Social, temporal and situational influences on meat consumption in the UK population

Contextual factors influence food intake at eating occasions in young adults: A mixed effect analysis

Understanding eating behaviours of young adults is crucial for developing strategies to improve their diet quality. Factors that influence eating behaviours are often multifaceted and highly contextual, with little research focused on young adults. This study examined contextual factors influencing food intake at eating occasions among young adults. Participants (n = 675, 18-30 years) recorded dietary intake and contextual characteristics at eating occasions (n = 27,513) using a smartphone food diary ("FoodNow") over three to four non-consecutive days. Food and beverage intakes were classified into six groups according to the Australian Dietary Guidelines. Eating occasion-level contextual factors, such as consumption location, purchase location, activity, and social context, were recorded via the app, while person-level contextual factors were collected through an online survey. Generalised mixed models with random intercepts were used to investigate effects of contextual factors on food group consumption at meals and snacks. Eating location was associated with vegetable and discretionary food intake; meals that were eaten while in transit were 0.59 serves lower in vegetables (95% CI: -0.93, -0.38; p < 0.001) and 0.31 serves higher in discretionary foods (95% CI: 0.03, 0.54; p = 0.014), compared meals eaten at home. Higher intakes of discretionary foods were observed when friends were present at meals and snacks (0.66 and 0.57 serves, 95% CI: 0.56, 0.88; 0.36, 0.77, p < 0.001). Meals purchased from convenience stores were higher in grain and discretionary foods than meals from other locations (p < 0.001). Majority of person-level factors showed minimal effects on food group consumption. Addressing factors such as purchase location and social contexts during meals and snacks may improve food choices, as small changes at eating occasions can significantly impact overall diet quality over time.

Social norms and young adults' self-reported meat and plant-based meal intake: Findings from two online cross-sectional studies

Plant-based eating is beneficial for human and planetary health. It is important to identify factors which may encourage people to reduce meat, and increase plant-based meal intake. Perceived social norms are associated with meat and plant-based meal intake in adults, however, less is known about the relationship between perceived social norms and young adults' own self-reported meat and plant-based eating in general, and in different social contexts. Across two online studies we examined this. In Study 1 (n = 217 young adults, aged 18-25 years, mean age = 19.50 years, SD = 1.37 years, mean BMI = 24.21, SD = 5.45, 91% cisfemale, 92.0% omnivores), perceived descriptive (the perceived behaviour of others) and injunctive (the perceived approval of others) norms were measured in general. In study 2 (n = 151 young adults aged 18-25 years, mean age = 19.62 years, SD = 1.50 years, mean BMI = 24.32, SD = 4.99, 88.8% cisfemale, 71.1% omnivore), perceived descriptive and injunctive norms were examined in a variety of social contexts. In Study 1, perceived descriptive norms about friends were associated with self-reported meat, and descriptive norms about peers and friends, and injunctive norms about friends were positively associated with self-reported plant-based meal intake. In Study 2, descriptive norms about friends were associated with self-reported meat intake in fast-food restaurants and at friends' houses, and injunctive norms about friends were associated with meat intake in restaurants. There were no other significant associations between either type of social norm and meat or plant-based meal intake. We provide the first evidence that peers and friends may be relevant for plant-based meal intake, and only friends may be relevant for meat intake. Further research is needed to examine people's actual food intake, and in longitudinal studies to rule out reverse causality.

Nature's beauty versus urban bustle: Chinese folk music influences food choices by inducing mental imagery of different scenes

Previous research has demonstrated that music can impact people's food choices by triggering emotional states. We reported two virtual reality (VR) experiments designed to examine how Chinese folk music influences people's food choices by inducing mental imagery of different scenes. In both experiments, young healthy Chinese participants were asked to select three dishes from an assortment of two meat and two vegetable dishes while listening to Chinese folk music that could elicit mental imagery of nature or urban scenes. The results of Experiment 1 revealed that they chose vegetable-forward meals more frequently while listening to Chinese folk music eliciting mental imagery of nature versus urban scenes. In Experiment 2, the participants were randomly divided into three groups, in which the prevalence of their mental imagery was enhanced, moderately suppressed, or strongly suppressed by performing different tasks while listening to the music pieces. We replicated the results of Experiment 1 when the participants' mental imagery was enhanced, whereas no such effect was observed when the participants' mental imagery was moderately or strongly suppressed. Collectively, these findings suggest that music may influence the food choices people make in virtual food choice tasks by inducing mental imagery, which provides insights into utilizing environmental cues to promote healthier food choices.

