk) as healthy, whereas types of convenience and fast food, sweets and other ultra-processed foods (e.g. chocolate, soda, French fries, pizza and hamburger) were the most salient unhealthy items listed in both countries. Differences in culturally relevant items listed in each country are discussed. Further, in both countries, despite differences in their dietary guidelines, food healthiness judgements for the most salient items listed relied heavily on the nutritional content of food, reinforced the 'good/healthy' and 'bad/unhealthy' dichotomy, and were centred on benefits or harms to the body (e.g. prevention or cause of diseases and weight control). The similarity of food healthiness judgements between the two countries, together with their agreement with conventional health claims and dietary guidelines, suggest that lay Brazilian and German adults are knowledgeable about the general concepts of 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' food. Finally, these findings suggest that rather than just providing more nutritional information, policymakers and health professionals need to take into account the multiple psychosocial and environmental determinants of eating in these countries.

Methods to assess ambivalence towards food and diet: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Ambivalence towards food and diet, which favours behavioural inertia, might be a barrier to adopting healthier eating behaviours. Measuring it can help researchers to better understand its relationship with behaviour change and design interventions aimed at resolving it. In this scoping review, we map and describe methods and tools employed in studies to assess, measure or classify the ambivalence of participants towards food- and diet-related attitude objects.

METHODS

In accordance with Joanna Briggs Institute guidance for conducting scoping reviews, we retrieved peer-reviewed studies from MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, FSTA and Food Science Source and preprints from PsyArXiv and MedRxiv. Two independent reviewers screened the articles. We considered for inclusion peer-reviewed studies and preprints that assessed the ambivalence of participants of any age, sex or sociodemographic group towards food and diet.

RESULTS

We included 45 studies published between 1992 and 2022, which included participants from 17 countries. Eighteen methods were employed across the included studies to assess different types of ambivalence (felt, potential or cognitive-affective), the most frequent of which were the Griffin Index, the Subjective Ambivalence Questionnaire, the MouseTracker Paradigm and the Orientation to Chocolate Questionnaire.

CONCLUSION

This scoping review identified several methods and tools to assess different types of ambivalence towards food- and diet-related objects, providing an array of options for future studies.

Dimensions of food-related wellbeing and their relative importance among New Zealand consumers: A quasi-replication and extension approach

Research into perceived wellbeing (WB) can improve understanding of consumer food choices and support development of strategies to promote healthier and more sustainable eating habits. In this research, using online studies, food-related WB was explored among New Zealand consumers. In a "quasi-replication" of Jaeger, Prescott, and Worch (2022), Study 1 uncovered word associations to different WB-related terms ('Sense of wellbeing,' 'Lack of wellbeing,' 'Feeling good,' 'Feeling bad/unhappy,' 'Satisfied with life,' and 'Dissatisfied with life') with 912 participants in a between-subjects design. The results confirmed the multidimensional nature of WB, and the need to consider positive and negative aspects of food-related WB, as well as differences linked to physical, emotional, and spiritual WB. Drawing on Study 1, 13 characteristics of food-related WB were identified, and in Study 2 their importance for feeling a 'Sense of wellbeing' and 'Satisfied with life' was determined with 1206 participants using a between-subjects design. In a further extension, Study 2 also adopted a product-specific perspective and explored the associations of, and importance, for 16 different foods and beverages to food-related WB. Based on Best-Worst Scaling and penalty/lift analysis, the four most important characteristics overall were 'Is good quality,' 'Is healthy,' 'Is fresh,' and 'Is tasty,' with the nuance that healthiness contributed most to feeling a 'Sense of wellbeing' while good quality contributed most to feeling 'Satisfied with life.' The associations to individual foods and beverages underscored that food-related WB is a complex construct arising from an overall evaluation of the different effects of foods (including physical health, social and spiritual aspects of food consumption) and their short-term effects on food-related behaviour. Contextual and individual differences in perceptions of WB in relation to food deserve further investigation.

Forty-five years of research on vegetarianism and veganism: A systematic and comprehensive literature review of quantitative studies

Meat production and consumption are sources of animal cruelty, responsible for several environmental problems and human health diseases, and contribute to social inequality. Vegetarianism and veganism (VEG) are two alternatives that align with calls for a transition to more ethical, sustainable, and healthier lifestyles. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review of 307 quantitative studies on VEG (from 1978 to 2023), collected from the Web of Science in the categories of psychology, behavioral science, social science, and consumer behavior. For a holistic view of the literature and to capture its multiple angles, we articulated our objectives by responding to the variables of "WHEN," "WHERE," "WHO," "WHAT," "WHY," "WHICH," and "HOW" (6W1H) regarding the VEG research. Our review highlighted that quantitative research on VEG has experienced exponential growth with an unbalanced geographical focus, accompanied by an increasing richness but also great complexity in the understating of the VEG phenomenon. The systematic literature review found different approaches from which the authors studied VEG while identifying methodological limitations. Additionally, our research provided a systematic view of factors studied on VEG and the variables associated with VEG-related behavior change. Accordingly, this study contributes to the literature in the field of VEG by mapping the most recent trends and gaps in research, clarifying existing findings, and suggesting directions for future research.

