Consumer consciousness on meat and the environment - Exploring differences

To stand out or to conform: Stereotypes and meta-stereotypes as barriers in the transition to sustainable diets

What factors hinder the reduction of meat and/or dairy intake? In this study, we explored the perceived barriers that meat and/or dairy reducers experienced when shifting their diets. We particularly focused on how meat and/or dairy reducers were affected by their beliefs about how omnivores stereotype vegans (i.e., meta-stereotypes), as meta-stereotypes have not been previously explored in this context. Through open-ended questions in an online survey, we explored the experiences and perceived barriers among female meat and/or dairy reducers (n = 272), as well as their perceptions of vegans (i.e., stereotypes and meta-stereotypes), and how these perceptions affected their lived experiences. We analysed the data using reflexive thematic analysis and generated six themes. We highlighted perceptions of cost (Theme 1) and perceptions of health concerns (Theme 2) as the most dominant barriers to the reduction of meat and/or dairy intake. Regarding (meta) stereotypes, participants' perceptions of vegans were shaped by personal experiences and encounters with vegans (Theme 3), and how participants related to vegans was sometimes reflected in the language they used to describe vegans (Theme 4). Participants felt that they, or reducers more generally, were occasionally judged as vegans (Theme 5), which might influence participants' choices and conformity to eating norms (Theme 6). Meta-stereotypes may play a role in polarised dietary group perceptions, and we discuss how they are shaped by social identity processes as well as by aspects of Western food systems.

Citizen attitudes towards present and future beef consumption before and after the COVID-19 pandemic

There's been a change in citizens' attitudes towards beef consumption in high-income countries, resulting in a decline in its consumption. The COVID-19 pandemic may have impacted citizens' attitudes and behaviours towards beef consumption. This study aimed to investigate Chilean citizens' attitudes towards beef consumption during the initial 18 months of the pandemic. Socio-demographic characteristics and attitudes towards beef consumption were asked in two questionnaires done in 2020 (n = 1142) and 2021 (n = 1221). Citizens' attitudes to beef eating and production did not change between the start and more than a year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants not related with animal production, female, young, and non-meat consumers demonstrated more negative attitudes towards beef consumption and production. Half of the participants agreed that beef is bad for the environment, but only 30% agreed that beef is bad for human health. Half of participants had reduced beef consumption and 48% expressed intentions to reduce beef consumption in the future, primarily motivated by concerns related to animal welfare, the environment, and human health. The majority of participants (80%) thought that their fellow citizens should reduce their beef consumption but only 50% had confidence that this will occur. We conclude that Chilean consumers' attitudes to beef eating did not change due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants expressed strong concern about beef consumption both individually and socially, due to environmental, animal and health concerns, and believed Chileans should reduce beef consumption in the future but had low confidence that this will happen.

Is being anti-vegan a distinct dietarian identity? An investigation with omnivores, vegans, and self-identified "anti-vegans"

Adding to research on the form and content of anti-vegan sentiment, recent scholarship has identified a group of individuals who self-subscribe as "anti-vegan". Here, we sought to determine whether anti-veganism might reflect a distinct dietarian identity with its own unique ideological profile. Two-hundred and fourteen vegans, 732 omnivores, and 222 self-identified "anti-vegans" were assessed using a survey methodology that included the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire and ideological markers related to dark humour, social dominance orientation (SDO), speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and attitudes toward science. Our analysis revealed a dietarian identity unique to anti-vegans. The dietary patterns of anti-vegans were more central to their identity than for omnivores, though marginally lower than vegans. Like vegans, anti-vegans scored highly on dietarian measures of private regard and personal dietary motivations, and lower than omnivores on public regard. The diets of anti-vegans were more morally motivated than omnivores. However, anti-vegans scored higher than both omnivores and vegans on a number of ideological measures including dark humour, SDO, speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and distrust of science. Somewhat surprising, anti-vegans held greater trust than omnivores in the science of plant-based nutrition. We discuss the unique dietarian identities of anti-vegans, considering both intra-group differences of omnivores and anti-vegans (e.g., in right-wing ideology), and inter-group similarities of vegans and anti-vegans (e.g., in diet centrality).

The FLY-project: study protocol for mixed methods research to explore the complex social dynamics of sustainable food-related lifestyles in youth in practical education

BACKGROUND

The present-day food system is a key driver of climate change and biodiversity loss, making it imperative for populations to shift towards more sustainable diets. The involvement of youth in this transition is vital because they are in a formative period where their identities, values, and norms, including their food behaviours, are being shaped. Special attention should be paid to youth in practical education because they are often overlooked in existing studies, yet evidence suggests they may lack the necessary resources to support dietary changes, resulting in lower levels of pro-environmental food-related behaviours. The aim of the FLY (Food-related Lifestyles in Youth) project is to study how sustainable food-related lifestyles and underlying factors develop in early adolescence, particularly in Dutch youth in practical education, how these spread in social networks, and to develop community-level intervention strategies to support youths' transition to sustainable food-related behaviours.