Understanding the Meat-Masculinity Link: Traditional and Non-Traditional Masculine Norms Predicting Men's Meat Consumption

Conformity to masculinity ideology predicts men's meat consumption and willingness to reduce their meat intake, but it is unknown which specific masculine norms account for these relationships. This study investigated which traditional and non-traditional masculine norms predict meat consumption, red and processed meat consumption, and willingness to reduce meat consumption in 557 Australian and English males. Men who support the use of physical violence and place high importance on sex ate more meat. Willingness to reduce was highest among men with gender egalitarian views. Targeting these specific masculine norms may be important for mitigating men's overconsumption of meat.

Red and Red Processed Meat Consumption Behaviors in Scottish Adults

In 2021, 32% of adult meat consumers in Scotland exceeded the 70 g/d recommended limit of red and red processed meat (RPM) intake. We analyzed RPM consumption behaviors among adults in the Scottish Health Survey (2021) to better understand this consumer group. Consumers were categorized into low, medium, and high consumers, and overall, mean intake was 66 g/d. Males and individuals living in the most deprived areas were most likely to be high consumers (45% compared with 30% for males compared with females, respectively, and 44% compared with 32% for those in the most compared with least deprived areas, respectively). Dinners accounted for the majority of intake among high (55%) and medium (52%) consumers, whereas low consumers distributed intake between lunch (40%) and dinner (48%). Across all groups, consumption was highest on Sundays, and majority of RPM was purchased at supermarkets. Beef dishes and sandwiches were primary contributors among high and medium consumers. These insights can inform the design of effective strategies and policies aligned with meat reduction targets. For instance, strategies focusing on modifying traditional meat-centric dishes and sandwiches could be impactful.

Food availability, perceived food environment and social norm perceptions of healthy and vegetarian food consumption at a public music festival in the Netherlands: a cross-sectional study

Objective

To gain insight into the food availability, the perceived food environment, and social norm perceptions in favour of healthy and vegetarian food consumption at a festival.

Design

Two cross-sectional substudies were conducted to audit food and beverages at the festival, and to measure visitors' perceptions of the festival food environment (accessibility, affordability, availability, diversity, quality) and their social norms perceptions via a mobile survey.

Setting

Public music festival, the Netherlands.

Sample

75 food stands and 153 adult festival visitors.

Results

75 food stands offered 627 food and beverage items, of which 92.4% were not supportive of a healthy diet. Of all food items, 46.6% were vegetarian (including 20% fries). Participants especially perceived the festival food environment as unsupportive of healthy choices. They also had weak descriptive and injunctive social norm perceptions in favour of healthy and vegetarian food consumption. However, they had stronger descriptive (t(152)=-5.5; p<0.001) and injunctive norm perceptions (t(152)=-4.5; p<0.001) of vegetarian food consumption (mean descriptive social norm perception=2.42; SD=0.82; mean injunctive social norm perception=3.14; SD=0.78), than healthy food consumption (mean descriptive social norm perception=2.10; SD=0.76; mean injunctive social norm perception=2.93; SD=0.78). Participants had stronger injunctive than descriptive social norm perceptions of healthy (t(152)=-12.4; p<0.001) and vegetarian (t(152)=-11.3; p<0.001) food consumption. Participants' perceived food environment and their perception of social norms were positively correlated.

Conclusion

The festival's food environment appears unsupportive of healthy and vegetarian food consumption. The limited availability of healthy and vegetarian food coincided with weak social norm perceptions encouraging their consumption, particularly descriptive norms that arise from observing others. The food environment may stand in the way of developing descriptive norms for the consumption of healthy and vegetarian food, as people can only see others consume food that is available. Implementation of public event policies could support healthier, more sustainable festivals.