Knowledge, attitudes, and factors associated with vegetarianism in the Saudi Population

BACKGROUND

In recent years, there has been great interest in the dietary practices of vegetarians in addition to an increasing awareness of the potential benefits of vegetarian diets. However, there are insufficient data on the spread of vegetarianism in Arab countries. The aim of this study was to investigate knowledge and attitudes about vegetarianism and associated factors in the Saudi population and to understand the reasons for its growing prevalence.

METHOD

This is a cross-sectional study began in May 2020 and ended in September 2020. Researchers distributed the questionnaire electronically through social media. Data were collected electronically and exported to Excel by the researchers .The electronic questionnaire comprised three sections: sociodemographic questions, reasons for following a vegetarian diet, and beliefs and knowledge about vegetarianism.

RESULTS

There were 3,035 responses, of which 80.2% of respondents were female and 19.8% were male. Participant were aged 18-65. Vegetarians represented 37.5% (15.7% semivegetarians, 8.1% pescovegetarians, 64.3% lacto-ovo-vegetarians, and 11.3% vegans), and the rest were nonvegetarians. The majority of the vegetarian participants (92.9%) had a low vegetarianism knowledge level. Health issues, followed by ethical and environmental concerns, were the most common motivators for adopting a vegetarian diet; these reasons were cited by 72.5%, 59.3%, and 47.9% of participants, respectively. Factors associated with increased vegetarianism were engaging in exercise for half an hour to two hours, while factors associated with decreased vegetarianism were male, aged 51-64 years, being married, having a higher education, working in the health sector, being a housewife, and having an income between 5,000 and 10,000 SR/month.

CONCLUSION

Vegetarianism appears to be a growing phenomenon among the Saudi population. Increased awareness of health issues and the desire to live a healthy lifestyle might be the strongest motives. This study offers an opportunity to better understand vegetarianism in Saudi Arabia along with the possibility of expanding vegetarian food choices for the general public.

Perceptions of Food among College Students in the Field of Food Science: A Food Sustainability Approach

The complex concept of food sustainability has become crucial in all spheres of life. Dietitians, food scientists, and technologists are in a unique position to promote sustainability in food systems. However, the perceptions of food sustainability among food science professionals and college students are under-researched, particularly in Spain. The aim of this study was therefore to analyze perceptions related to food and to food sustainability in a sample of Human Nutrition and Dietetics (HND) and Food Science and Technology (FST) students in Barcelona (Spain). An exploratory and descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out using qualitative and quantitative methodology and convenience sampling. Two focus groups and an online questionnaire were conducted (300 participants completed the survey, 151 from HND and 149 from FST). Although the students expressed concern about food sustainability, their dietary choices were primarily associated with or influenced by taste/pleasure and health/nutrition. The issue of sustainability seemed more internalized by women than men, whereas the generalized conception of a sustainable diet was essentially based on environmental aspects, with socioeconomic dimensions largely overlooked. The concept of sustainability should be promoted among food science students in all its multidimensionality, and actions need to be implemented that bring sustainability closer to students' social practices, which should be incorporated into all university education and that is taught by professors duly trained in the subject.

Dietary Habits and Lifestyle, Including Cardiovascular Risk among Vegetarians and Omnivores during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Polish Population

Background: This study assessed how two food groups—omnivores (OMN) and vegetarians (VEGE)—differ in lifestyle changes, including dietary habits during the COVID-19 pandemic. Materials: A total of 861 persons participated in the survey and were divided into two groups: persons following a mixed diet (n = 489) and vegetarians, including vegans (n = 372). The mean age shows no significant differences. Methods: An online survey was conducted on the Polish population during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data was collected using social media; the survey was intended for adults and included separate sheets for different diets (OMN vs. VEGE). Results: The results in both groups were similar regarding the burden of premature diseases. Most respondents (~90%) did not indicate cardiovascular disease abnormalities. In the OMN group, overweight and obesity occurred more often, and the OMN group also showed a higher percentage of people reporting weight gain (OMN 42.7% vs. VEGE 35.9%). The results disclosed the VEGE group significantly more frequently chose products, i.e., vegetables (p = 0.029), legumes (p < 0.001), and dairy products or their plant substitutes (p = 0.002), compared to the OMN group. Conclusions: The VEGE group revealed the most regularities in dietary habits during the pandemic.