METHODS/DESIGN

The FLY-project adopts a mixed-method approach. First, two literature reviews are conducted. A systematic review assesses how capabilities, opportunities and motivation are associated with sustainable food behaviours in youth, and how these elements interrelate in determining sustainable food-related lifestyles. A scoping review studies community-level interventions that target sustainable and healthy food-related behaviours. Second, focus groups are conducted to explore the barriers and facilitating factors concerning capabilities, opportunities, and motivations that Dutch youth in practical-level education experience to transition to more sustainable food-related lifestyles. Third, a cohort survey study is conducted to track the dynamic interplay between capabilities, opportunities, motivation, and changes in specific sustainable food behaviours over time, and to assess the diffusion of sustainable food-related lifestyles via social (media) networks. Fourth, an experimental research programme tests promising intervention approaches, some of which are co-created with youth, targeting relevant underlying factors.

DISCUSSION

This paper describes the rationale, conceptual framework, design and methods of the FLY-project. The FLY-project contributes to an understanding of underlying factors of sustainable food-related behaviours in adolescence and results in a multi-component intervention toolkit, with a particular focus on youth in practical education programmes.

Effects of the Breeding Strategy Beef-on-Dairy at Animal, Farm and Sector Levels

The decline in farm revenue due to volatile milk prices has led to an increase in the use of beef semen in dairy herds. While this strategy ("Beef-on-dairy" (BoD)) can have economic benefits, it can also lead to unintended consequences affecting animal welfare. Semen sale trends from breeding organizations depict increasing sales of beef semen across the globe. Calves born from such breeding strategies can perform better when compared to purebred dairy calves, especially in terms of meat quality and growth traits. The Beef-on-dairy strategy can lead to unintentional negative impacts including an increase in gestation length, and increased dystocia and stillbirth rates. Studies in this regard have found the highest gestation length for Limousin crossbred calves followed by calves from the Angus breed. This increase in gestation length can lead to economic losses ranging from 3 to 5 US$ per animal for each additional day. In terms of the growth performance of crossbred animals, literature studies are inconclusive due to the vast differences in farming structure across the regions. But almost all the studies agree regarding improvement in the meat quality in terms of color, fiber type, and intra-muscular fat content for crossbred animals. Utilization of genomic selection, and development of specialized Beef-on-dairy indexes for the sires, can be a viable strategy to make selection easier for the farmers.

Gradual behaviour change towards meat reduction: Development and validation of a novel decisional balance scale

Meat reduction is gaining attention among consumers, marketers, policymakers and scientists. Yet little is known about decision-making processes and behaviour change towards meat reduction. This paper explores the applicability of the decisional balance (DB) framework to the field of meat reduction. A novel DB scale to measure the perceived importance of beliefs about meat reduction at different stages of behaviour change was developed and validated in two studies with German meat eaters. In Study 1 (N = 309), the item inventory was tested using an exploratory factor analysis and then validated in Study 2 (N = 809). The results yielded two higher-order DB factors (pros and cons), which were subdivided into five lower-order factors (perceived benefits of a plant-based diet, downsides of factory farming, health barriers, legitimation barriers and feasibility barriers). The pros and cons were summarised in a DB index. All DB factors and the DB index were tested for internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha ≥.70) and aspects of validity. The typical DB pattern of the pros and cons of behaviour change was confirmed: the cons outweighed the pros for consumers who did not intend to reduce meat consumption, while the pros outweighed the cons for consumers who intended to reduce meat consumption. The new DB scale for meat reduction has proven to be a suitable measure to gain insights into consumers' decision making and could be used to develop targeted meat reduction interventions.

Towards de-dairyfication of the diet?—Consumers downshifting milk, yet justifying their dairy pleasures

Currently, the consumption of liquid milk in Western European countries and the US is declining. At the same time, the consumption of other dairy products, including cheese and sour-milk products, is increasing. Dairy production, along with meat production, is one of the main food sources of greenhouse gases, which cause climate change. Thus, the transition toward more sustainable diets requires a reduction in the consumption of both meat and dairy products. Consumers who do not use milk (e.g., vegans) have received more scholarly attention compared to those who are reducing milk consumption. Our study focuses on Finnish consumers who have reduced the use of cow's milk but have not abandoned dairy entirely. Through qualitative data, we analyze how consumers on the one hand narrate their detachment from using milk and on the other hand justify their ongoing use of dairy products. The results show that consumers began their dietary change by first reducing meat eating, followed by milk. For the consumers, cheese eating was a source of enjoyment that was difficult to resist and to replace with plant-based alternatives, even though they were aware of the animal suffering caused by milk production. Consumers recognized the interdependence between meat and milk production and consumption, yet, at the level of everyday practices, giving up milk proved to be more challenging than giving up meat. We argue that the declining use of fluid milk contributes to the de-dairyfication of eating habits, but obstacles remain in reducing the consumption of other dairy products.

Changes in the Current Patterns of Beef Consumption and Consumer Behavior Trends-Cross-Cultural Study Brazil-Spain-Turkey

This cross-cultural study aimed to determine the main factors behind potential changes in eating habits by analyzing changes in the patterns of beef consumption currently observed in Brazil, Spain, and Turkey. To achieve this aim, 412 regular beef consumers from Brazil, 407 from Spain, and 424 from Turkey answered a self-administered questionnaire. The study surveyed the effects of economic factors, switching from beef to other sources of protein, aspects of credence, health-related concerns, the influence of lifestyle on beef consumption patterns, and purchasing decision factors. The most important factors that changed consumer behavior and resulted in a decrease in consumption, mostly among Brazilian and Turkish consumers, were the economics and accessibility of the products. Beef was replaced by other alternative sources of protein that were likewise derived from animals. The consumers whose purchasing intentions were most significantly influenced by credence factors (e.g., indiscriminate use of agricultural products, substandard animal welfare requirements, among others) were Brazilian and Turkish and, to a lesser degree, Spanish consumers. Lifestyle factors (e.g., consumption of out-of-home meals, available time to cook, among others) were demonstrated to alter consumption patterns and therefore must be carefully considered by the industry, taking into account cultural differences and consumer needs. The population under investigation considered that eating beef had no impact on their health.