Legumes or Meat? The Effectiveness of Recommendation Messages towards a Plant-Based Diet Depends on People's Identification with Flexitarians

In the present research, we analyzed how to promote a plant-based diet by involving 428 volunteers in a 2-week mobile app intervention. We compared messages promoting the addition of legumes versus messages promoting the replacement of meat with legumes. Messages were either combined or not combined with dynamic norms (i.e., information that more and more people are enacting the behavior). We compared these messages with a control condition (i.e., no message intervention) and we also analyzed the moderation effect of receivers' identification with flexitarians (i.e., people who occasionally eat animal products) and attitudes towards them. In the short term, addition messages increased legume consumption more than replacement messages, especially in people with a negative evaluation of flexitarians and low identification with them. In the long term, increased legume consumption was recorded only when addition messages were combined with dynamic norms. As for meat consumption, the replacement messages were more effective in reducing it in the short term than in the long term, especially in people with positive attitudes towards flexitarians. However, replacement messages combined with dynamic norms were more effective in the long term than in the short term. These results advance our comprehension of how to tailor dietary messages.

Ideological resistance to veg*n advocacy: An identity-based motivational account

Animal-based diets in Western countries are increasingly regarded as unsustainable because of their impact on human health, environmental and animal welfare. Promoting shifts toward more plant-based diets seems an effective way to avoid these harms in practice. Nevertheless, claims against the consumption of animal products contradict the ideology of the omnivorous majority known as carnism. Carnism supports animal-product consumption as a cherished social habit that is harmless and unavoidable and invalidates minorities with plant-based diets: vegetarians and vegans (veg*ns). In this theoretical review, we integrate socio-psychological and empirical literature to provide an identity-based motivational account of ideological resistance to veg*n advocacy. Advocates who argue against the consumption of animal products often make claims that it is harmful, and avoidable by making dietary changes toward veg*n diets. In response, omnivores are likely to experience a simultaneous threat to their moral identity and their identity as consumer of animal products, which may arouse motivations to rationalize animal-product consumption and to obscure harms. If omnivores engage in such motivated reasoning and motivated ignorance, this may also inform negative stereotyping and stigmatization of veg*n advocates. These "pro-carnist" and "counter-veg*n" defenses can be linked with various personal and social motivations to eat animal products (e.g., meat attachment, gender, speciesism) and reinforce commitment to and ambivalence about eating animal products. This does not mean, however, that veg*n advocates cannot exert any influence. An apparent resistance may mask indirect and private acceptance of advocates' claims, priming commitment to change behavior toward veg*n diets often at a later point in time. Based on our theoretical account, we provide directions for future research.

Intergroup attitudes between meat-eaters and meat-avoiders: The role of dietary ingroup identification

Why might some meat-eaters and meat-avoiders express negative attitudes toward each other? We investigated intergroup attitudes and potential underpinnings of these attitudes across three different dietary groups—veg*ans (vegetarians and vegans), flexitarians (people who restrict their meat intake partially), and meat-eaters—in Turkey ( NStudy 1 = 366; NStudy 2 = 450). In both studies, veg*ans showed the greatest ingroup favouritism and reported the highest ingroup identification and perceived discrimination. Meat enjoyment, moral consideration, and perceived veg*an threat (among meat-eaters) predicted dietary ingroup identification in Study 1, whereas perceived discrimination towards one’s dietary group was the strongest predictor of identification among all dietary groups in Study 2. Among meat-avoiders, but not among meat-eaters, stronger dietary ingroup identification was associated with more negative outgroup attitudes. Findings are discussed in light of social identity theories and intergroup perspectives.

'Against the cult of veganism': Unpacking the social psychology and ideology of anti-vegans

Despite the established health and ecological benefits of a plant-based diet, the decision to eschew meat and other animal-derived food products remains controversial. So polarising is this topic that anti-vegan communities - groups of individuals who stand vehemently against veganism - have sprung up across the internet. Much scholarship on veganism characterizes anti-vegans in passing, painting them as ill-informed, uneducated, or simply obstinate. However, little empirical work has investigated these communities and the individuals within them. Accordingly, we conducted a study using social media data from the popular platform, Reddit. Specifically, we collected all available submissions (∼3523) and comments (∼45,528) from r/AntiVegan subreddit users (N = 3819) over a five-year period. Using a battery of computerized text analytic tools, we examined the psychosocial characteristics of Reddit users who publicly identify as anti-vegan, how r/AntiVegan users discuss their beliefs, and how the individual user changes as a function of community membership. Results from our analyses suggest several individual differences that align r/AntiVegan users with the community, including dark entertainment, ex-veganism and science denial. Several topics were extensively discussed by r/AntiVegan members, including nuanced discourse on the ethicality and health implications of vegan diets, and the naturalness of animal death, which ran counter to our expectations and lay stereotypes of r/AntiVegan users. Finally, several longitudinal changes in language use were observed within the community, reflecting enhanced group commitment over time, including an increase in group-focused language and a decrease in cognitive processing. Implications for vegan-nonvegan relations are discussed.

Animal rights, environment, or health? Effects of argument type and dissonance on the attitudes toward the consumption of animals

The scientific literature and advocacy organisations highlight three harm-related arguments as paramount reasons for the reduction and cessation of the consumption of animal-derived products (ADP) - violence toward animals, damage to the environment, and human health. However, research on their comparative effects is scarce and there is no clear definition of which type of argument is the most effective in restricting ADP consumption. Based on cognitive dissonance theory, this study aimed to investigate the effects of these types of arguments on meat-eaters' attitudes and beliefs toward the propositions of reducing and ceasing ADP consumption. The study sample comprised 545 Brazilian adults. We adopted an experimental between-subjects design based on the presentation of vignettes. Each participant responded to one of the vignettes (animal rights, environmental, or health arguments) or a control condition. Results showed that greater levels of ADP-related dissonance provoked greater positive attitudes toward the reduction and cessation of ADP consumption. Compared to baseline, the animal rights and environmental messages significantly increased dissonance and positive attitudes toward ADP restriction, but not the health argument. Participants most frequently adopted the dissonance-management strategies of denial of responsibility, denial of harm, and the articulation of beliefs favourable to change. The discussion highlights that the different effects of social influence contexts and argument types depend on their capacity to reveal ADP consumption as morally problematic behaviour. To our knowledge, this is the first study to experimentally compare the effects of animal rights, environmental and health-related arguments in generating ADP-related dissonance and attitude change.

Brazilians' attitudes to meat consumption and production: Present and future challenges to the sustainability of the meat industry

Brazil is a main global producer, exporter, and consumer of farm animal products. Information about the knowledge and attitudes of Brazilian citizens and consumers towards the different dimensions of meat production sustainability can support policy discussions and guide the industry to adopt production systems compatible with societal expectations. Here we provide a historical, social, and economic overview of meat production and consumption in Brazil, review the scientific literature on Brazilian public attitudes towards meat production and consumption, and discuss some actions Brazil is taking to develop more sustainable production systems. We show that Brazilians expect affordable meat products with high organoleptic, sanitary, nutritional qualities and produced under high ethical standards. The pace of discussions and changes in policies and in meat production systems needs to accelerate to follow domestic and international demands and the changes in ethical expectations of society. Constructive dialogue between all interested stakeholders, including citizens and consumers, needs to be fostered to design more sustainable meat production systems.

Meating Conflict: Toward a Model of Ambivalence-Motivated Reduction of Meat Consumption

An increasing number of people are concerned about eating meat, despite enjoying doing so. In the present research, we examined whether the desire to resolve this ambivalence about eating meat leads to a reduction in meat consumption. Our model of ambivalence-motivated meat reduction proposes that the pervasive nature of evaluative conflict motivates meat avoidance, and we highlight two potential mechanisms involved: the anticipation of ambivalence reduction through behavioral change, and information seeking for contents that facilitate meat reduction. Study 1 drew on a cross-sectional 6-day food diary with 7485 observations in a quota sample to investigate why meat-related ambivalence arises and to demonstrate the correlation of ambivalence with meat reduction. Two experiments investigated the causal direction of this association by showing that ambivalence-induced discomfort motivated participants to eat less meat when they introspected on their preexisting incongruent evaluations (Study 2 and 3), which was mediated by the aforementioned mechanisms involved (Study 3; preregistered). The studies utilized diverse samples from Germany, England, and the US (total N = 1192) and support the proposed model by indicating that behavioral change is an important coping strategy to resolve ambivalent discomfort in the context of meat consumption. Our model of ambivalence-motivated meat reduction contributes to theorizing on the consequences of ambivalence and the psychology of (not) eating meat.

What determines omnivores' meat consumption and their willingness to reduce the amount of meat they eat?

Background: Some meat eaters are faced with a dilemma: they like to eat meat, but they are also concerned about animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production, and health risks associated with meat consumption. Aim We investigated the interrelationship between 'meat attachment' (people's affective connection towards meat) and the '4Ns' (four defence arguments omnivores use to justify their meat consumption: eating meat is normal, necessary, nice, and natural), two constructs often used by researchers to measure omnivores justifications for meat consumption. Second, we compared the predictive power of both constructs on omnivores' (willingness to reduce) meat consumption in a regression model that also included age, gender, educational level, financial status, and participants' beliefs concerning environmental, ethical and health issues of eating meat. Methods: In total 203 Belgian omnivores (47.4% men) completed an online questionnaire in February 2020. Their ages ranged from 18 to 55 (M = 23.57, SD = 4.64). Results: Results indicate that the correlations between the different dimensions of 'meat attachment' and the 4Ns are significantly positive (p < 0.001). A comparison of the predictive power of both constructs on omnivores' (willingness to reduce) meat consumption showed that the 'meat attachment' construct performs statistically better than the 4Ns construct. In addition, omnivores' beliefs concerning the ethical implications of eating meat are also an important predictor in their meat consumption, whereas environmental and health related aspects are not. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that national health campaigns warning about the health risks of excessive meat consumption might be less effective than health campaigns focussing on the ethical issues associated with meat eating.