People's Values and Preferences about Meat Consumption in View of the Potential Environmental Impacts of Meat: A Mixed-methods Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Health is not the only aspect people consider when choosing to consume meat; environmental concerns about the impact of meat (production and distribution) can influence people's meat choices.

METHODS

We conducted a mixed-methods systematic review, searched six databases from inception to June 2020, and synthesised our findings into narrative forms. We integrated the evidence from quantitative and qualitative data sets into joint displays and assessed the confidence in the evidence for each review finding following the GRADE-CERQual approach.

RESULTS

Of the 23,531 initial records, we included 70 studies: 56 quantitative, 12 qualitative, and 2 mixed-methods studies. We identified four main themes: (1) reasons for eating meat; (2) reasons for avoiding meat; (3) willingness to change meat consumption; and (4) willingness to pay more for environmentally friendly meat. The overall confidence was low for the reasons for eating and/or buying meat, for avoiding meat, and for willingness to change meat consumption, and was moderate for willingness to pay more for environmentally friendly meat.

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of people's general beliefs about meat and its impact on the environment, most people may be unwilling to change their meat consumption. Future research should address the current limitations of the research evidence to assess whether people are willing to make a change when properly informed.

Effectiveness of Dietary Intervention with Iron and Vitamin C Administered Separately in Improving Iron Status in Young Women

In order to maintain an adequate iron status in young women, effective dietary interventions should provide sufficient amounts of iron in everyday meals and improve the bioavailability of non-heme iron by providing vitamin C. While some intervention studies administering products rich in vitamin C in conjunction with iron sources showed improved iron status, it is unknown whether a separate administration of products rich in iron and vitamin C may be a successful strategy as well. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of dietary intervention with iron and vitamin C administered separately in improving iron status in young women to prevent iron deficiency anemia. The study was conducted in a group of 29 women aged 18-30, and an 8-week dietary intervention was performed. Study participants with an adequate iron status received 50 g of iron-fortified oat flakes (as a source of non-heme iron) with breakfast and 200 mL of orange juice (as a source of vitamin C) in the second part of the day. Iron status was analyzed based on red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit, serum ferritin, and serum iron, and it was assessed at baseline, after 4 weeks, and after 8 weeks of the intervention. The intakes of iron, vitamin C, and folate were controlled throughout the study period, and menstrual blood loss was estimated. After 8 weeks of intervention, statistically significant differences compared with baseline were observed only for hematocrit, as its level after 8 weeks of intervention was higher than the baseline (p = 0.0491). Comparing subsamples within the dietary intervention considered effective and ineffective for red blood cell levels, it was indicated that lower baseline vitamin C intake may result in a more effective dietary intervention (p = 0.0231). Comparing subsamples within the dietary intervention considered effective and ineffective for hemoglobin, hematocrit, iron, and serum ferritin levels, it was indicated that higher baseline levels of hemoglobin (p = 0.0143), hematocrit (p = 0.0497), iron (p = 0.0101), and serum ferritin (p = 0.0343) respectively may result in a more effective dietary intervention. It was concluded that dietary intervention with iron and vitamin C administered separately may be effective in improving iron status in young women to prevent iron deficiency anemia. It may be concluded that in the studied group, a better baseline iron status and lower baseline vitamin C intake may result in a more effective dietary intervention with iron and vitamin C administered separately to improve iron status in young women.

You Are What You Eat and So Is Our Planet: Identifying Dietary Groups Based on Personality and Environmentalism

Behavioral change interventions promoting the reduction of animal product consumption are valuable tools to improve ecological sustainability as well as public health and help the mitigation of climate change. Recent findings revealed improved efficacy of interventions targeted at barriers (e.g., self-efficacy) of three different types of meat consumers over non-targeted interventions (e.g., completion of unrelated surveys). However, such interventions have yet to factor in the role of individual differences in personality. Therefore, in a first step, we performed segmentation analysis on barriers and benefits of reducing animal product consumption (e.g., meat attachment, environmentalism) with the inclusion of personality. In an online sample of N=1135 participants, latent profile analysis revealed five distinct dietary groups: “plant-based eaters”, “meat-reducers”, “medium-hindrance meat eaters”, “medium strong-hindrance meat eaters, and “strong-hindrance meat eaters”, based on inhibitors and facilitators of meat reduction. Groups differed in terms of consumption of different animal products (η2=0.08 to η2=0.80) as well as the Big Five (η2=0.08 to η2=0.80) and Dark Triad (η2=0.08 to η2=0.80). Strong-hindrance meat eaters were characterized by low Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Openness as well as high dark trait expression, implying new targets for future intervention design.