Eating green for health or social benefits? Interactions of attitudes with self-identity on the consumption of vegetarian meals among U.S. and Chinese college students

Encouraging greater consumption of vegetarian foods could be a strategy to improve plant-based food intake among non-vegetarians. Prior research on vegetarianism has focused mostly on people's motivations to be a vegetarian. However, the factors that motivate non-vegetarians to consume vegetarian meals remain largely unknown. The current research tested associations between attitudes, self-identity, and vegetarian meal consumption among 746 U.S. college students and 484 Chinese college students. Two types of attitudes were assessed: attitudes towards vegetarian food (ATF), which represents the personal benefits (including healthiness, tastiness, and enjoyableness) and attitudes towards people who are vegetarians (ATP), which represents the social benefits (perceived as being environmentally friendly, nice, and good-looking). Results showed that U.S. college students were more likely to be either vegetarians or non-vegetarians, while more Chinese college students tended to report being semi-vegetarians. In both samples, ATF and ATP were positively associated with self-identity and vegetarian meal consumption. Moderation analyses suggested that associations between attitudes and consumption were significant only among people who do not hold a definite self-identity as a vegetarian. In addition, ATP was significantly associated with vegetarian meal consumption among U.S. non- and semi-vegetarians alike, but among Chinese non-vegetarians only. These findings suggest that self-identity and cross-cultural differences are important to consider in promoting consumption of vegetarian meals through improving the public's attitudes towards vegetarian food and vegetarians.

Vegetarian diet and depression scores: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several studies have suggested an association between vegetarian diet and higher depression scores. However, some studies have also shown an effect in the opposite direction, indicating lower depression scores in vegetarians. Given this discrepancy in the literature, this meta-analysis was aimed to determine whether there is a significant association between vegetarian diet and depression scores across different published studies.

METHODS

A keyword search in major databases was conducted. Studies reporting depression scores in vegetarians and a non-vegetarian control group were included. Meta-analysis following a conditional random-effects procedure was conducted in R.

RESULTS

After duplicates were removed and studies were analyzed for inclusion criteria, k=13 studies with an overall n of 49889 participants (8057 vegetarians and 41832 non-vegetarian controls) were included in the analysis. Random-effects meta-analysis revealed a significant difference between vegetarians and non-vegetarians, with vegetarians showing higher depression scores than non-vegetarians.

LIMITATIONS

The heterogeneity between studies was high and geographical variation in study location was low, limiting cross-cultural insights.

CONCLUSIONS

Vegetarians show higher depression scores than non-vegetarians. However, due to high heterogeneity of published studies, more empirical research is needed before any final conclusions can be drawn. Also, empirical studies from a higher number of different countries would be desirable.

Dietary behaviour as a form of collective action: A social identity model of vegan activism

Adopting plant-based, or vegan, diets can have a number of benefits, including mitigating climate change, promoting animal welfare, or improving public health. In the current research, we use social psychological theory to better understand what motivates vegans to engage in collective action on behalf of this social group - that is, what motivates individuals to promote, or encourage others to adopt, a vegan lifestyle. We develop and test a Social Identity Model of Vegan Activism, which highlights the roles of individuals' social identities, sense of efficacy, emotions and moral convictions in fostering collective action. In two pre-registered studies, the first with self-identified vegans from Australia and the UK (N = 351), and the second with self-identified vegans from the UK and the US (N = 340), we found that individuals more frequently engaged in vegan activism (i.e., actions to promote vegan lifestyles) when they had stronger moral convictions (i.e., deontological or consequentialist), greater collective efficacy (i.e., beliefs that vegans can make a positive difference), anger (i.e., when thinking about the reasons why they are vegan), and identification (both with vegans, and with animals). Deontological and consequentialist moral convictions had significant indirect effects on vegan activism via different mediators. We conclude by discussing the implications and importance of studying dietary behavior from a social identity perspective, including its ability to help explain how and why individuals become motivated to not only adopt a certain (e.g., vegan) lifestyle themselves, but to also 'act collectively' on behalf of that shared group membership (e.g., promote vegan-friendly behaviors). We also highlight some key insights for policy makers and campaigners aiming to promote plant-based diets.

What Influences the Sustainable Food Consumption Behaviours of University Students? A Systematic Review

Objectives: Global environmental challenges demand sustainable behaviours and policies to protect human and planetary health. We aimed to summarize the evidence about the factors related to Sustainable Food Consumption (SFC) behaviours of university students, and to propose an operational categorization of SFC behaviours.

Methods: Seven databases were searched for observational studies evaluating Sustainable Food Consumption (SFC) among university students and that reported at least one behavioural outcome measure. Qualitative synthesis was conducted, and PRISMA guidelines for reporting were followed.