Exploring young Australians' understanding of sustainable and healthy diets: a qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

This qualitative study aimed to explore young Australians' perspectives, motivators and current practices in achieving a sustainable and healthy diet.

DESIGN

Semi-structured online interviews were conducted with young Australians. Interviews were audio-recorded using the online Zoom platform, transcribed and analysed using a deductive analysis method by applying the Theoretical Domains Framework and inductive thematic data analysis.

SETTING

Young Australians recruited via social media platforms, noticeboard announcements and flyers.

SUBJECTS

Twenty-two Australians aged 18 to 25 years.

RESULTS

The majority of participants were aware of some aspects of a sustainable and healthy diet and indicated the need to reduce meat intake, increase intake of plant-based foods, reduce food wastage and packaging and reduce food miles. Young adults were motivated to adopt more sustainable dietary practices but reported that individual and environmental factors such as low food literacy, limited food preparation and cooking skills, lack of availability and accessibility of environmentally friendly food options and costs associated with sustainable and healthy diets hindered their ability to do so.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the barriers faced by many of our participants, there is a need for interventions aimed at improving food literacy and food preparation and cooking skills as well as those that create food environments that make it easy to select sustainable and healthy diets. Future research is needed for longitudinal larger scale quantitative studies to confirm our qualitative findings. In addition, the development and evaluation of individual and micro-environmental-based interventions promote sustainable and healthy diets more comprehensively.

'Against the cult of veganism': Unpacking the social psychology and ideology of anti-vegans

Despite the established health and ecological benefits of a plant-based diet, the decision to eschew meat and other animal-derived food products remains controversial. So polarising is this topic that anti-vegan communities - groups of individuals who stand vehemently against veganism - have sprung up across the internet. Much scholarship on veganism characterizes anti-vegans in passing, painting them as ill-informed, uneducated, or simply obstinate. However, little empirical work has investigated these communities and the individuals within them. Accordingly, we conducted a study using social media data from the popular platform, Reddit. Specifically, we collected all available submissions (∼3523) and comments (∼45,528) from r/AntiVegan subreddit users (N = 3819) over a five-year period. Using a battery of computerized text analytic tools, we examined the psychosocial characteristics of Reddit users who publicly identify as anti-vegan, how r/AntiVegan users discuss their beliefs, and how the individual user changes as a function of community membership. Results from our analyses suggest several individual differences that align r/AntiVegan users with the community, including dark entertainment, ex-veganism and science denial. Several topics were extensively discussed by r/AntiVegan members, including nuanced discourse on the ethicality and health implications of vegan diets, and the naturalness of animal death, which ran counter to our expectations and lay stereotypes of r/AntiVegan users. Finally, several longitudinal changes in language use were observed within the community, reflecting enhanced group commitment over time, including an increase in group-focused language and a decrease in cognitive processing. Implications for vegan-nonvegan relations are discussed.

Beef Consumers Behaviour and Preferences—The Case of Portugal

Meat consumption is estimated to increase worldwide, mostly because of the increase in population. Further, this increase in meat consumption will ultimately affect the environment and aggravate climate change. Herein, consumers’ behaviour was studied to understand if consumers would consider a change in their dietary habits by choosing beef from the Portuguese autochthonous bovine breed or even reducing their meat intake for environmental reasons. In 2021, a survey was conducted online and in some food sales outlets in Portugal. Therefore, data collected from the 491 participants were analysed with the aim of assessing the Portuguese consumer behaviour and preferences on beef. Firstly, we conducted a descriptive analysis. Then, factor analysis was performed by principal component analysis. Finally, by cluster analysis, we attempted to identify a group of consumers with different behaviours into specific categories. Although it was not possible to segregate consumers into different categories, most of the respondents agree that meat consumption harms the environment; however, just 30.6% are willing to reduce meat consumption due to environmental reasons. As for the concerns for animal welfare, respondents between the age of 23 and 49 years seem to have a greater concern towards animal welfare. To value autochthonous bovine Jarmelista meat, it is fundamental to implement a concerted communication between suppliers and producers to value Jarmelista beef. Furthermore, it is also important that regional governmental institutions support local producers not only for financial support but also to create strategies to protect the breed from extinction.

An Exploratory Study of the Purchase and Consumption of Beef: Geographical and Cultural Differences between Spain and Brazil

Beef consumption and production in Spain and Brazil are different with the consumption of beef in Brazil being three times higher than in Spain. In addition, there are variations in the economic value of production and in the traceability system. Therefore, the aim of this research was to understand the purchasing and consumption patterns using the customer behavior analysis technique of focus groups, which analyzed motivations for the consumption of beef, classifying their preferences by the intrinsic and extrinsic attributes at the time of purchase. The key aspect of the consumption of beef, both for Spanish and Brazilian consumers, was personal satisfaction/flavor. Spanish consumers were more conscious than Brazilians of the beneficial and harmful qualities that meat provides. The presence of fat was the factor that most restricted intake in both countries. The most important intrinsic attributes for Spanish and Brazilian consumers were the visual aspects of the meat: color, freshness, and the quantity and disposition of fat. The most important extrinsic characteristics were the price and expiration date. Spanish consumers see packaged meat as convenient and safe, although it is considered by Brazilians to be over-manipulated. The traceability certification on the label provides credibility to the product for the Spanish but only partially for Brazilians.

Meet your meat: The effect of imagined intergroup contact on wanting and liking of meat

Increased global meat consumption has negative impacts on animal welfare, the environment, as well as health. The current study is the first to investigate whether imagined intergroup contact with a farmed animal changes wanting and liking of beef and reduces willingness to consume meat. Collegians [N = 100, 67% female] imagined having a positive experience with either a calf (n = 36), kitten (n = 33), or child (n = 31). Following the imagined interaction, they completed the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire to measure implicit and explicit wanting and explicit liking of beef and other types of meat relative to other food categories. Participants also indicated their willingness to reduce meat consumption. Results revealed that there were no significant differences between groups in explicit wanting or liking of beef or meat, nor in willingness to reduce future meat consumption. Nevertheless, compared to the kitten and child conditions, participants who imagined interacting with a calf experienced lower levels of implicit wanting and relative preference for beef and other meat products. Our findings suggest that imagined intergroup contact may be an effective manipulation to reduce meat consumption as a part of a broader intervention program.

The Evolution of Urban Australian Meat-Eating Practices

This qualitative study used social practice theory to explore how meat-eating practices are changing in contemporary urban Australia, drawing on a sample of Sydney residents aged 23–45 years. The research used an iterative study design and an inductive analysis approach. Semi-structured face-to-face in-depth interviews were the main mode of data collection, supplemented by observations in places such as markets and local neighborhoods. Research participants explained that the role of meat in their diet has changed in response to shifting conventions and social infrastructures. They have reduced consumption of red meat in favor of meats considered healthier or more ethical. Key factors driving the change include exposure to alternative eating practices brought about through changes in political policy and the advent of globalization. Changing discourses of masculinity and the move toward embracing more fluid representations of gender have, in turn, changed meanings in relation to the meat-eating man and a meat-heavy diet. Rising environmental and health consciousness, and concerns for animal welfare have also contributed to dietary changes. While several participants claimed to have increased their consumption of plant-based foods, meat still continues to maintain a significant presence within their diets. Many participants expressed interest in cutting back further on meat consumption and adopting more plant-based foods but they also identified several challenges—e.g., limited access to plant-based ingredients and recipes, negative meanings associated with vegetarian and vegan diets, and a lack of competence in relation to preparing and consuming appetizing meals using plant-based foods.

Population group differences in subjective importance of meat in diet and red and processed meat consumption

Red and processed meat (RPM) consumption associates directly with several unfavorable health outcomes and with environmental impact of diet. RPM consumption differs between certain population groups, and moreover, encompasses various subjective meanings. Literature on determinants of subjective importance of meat in diet (SIM), however, is scarce. Aims of this study were to determine which sociodemographic and -economic characteristics associate with SIM and RPM consumption. The study was based on the FinHealth 2017 Study. The sample comprised 4671 participants aged 18-74 years. SIM was asked with a question including five response options from "not important at all" to "very important". Habitual dietary intake including RPM consumption was studied with a food frequency questionnaire. RPM consumption level grew in parallel with SIM categories. RPM consumption was high and SIM prevailing in men, those living in rural areas, and those with low education. Women living in household with children consumed more RPM than other women but did not find meat more important. Conversely, men living in household with children found meat more important but did not consume it more than other men. Domain analyses considering individuals within the highest RPM consumption quintile revealed that the oldest age group found meat significantly less important than the youngest group. In order to be able to lower RPM consumption at population level and to move towards healthier and climate-wiser diets, it is important to identify subgroups that consume much meat but also subgroups that find meat especially important. Such dietary transition may be especially challenging to subgroups that consume much meat and also consider it important. Actions to support the dietary transition in different population groups should be developed.

Understanding the Political Challenge of Red and Processed Meat Reduction for Healthy and Sustainable Food Systems: A Narrative Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Diets high in red and processed meat (RPM) contribute substantially to environmental degradation, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the global burden of chronic disease. Recent high-profile reports from international expert bodies have called for a significant reduction in global dietary meat intake, particularly RPM, especially in high-income settings, while acknowledging the importance of animal-sourced foods to population nutrition in many lower-income countries. However, this presents a major yet under-investigated political challenge given strong cultural preferences for meat and the economic importance and power of the meat industry.

METHODS

A theoretically-guided narrative review was undertaken. The theoretical framework used to guide the review considered the interests, ideas and institutions that constitute food systems in relation to meat reduction; and the instrumental, discursive and structural forms of power that actors deploy in relation to others within the food system.

RESULTS

High production and consumption levels of RPM are promoted and sustained by a number of factors. Actors with an interest in RPM included business and industry groups, governments, intergovernmental organisations, and civil society. Asymmetries of power between these actors exist, with institutional barriers recognised in the form of government-industry dependence, trade agreement conflicts, and policy incoherence. Industry lobbying, shaping of evidence and knowledge, and highly concentrated markets are key issues. Furthermore, prevailing ideologies like carnism and neoliberalism present embedded difficulties for RPM reduction. The literature noted the power of actors to resist meat reduction efforts exists in varying forms, including the use of lobbying, shaping of evidence and knowledge, and highly concentrated markets.

CONCLUSION

There are a number of political challenges related to RPM reduction that contribute to policy inertia, and hence are likely to impede the transformation of food systems. Research on policy efforts to reduce RPM production and consumption should incorporate the role of power and political feasibility.