Results: Out of 4,479 unique references identified, 40 studies were selected. All studies examined personal factors, while 11 out of 40 also measured social or situational factors. Except for food waste, females had higher levels of SFC behaviours, but situational factors moderated this association. Knowledge and attitudes showed mixed results. Overall, sustainable food consumers reported healthier lifestyles.

Conclusions: Healthy lifestyle of sustainable food consumers suggests possible synergies between human health and sustainability in terms of motivations for food choice. Moderation effects of social and situational factors on personal factors reveal opportunities to design and examine the effects of choice architecture interventions.

Free word association perceptions of red meats; beef is 'yummy', bison is 'lean game meat', horse is 'off limits'

Reduced consumption of conventional red meats due to environmental and health concerns may create interest in less familiar red meats from alternative animal species. The objective of this study was to identify perceptions of three red meats; beef, a familiar meat, and bison and horse meat, less familiar red meat alternatives. A total of 145 western Canadian participants completed an on-line survey that included a free word association task, food variety seeking and food involvement scales, and meat consumption and demographic questions. The free word association yielded 41 word categories of diverging perceptions of the 3 meats. Beef was described with positive sensory attributes and well-liked foods, yet with environmental, ethical and production concerns, reflecting the 'meat eaters' paradox'. Bison was perceived as a lean game meat, suggesting a lack of awareness of current bison production and retail availability. Horse meat was unfamiliar to 80% of the participants. Horse meat was acknowledged to be consumed in other regions, however as a companion animal and pet, the dominant perception of horse meat was that it was unacceptable for eating. Participants were clustered into four groups based on the combined food-related personality traits of variety seeking and food involvement. The high food involvement cluster associated bison with positive eating quality attributes and may be amenable to its consumption when provided with accurate information about bison production.

Color and Marbling as Predictors of Meat Quality Perception of Argentinian Consumers

In Argentina, color and intramuscular fat are the main attributes of raw beef quality; however, it is necessary to clarify how consumers use them, in order to establish different marketing strategies. Consumer preferences are affected by multiple factors. Thus, the objective of the present study was to identify the Argentinian consumer's choice behavior regarding beef color and fat content. An online survey was carried out in Argentina. It inquired about socio-demographic characteristics, purchase and consumption habits and beliefs, showing pictures related to color, marbling and the amount of fat. Choice behavior was evaluated by asking why consumers chose a particular picture out of the ones shown. Several Kruskal-Wallis tests evaluated the different hypotheses. Three different decision trees using the CHAID analysis method were created. Multifactorial analysis was carried out for clustering consumers. Regarding consumer beliefs, 90% of the respondents agreed with the sentence, "The two main characteristics defining beef quality at purchase time are meat color and marbling". Socio-demographic characteristics affected purchase habits and beliefs; they also affected perceptions about meat color and marbling. It was possible to build three consumer groups for future marketing strategies: "hedonic" focused on a pleasing sensory experience, "appearance" prioritized the visual aspects, and the "health-conscious" consumers were interested in their healthy nutrition.

Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains

Vegetarianism has gained more visibility in recent years. Despite the well-described effects of a vegetarian diet on health, its influence on the quality of life of the individuals who follow it still needs to be properly investigated. Quality of life relates to a subjective perception of well-being and functionality, and encompasses four main life domains: physical, psychological, social, and environmental. The adoption of a vegetarian diet, despite being a dietary pattern, could potentially influence and be influenced by all of these domains, either positively or negatively. This review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features, and potential effects of vegetarianism in all quality of life domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet could have positive outcomes, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community), and lower environmental impact. Other factors, however, could have a negative impact on the quality of life of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products, especially when they go beyond one's control. These include the environment, the social/cultural group in which a person is inserted, gender-based differences, economic aspects, and a limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet-beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it.

Tensions within and between vegans and vegetarians: Meat-free motivations matter

Under the superordinate umbrella of "veg*n", vegans and vegetarians share a disavowal of meat consumption but differ regarding the use of animal products and by-products. Furthermore, within each subgroup there exist multiple motivations (or reasons) for diet choice, some with more moral overtones than others. Despite being on the same "team" relative to the meat-eating majority, there is tremendous potential for expressions of subgroup distinctiveness and tension. In an online sample of veg*ns, we asked participants to report on views of and experiences with veg*ns, including separately evaluating vegans and vegetarians for animal, environmental, health, or religious reasons (i.e., 8 groups). Overall vegan (vs. vegetarian) participants expressed more subgroup bias, with vegans consistently preferred over vegetarians. Both vegans and vegetarians preferred veg*ns with "ethical" motivations (animal or environmental), and reported negative experiences with their subgroup outgroups (i.e., vegetarians and vegans, respectively). Problematically, in terms of group cohesion, vegetarians reported elevated anxiety and vigilance in their interactions with animal vegans especially. Overall the results suggest that, despite sharing a superordinate category and goal, and despite recent calls for veg*nism to become a more inclusive and wider tent, substantial tensions exist that can disrupt group cohesion and productivity.