Examination of students' willingness to change behaviour regarding meat consumption

The aim of this study was to assess the behaviour of Swiss students regarding meat consumption by analysing their current consumption habits, attitudes and knowledge, acceptance of meat alternatives and willingness to reduce meat intake. Data were collected through an online survey conducted in universities and universities of applied sciences among German- and French-speaking students in Switzerland (n = 498). By segmenting the student population using an adapted transtheoretical model of change, four distinct clusters were identified: passive (14.7%), curious (6%), awoken (44.7%) and active consumers (34.6%). The results provide a deeper insight into Swiss students' dietary patterns, attitudes and knowledge concerning the impact of meat consumption as along with concrete practical interventions to target the different clusters and initiate and promote behaviour change regarding meat consumption. The ideal recommendations depend on the current stage of behaviour change. However, to reduce meat consumption, policy makers need to set specific, quantifiable goals within defined time frames while involving a variety of stakeholders.

Towards reduced meat consumption: A systematic literature review of intervention effectiveness, 2001-2019

A reduction of meat consumption and shift to plant-based diets, especially in industrialized countries, is acknowledged as crucial for reaching climate targets, addressing public health problems, and protecting animal welfare. While scholarly research distilled drivers of meat consumption and barriers to its reduction, insights into the effectiveness of measures to initiate such a profound change in consumer behaviour are relatively scarce. This paper presents a systematic literature review on consumption-side interventions in the context of meat consumption across scholarly disciplines. Our analysis confirms that existing research predominantly assessed interventions addressing personal factors of behavioural change such as knowledge and emotions. Whether these interventions are effective depends on whether information (i) is provided on health, animal welfare or environmental effects, (ii) is emotionally or cognitively framed, and (iii) is aligned with consumers' information needs. Moreover, linking meat to living animals or to the humanness of animals activates negative emotions and, thus, reduces meat consumption. Further, increasing the visibility and variety of vegetarian dishes in food environments decreases meat-eating. Also, educational courses on how to shop and cook vegetarian food are effective in reducing meat consumption. There is less evidence on the effectiveness of interventions addressing socio-cultural factors such as social norms. Regarding future research directions, existing research mainly investigated the influence of interventions on attitudes and behavioural intentions. Hence, there is still a need for studies to assess more long-term effects of intervention measures on actual meat consumption and their potential to initiate fundamental changes in dietary habits.

Do University Students Base Decisions to Engage in Sustainable Energy Behaviors on Affective or Cognitive Attitudes?

It is essential to understand the determinants of university students’ decisions to engage in sustainable energy behaviors, as this understanding has implications for the development of communication and education strategies to promote sustainable energy behaviors. The present study aims to investigate the impacts of affective and cognitive factors on sustainable energy behaviors among university students. It will explore the affective factors of self-responsibility and social norms and the cognitive factors of environmental concerns, perceived self-efficacy, perceived self-benefits, and action knowledge about sustainable energy behaviors. A simple random technique was used to select participants from undergraduate students at King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT) in Bangkok, Thailand. Questionnaire surveys were completed by 426 participants in May and June 2020. Multiple regression analyses were used to test the ability of affective and cognitive variables to predict university students’ participation in sustainable energy behaviors. The results revealed that participation in sustainable energy behaviors was significantly impacted by the perceived benefit of sustainable energy behaviors, students’ concerns about climate change, perceived self-efficacy, and social norms; self-responsibility and action knowledge had no significant impact. These findings indicate that communication that focuses on climate change and approaches that enhance students’ self-efficacy and the perceived benefits of sustainable energy behaviors could help promote such behaviors among university students. The sustainable energy behaviors of other social groups, including students’ family members and colleagues and the general public, are also influential as they can motivate students to change their behavior.

Guess What …?—How Guessed Norms Nudge Climate-Friendly Food Choices in Real-Life Settings

Social norms, also called social comparison nudges, have been shown to be particularly effective in promoting healthy food choices and environmentally friendly behaviors. However, there is limited evidence on the effectiveness of these nudges for promoting sustainable and climate-friendly food choices and their potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and support the related SDGs. The paper reports a field experiment that tests the effectiveness of two social norms in a real-life setting based on revealed preferences. The study distinguishes between the widely researched descriptive norms and guessed norms, the latter being tested in this context for the first time. While descriptive norms communicate typical patterns of behavior (e.g., 50% of canteen visitors choose vegetarian meals), guessed norms are determined by the individual’s best guess about the norm in a specific context. The results confirm a remarkable nudging effect of guessed norms: The higher the presumed proportion of vegetarian dishes sold, the lower the probability of choosing a vegetarian dish. Surprisingly, this effect is independent of the respective norm specification (meat or vegetarian norm). The paper provides advice for policy makers about when and how to use guessed norms.

Critical Perspective of Animal Production Specialists on Cell-Based Meat in Brazil: From Bottleneck to Best Scenarios

Simple Summary

The opinion of professionals involved in animal production is very important to the development of the emerging cell-based meat chain. This paper aims to analyse the perspective of Brazilian veterinarians and animal scientists regarding cell-based meat—women, veterinarians, vegetarians and vegans were more supportive of cell-based meat. The resistance expressed by the professionals seems related to a lack of knowledge and the association of cultivated meat with artificiality, which has a negative connotation. Therefore, higher education and motivation of veterinarians and animal scientists may mitigate the resistance and help these professionals to engage in this new chain for the benefit of the professionals themselves, society, the animals involved and the environment.

Abstract

Recently, many studies regarding consumer perception of cell-based meat have been published. However, the opinion of the professionals involved in animal production also seems relevant. In particular, veterinarians and animal scientists may be important players in the new cell-based meat production, acting as proponents or barriers to this major improvement for farm animal welfare. Therefore, our aim is to analyse the knowledge and perspective of Brazilian veterinarians and animal scientists regarding cell-based meat. Veterinarians (76.8%; 209/272) and animal scientists (23.2%; 63/272) responded to an online survey. Logistic regression, latent class and logit models were used to evaluate objective answers, and the Discourse of the Collective Subject method was used to interpret open-ended answers. Specialists who were women (62.5%; 170/272), veterinarians (76.8%; 209/272), vegetarians (7.0%; 19/272) and vegans (1.1%; 3/272) were more supportive of cell-based meat. Lack of knowledge and the connection with artificiality, the most frequent spontaneous word associated with cell-based meat by all respondents, were the main negative points highlighted. Thus, it seems fundamental to offer higher education to veterinarians and animal scientists regarding cell-based meat, since engaging them with this novel technology may mitigate both the resistance and its negative consequences for the professionals, society, the animals involved and the environment.

Principais Direcionadores de Compra de Carnes em Hipermercados

RESUMO Objetivo: a urbanização e migração para os grandes centros tem provocado mudanças no comportamento dos consumidores de carnes, não somente no que se refere a escolha do produto, mas também, ao processo de compra. Neste sentido, fatores como proximidade, disponibilidade do produto, e preço são relacionados como fatores que definem compras. Na tentativa de ampliar o entendimento sobre o que os consumidores consideram importante, este trabalho objetiva analisar os principais fatores associados ao consumo das carnes bovina, suína e de frango no Distrito Federal, Brasil. Métodos: a pesquisa foi realizada em três redes distintas de hipermercados. Realizou-se uma avaliação socioeconômica dos entrevistados, seguida da aplicação de um Survey, através de sentenças afirmativas estruturadas, categorizadas em dimensões sociocultural, econômica, saúde/alimento e ambiente. As sentenças foram avaliadas através da Escala Likert de sete pontos. Os dados socioeconômicos dos entrevistados foram analisados por testes de Qui-quadrado e as respostas obtidas por meio da Escala Likert foram transformados em Mean Item Score (MIS). Resultados e Conclusões: os resultados indicaram que o controle de qualidade de exposição das carnes nos supermercados e a praticidade de encontrar o mesmo tipo de carne em vários locais são os principais influenciadores de tomada de decisão de compra pelos consumidores.

Meat Reduction Practices in the Context of a Social Media Grassroots Experiment Campaign

High meat consumption appears regularly in sustainability discourses but finding practical tools for reduction has proven to be challenging. The rise of social media has opened up new pathways to structure political spaces where grassroots initiatives for experiments can take place. Our paper examines how consumer-citizens started experimenting with vegetarian foods in the context of an innovative Finnish meat reduction social media campaign called Meatless October during its kick-off year in 2013. The focus is on participants’ perceptions of the campaign and reflections of the experiment process. We analyzed participants’ blog posts by using a qualitative content analysis. Our results show that the participants were often strongly motivated by the campaign’s sustainability frame. They also saw the campaign both as a communal challenge and an opportunity for political action, sharing know-how and experiences with the other participants. In everyday life, participants’ main focus and worry were in being able to prepare tasty and healthy vegetarian foods, and they were positively surprised by their ability to learn these skills. Participants typically attributed both success and failure in experimenting to their individual capabilities. Overall, our study suggests that the campaign’s public context pushed private practices towards change by facilitating the experimenting process.

Consumer Attitudes Towards Environmental Concerns of Meat Consumption: A Systematic Review

Meat consumption is a major contributor to global warming. Given the worldwide growing demand of meat, and the severe impact of meat production on the planet, reducing animal protein consumption is a matter of food security and public health. Changing consumer food behavior is a challenge. Taste preferences, culinary traditions and social norms factor into food choices. Since behavioral change cannot occur without the subject’s positive attitude based on reasons and motivations, a total of 34 papers on consumer attitudes and behavior towards meat consumption in relation to environmental concerns were examined. The results show that consumers aware of the meat impact on the planet, willing to stop or significantly reduce meat consumption for environmental reasons, and who have already changed their meat intake for ecological concerns are a small minority. However, environmental motives are already appealing significant proportions of Westerners to adopt certain meat curtailment strategies. Those who limit meat intake for environmental reasons are typically female, young, simply meat-reducer (not vegan/vegetarian), ecology-oriented, and would more likely live in Europe and Asia than in the U.S.