Plant-based dietary practices in Canada: examining definitions, prevalence and correlates of animal source food exclusions using nationally representative data from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition

OBJECTIVE

While plant-based dietary practices (PBDPs) have been recommended to improve both population health and environmental sustainability outcomes, no nationally representative Canadian studies have described the prevalence or correlates of excluding animal source foods. The current study therefore: (1) created operationalised definitions of PBDPs based on animal source food exclusions to estimate the prevalence of Canadians who adhere to PBDPs and (2) examined key correlates of PBDPs.

DESIGN

Population representative, cross-sectional data were from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition. Respondents' PBDPs were categorised as: (1) vegan (excluded red meat, poultry, fish, eggs and dairy); (2) vegetarian (excluded red meat, poultry and fish); (3) pescatarian (excluded red meat and poultry) and (4) red meat excluder (excluded red meat). Descriptive statistics and multivariable regression analyses were used to examine the prevalence and correlates of these PBDP categories.

SETTING

All ten provinces in Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Canadians aged 2 years and above (n 20 477).

RESULTS

In 2015, approximately 5 % of Canadians reported adhering to any PBDP (all categories combined) with the majority (2·8 %) categorised as a red meat excluder, 1·3 % as vegetarian, 0·7 % as pescatarian and 0·3 % as vegan. South Asian cultural identity (OR 19·70 (95 % CI 9·53, 40·69)) and higher educational attainment (OR 1·97 (95 % CI 1·02, 3·80)) were significantly associated with reporting a vegetarian/vegan PBDP.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite growing public discourse around PBDPs, only 5 % of Canadians reported PBDPs in 2015. Understanding the social and cultural factors that influence PBDPs is valuable for informing future strategies to promote environmentally sustainable dietary practices.

Who gives a veg? Relations between personality and Vegetarianism/Veganism

With rates of vegetarianism and veganism (i.e., veg*nism) rising around the world, a growing body of research has begun to explore psychological characteristics that distinguish vegetarians and vegans from omnivores. However, relatively few studies have examined how veg*nism is related to differences in basic personality traits such as the "Big Five", with those that have tending to yield conflicting results. Moreover, none of these studies have examined personality at the lower levels of the personality trait hierarchy (i.e., aspects and facets of the Big Five). Thus, we sought to clarify how personality traits are related to veg*nism. In Study 1, comprising two samples (S1a: N = 797, S1b: N = 1534), participants were categorised as Veg*n vs Restricted-omnivore vs Omnivore, and completed personality questionnaires at the domain and aspect levels of the Big Five. In Study 2, participants (N = 562) completed both categorical and continuous measures of veg*nism, along with personality questionnaires at the domain, aspect, and facet levels. Across both studies, we found that people who scored higher on traits within the openness/intellect and agreeableness domains most consistently reported higher levels of veg*nism. Patterns in the data also suggested that the relation between personality and veg*nism might depend on the way veg*nism is measured. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Vegetarian and omnivorous diets: A cross-sectional study of motivation, eating disorders, and body shape perception

Vegetarianism, which is increasingly widespread in Western societies, is underpinned by various motivations (ethical, environmental, health concerns …) and the question of its association with eating disorders continues to divide the literature. This cross-sectional study aimed to explore and compare eating motives/attitudes and bodily preoccupations of vegetarian and omnivorous participants from the general population. Forty-nine vegetarians and 52 omnivores, aged between 18 and 70 years, completed a battery of questionnaires including sociodemographic characteristics, Body Mass Indexes (BMI - current, ideal, lifetime lowest, and lifetime highest), the Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ), the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26), and the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ). Compared to omnivores, vegetarians reported lower current (p = .017), ideal (p = .009), and lifetime lowest (p = .005) BMIs, more motivations related to health (p = .001) and natural content (p < .0001), but less weight control motivations (p = .015). While no differences were observed in EAT-26 scores, vegetarians had lower BSQ total scores (p = .043), and lower scores on the Body Dissatisfaction related to Lower body parts (p = .025) and Unsuited Cognitions and Behaviors (p = .015) subscales compared to omnivores. Separate gender comparisons revealed that these differences existed only among women. Hierarchical regressions revealed that the natural content motivation was the strongest positive statistical predictor of the vegetarian group (Expβ = 1.18, p = .002), while the weight control motivation was a negative statistical predictor (Expβ = .710, p = .023). Results demonstrated that vegetarians expressed motivation for a healthy and natural diet, and were less concerned about controlling their weight than the omnivores. Vegetarian women had lower BMIs but expressed fewer psychological concerns associated with eating disorders than omnivorous women. Vegetarian diets appeared to be associated with health benefits and less body and weight concerns, particularly among women in the general population.