Credence cues of pork are more important than consumers' culinary skills to boost their purchasing intention

The role of consumers' culinary skills on purchasing cues of pork, with emphasis on niche demands (outdoor husbandry and/or certified organic), was assessed in cross-country regions of Spain (Catalonia and Aragon) and Portugal (North). A sample of 974 respondents answered an on-line survey with questions regarding consumer purchasing habits, product involvement and intrinsic and credence attributes. They also chose between two contrasting boneless pork loins and express willingness to pay (WTP) for different product scenarios with different pig farm facilities and for organic pork standards. Two optimal segments were identified based on food-related habits: 'uninvolved' and 'innovative cook lovers', both similarly balanced across socio-demographics, score for credence attributes or consumer involvement dimensions. Overall mean WTP premium across countries was 11.8% for marbled pork, 20.0% for outdoor pork and 24.3% for organic logo stamp. Credence cues of pork claiming health issues (absence of antibiotics and hormone residues) rather than consumers' culinary skills defined the WTP for niche pork in these regions.

Consumer Readiness to Reduce Meat Consumption for the Purpose of Environmental Sustainability: Insights from Norway

Food production is associated with various environmental impacts and the production of meat is highlighted as a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. A transition toward plant-based and low-meat diets has thus been emphasised as an important contribution to reducing climate change. By combining results from a consumer survey, focus group interviews and an in-store field experiment, this article investigates whether Norwegian consumers are ready to make food choices based on what is environmentally sustainable. We ask how consumers perceive the environmental impacts of food consumption, whether they are willing and able to change their food consumption in a more climate-friendly direction, and what influences their perceptions and positions. The results show that there is uncertainty among consumers regarding what constitutes climate- or environmentally friendly food choices and that few consumers are motivated to change their food consumption patterns for climate- or environmental reasons. Consumers’ support to initiatives, such as eating less meat and increasing the prices of meat, are partly determined by the consumers’ existing value orientation and their existing consumption practices. Finally, we find that although providing information about the climate benefits of eating less meat has an effect on vegetable purchases, this does not seem to mobilise consumer action any more than the provision of information about the health benefits of eating less meat does. The article concludes that environmental policies aiming to transfer part of the responsibility for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to food consumers is being challenged by the fact that most consumers are still not ready to make food choices based on what is best for the climate or environment.

Menu-engineering in restaurants - adapting portion sizes on plates to enhance vegetable consumption: a real-life experiment

Background

The aim of this research was to investigate whether increased portion sizes of vegetables and decreased portion sizes of meat on main dishes increased the amount of vegetables consumed in a real-life restaurant setting without affecting customer satisfaction. The participants were unaware of the experiment.

Methods

A cross-over design was used in which three restaurants were randomly assigned to a sequence of an intervention and control condition. In the intervention period, the vegetable portion sizes on the plates of main dishes were doubled (150 g of vegetables instead of 75 g) and the portion sizes of meat on the plates were reduced by an average of 12.5%. In the control period, the portion sizes of the main dishes were maintained as usual. In total, 1006 observations and questionnaires were included.

Results

Vegetable consumption from plates was significantly higher during the intervention period (M = 115.5 g) than during the control period (M = 61.7 g). Similarly, total vegetable consumption (including side dishes) was significantly higher during the intervention period (M = 178.0 g) than during the control period (M = 137.0 g). Conversely, meat consumption was significantly lower during the intervention period (M = 183.1 g) than during the control period (M = 211.1 g). Satisfaction with the restaurant visit did not differ between the intervention period (M = 1.27) and control period (M = 1.35). Satisfaction with the main dish was significantly lower during the intervention period (M = 1.25) than during the control period (M = 1.38), although in both cases, the scores indicated that participants remained (very) satisfied with their main dish.

Conclusions

This study showed that increasing vegetable portions in combination with decreasing meat portions (unknowingly to the consumer) increased the amount of vegetables consumed and decreased the amount of meat consumed. Furthermore, despite the changes in portion sizes, participants remained satisfied with their restaurant visit and main dish. The findings of this study suggest that modifying portion size in restaurants is an effective tool for stimulating vegetable consumption and consequently healthy and sustainable diets.

Shrinking the food-print: A qualitative study into consumer perceptions, experiences and attitudes towards healthy and environmentally friendly food behaviours

Internationally, there is increasing recognition of the importance of multilevel policies and actions that address healthy and environmentally friendly food behaviours. However it is not yet clear which actions are most suitable to support consumers to adopt both behaviours concurrently. To this end, we undertook a qualitative study to assess consumer perceptions, experiences and attitudes towards healthy and environmentally friendly foods and four target behaviours: reducing overconsumption of food beyond energy needs, reducing consumption of low-nutrient energy dense foods, eating less animal- and more plant-derived foods, and reducing food waste. Online in-depth interviews were held with 29 Australian food shoppers representing different levels of involvement with health and environment in daily food choices. The results indicate that compared to health, the relationship between food and the environment is rarely considered by consumers. The four target food behaviours were primarily associated and motivated by an impact on health, except for not wasting foods. Participants had the most positive attitude and highest motivation for eating less processed and packaged foods, mostly to avoid excessive packaging and 'chemicals' in foods. This was followed by the behaviours reducing food waste and overconsumption. Conversely, there was a predominantly negative attitude towards, and low motivation for, eating less animal-derived products and more plant based foods. Overall, consumers found a joined concept of healthy and environmentally friendly foods an acceptable idea. We recommend that health should remain the overarching principle for policies and actions concerned with shifting consumer behaviours, as this personal benefit appears to have a greater potential to support behaviour change. Future consumer focused work could pay attention to framing behavioural messages, providing intermediate behavioural goals, and a multiple target approach to change habitual behaviours.