You can learn a lot about religion from food

Religions' food practices can illustrate a lot about religions, and can raise new research questions. I will give examples of ways in which religious food practices are reflections of broader religious ideals. Foods contain essences and are religiously symbolic; foods are a window into how people understand the necessity to obey God; food practices relate to health outcomes; and food practices reflect and inculcate social structures and worldviews. The article will go on to consider some broader questions raised including the origins and cultural evolution of food rules, and how food practices relate to group differences and individual differences.

Gender Differences in Attitudes to Vegans/Vegetarians and Their Food Preferences, and Their Implications for Promoting Sustainable Dietary Patterns–A Systematic Review

Limiting meat consumption has recently become one of the key issues linked to public health and environmental sustainability. This is reflected in the strong emphasis on increasing promotion of plant-based nutritional styles, such as vegan and vegetarian diets. Vegan/vegetarian diets appeal to certain demographic groups more than to others. The most striking difference, however, is found between the sexes. Men and women differ in their preferences for plant products and in their attitudes to meat consumption. There are also differences between their motivations to start and/or follow a vegan/vegetarian diet. Major differences have also been observed in men’s and women’s attitudes towards people following plant-based diets. Vegetarian diets are generally considered to be less masculine than meat-based diets, and omnivores exhibit more prejudice against vegetarian men than women. This study follows the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) systematic literature review model. The Web of Science and PubMed databases were searched (up to January 2020) to identify studies, which analysed variables directly or indirectly related to inter-sex differences with regard to the vegan/vegetarian diet. After the screening process based on the relevance and quality criteria, 29 articles were included in the study. The purpose of this review is to raise awareness of these gender differences, not only as regards social perceptions, but also in terms of individual attitudes to vegetarian/vegan diets. Ignoring those differences hinders the promotion of plant-based diets and may explain the relatively meager success of previous efforts to promote sustainable nutritional styles.

Plant-based food and protein trend from a business perspective: markets, consumers, and the challenges and opportunities in the future

The food sector is increasingly turning toward sustainability issues. A sustainable food system should provide sufficient, nutritious food for all within limited natural resources. Plant-based food and proteins are a recent, growing trend setting out to contribute to this challenge. However, food industry stakeholders need to be aware of the challenges and opportunities. This paper reviews the trend from a business perspective. It outlines the global drivers, market trends, market data observations, and consumer behavior factors of relevance, and pinpoints the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) for food sector companies. Findings suggest that the policy and market context is favorable in the near future, but that consumer beliefs, perception and understanding has to change further for the business opportunity to grow on a larger scale. More innovations are needed, in particular in the direction of meat-replacements that are healthy as well as clean label.

Consumer Moral Dilemma in the Choice of Animal-Friendly Meat Products

More and more consumers, at least in Western developed countries, are attentive to the sustainability aspects of their food, one of which concerns animal welfare. The conflict of harming an animal for the joy of eating meat causes a moral dilemma, affecting consumers’ reactions to, and choices of, animal-friendly products. This systematic review identified 86 studies from Scopus and Web of Science. The review outlines: (1) What are the personal antecedents among consumers regarding moral conflicts?; (2) In what situation do moral conflicts occur in consumer food choice?; (3) How do consumers emotionally experience the moral dilemma?; (4) How do consumers resolve moral conflicts over animal products? Researchers have studied personal factors and situational factors that arouse consumers’ moral dilemma and how the dilemma is solved, during which emotions and dissonance come into play. When synthesizing these findings into a comprehensive model, we notice that the current research is lacking on how personal factors change and interact with situations, which limits the understanding of the real-life context of consumers’ moral dilemma as well as their choices of animal-friendly products. More in-depth studies are needed to find situational factors that contribute to this complex psychological process.

Signs and strategies to deal with food insecurity and consumption of ultra-processed foods among Amazonian mothers

Although food insecurity configures a public health issue in developing countries going through nutrition transition, there is still lack of evidence on how it is affected by social determinants and its relationship with ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption. Using qualitative methods, we investigated the experience of food (in)security among mothers living in the Brazilian Amazon area, identifying aspects of food insecurity promoting UPF consumption. In-depth interviews were performed with 40 women and inductive content analysis was used. Signs of food insecurity included difficulties in food affordability and irregular access to food. Strategies to deal with lack of food quantity took place during food production (growing foods and raising animals), acquisition (gaining food, shopping incentives and food substitutions) and preparation (creativity in cooking). Not being able to afford staple foods was the main aspect of food insecurity promoting UPF consumption, as fresh foods were substituted by UFP options. Our study contributes to the current literature by presenting explanatory insights about the inconclusive quantitative results on the relationship between food insecurity and UPF consumption. Additionally, it supports the need of policies and interventions focused on promoting sustainable food systems and the regional food culture, which may approach food insecurity through an intersectional perspective.