How perceptions of meat consumption norms differ across contexts and meat consumer groups

Social norm perceptions are implicit standards describing what is typically done or seen as acceptable and have shown to be important both in sustaining meat consumption as well as facilitating meat reduction. Norm perceptions depend on individual differences and the contexts (e.g., supermarket, restaurant). Yet, evidence how norm perceptions differ within and across individuals is scarce. The primary aim of this study was to investigate how descriptive, injunctive, and personal norms perceptions favouring meat consumption differ across contexts and meat consumer groups. The second aim was to investigate how generic dynamic norm perceptions vary across meat consumer groups. British meat eaters (n = 1205, 25-65 years) participated in an online cross-sectional survey. Weekly meat, fish and meat substitute consumption was measured with the adapted Oxford Meat Frequency Questionnaire. All but dynamic norm perceptions were measured for the supermarket, restaurant and worksite cafeteria context. Dynamic norms were measured without a specified context. A two-step cluster analysis was conducted to identify meat consumer groups. Descriptive norm perceptions favouring meat consumption were strongest in supermarket and restaurant contexts, compared to the worksite cafeteria. Injunctive and personal norms favouring meat consumption were both perceived strongest in the supermarket, followed by the restaurant, and least in the worksite cafeteria context. Four meat consumer groups were identified and those with higher meat intake (i.e., Meat lovers and Exceeders) perceived norms favouring meat consumption stronger and norms favouring meat avoidance weaker than the groups with lower meat intake (i.e., Flexitarians and Moderates). While norm perceptions differed between meat consumer groups, the pattern of contextual differences is similar for these meat consumer groups. Our findings underscore the importance of considering contexts and meat consumer groups in efforts to reduce meat consumption.

Increasing meat-free meal selections: The role of social identity salience and identity-related meal names

Avoiding meat overconsumption is good for the environment and people's health. Changing meal names represents a simple, cost-effective way of increasing meat-free meal selection in restaurants. In the past, however, this approach has shown limited effectiveness. The activation of different social identities may explain inconsistencies in prior findings and offer a powerful leverage point for influencing meal choices. We recruited participants (N = 899) who identified as "meat-eaters" for an online experiment in which they were asked to select a meal from a menu that included meat-free and meat-based burgers. We manipulated (1) social identity salience (meat-eater identity; sustainable identity; personal identity) and (2) the meal names on the menu (vegetarian name; sustainable name; neutral name). Our findings show that activating a sustainable identity significantly increases the odds of selecting a meat-free burger (22%) compared to alternative identity conditions (meat-eater identity 12%, personal identity 12%). Sustainable meal names outperform vegetarian but not neutral meal names (sustainable name 20%, vegetarian name 12%, neutral name 15%). When participants who previously selected a meat-based burger (N = 760) were limited to meat-free menu options, satisfaction and enjoyment ratings dropped steeply. This drop was significantly stronger in the meat-eater identity condition. Accounting for identity salience can lead to more targeted, improved interventions that increase meat-free meal selections by accounting for people's different social identities and the social context in which food consumption tends to occur.

Sustainable healthy diet modeling for a plant-based dietary transitioning in the United States

The potential environmental and nutritional benefits of plant-based dietary shifts require thorough investigation to outline suitable routes to achieve these benefits. Whereas dietary consumption is usually in composite forms, sustainable healthy diet assessments have not adequately addressed composite diets. In this study, we build on available data in the Food4HealthyLife calculator to develop 3 dietary concepts (M) containing 24 model composite diet scenarios (S) assessed for their environmental and nutritional performances. The Health Nutritional Index (HENI) and Food Compass scoring systems were used for nutritional quality profiling and estimates of environmental impact were derived from previously reported midpoint impact values for foods listed in the What We Eat in America database. The diets were ranked using the Kruskal‒Wallis nonparametric test, and a dual-scale data chart was employed for a trade-off analysis to identify the optimal composite diet scenario. The results showcased a distinct variation in ranks for each scenario on the environment and nutrition scales, describing an inherent nonlinear relationship between environmental and nutritional performances. However, trade-off analysis revealed a diet with 10% legumes, 0.11% red meat, 0.28% processed meat and 2.81% white meat could reduce global warming by 54.72% while yielding a diet quality of 74.13 on the Food Compass Scoring system. These observations provide an interesting forecast of the benefits of transitioning to an optimal plant- and animal-based dieting pattern, which advances global nutritional needs and environmental stewardship among consumers.

Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Self-Selective Diets and Risk of Metabolic Syndrome in Adults 40 and Older: A Prospective Cohort Study in South Korea

BACKGROUND

The food system accounts for ∼ 40 % of human-generated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Meanwhile, daily diet selection also impacts human nutrition status and health.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to use the alternate Mediterranean Diet (aMED) score to evaluate the quality of a low-GHG emission diet and the association with risk of developing metabolic syndrome (MetS).

METHODS

A total of 41,659 healthy participants without MetS 40 y of age or older were selected from the Health Examinees Study, an ongoing cohort study in South Korea from 2004. A dietary GHG emissions database was compiled following a national project and literature review. MetS was defined according to the Adult Treatment Panel III criteria of the National Cholesterol Education Program. The participants were grouped into quintiles based on 2,000  kcal -standardized daily diet-GHG emissions (Q1: the lowest energy-adjusted diet-GHG emissions). A multivariable logistic regression model was used to analyze the risk for MetS at follow-up. The aMED score was used to assess the diet quality of the different diet-related GHG emission groups.

RESULTS

Females with lower energy-adjusted diet-related GHG emissions had significantly lower risks of developing MetS (p = 0.0043 ) than those with the highest energy-adjusted diet-related GHG emissions. In addition, the Q1 group, in comparison with the other groups, had a higher aMED score (3.02 for males and 3.00 for females), which indicated that the participants in this group had a diet that more closely matched the Mediterranean diet.

DISCUSSION

These findings provide a reference for dietary guidance and other policies aimed toward improving dietary intake and reducing diet-related GHG emissions in South Korea and worldwide. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12727.

"I guess it's quite trendy": A qualitative insight into young meat-eaters' sustainable food consumption habits and perceptions towards current and future protein alternatives

As the market for sustainable food continues to expand, there is a need to understand how consumers' consumption habits and perceptions are changing. Targeting the younger populations is of interest as they arguably will shape the future of food. Therefore, the present study aimed to provide in-depth consumer insights on a range of topics from current consumption habits (i.e., meat reduction, plant-based meat/seafood (PBM/S)), towards future protein alternatives (i.e., cell-based meat/seafood (CBM/S), precision fermented dairy (PFD)). Online focus groups were conducted in the UK with meat-eaters (n = 38) aged 18-34. Codebook thematic analysis was applied using the Framework Matrix as a tool for data analysis. Key themes were presented using the COM-B model (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation), which identified areas of behavioural change. Results found a trend towards meat reduction, partially initiated by moving away from home and limited food budgets. Overall, participants acknowledged the environmental impact of food, but a notable knowledge gap was apparent when quantifying the effect, especially for dairy and seafood. Compared to PBM, few participants had tried PBS products, partially due to lower availability and familiarity. Enablers for PBM/S included convenience, positive sensory experiences and the influence of others, whilst barriers related to negative health connotations and over-processing. For CBM/S and PFD, animal welfare, curiosity and optimised nutrition acted as enablers, whilst barriers related to wider consumer acceptance, affordability and unnaturalness. In general, participants felt changing food consumption habits can have an impact on climate change and were optimistic about novel technologies supporting future protein transitions. Increasing public understanding around the environmental impact of food, especially seafood and dairy, and prioritising the affordability of sustainable food are suggested as intervention strategies to encourage sustainable food consumption.

How do defaults and framing influence food choice? An intervention aimed at promoting plant-based choice in online menus

Nudging consumers towards plant-based foods by making these choices the default option is a promising strategy for effecting sustainable dietary change. In the hypothetical context of online food ordering in a Northern European country, we examined the underlying mechanisms and effectiveness of swapping the default in menus from meat to a plant-based meat alternative. Results showed that pre-selecting a plant-based option in the online setting was not enough to increase choice of plant-based meals alone. Rather, additionally framing the plant-based default as the more sustainable or tasty option was needed to significantly increase choice. While ease was unimportant and held constant in this online setting, endowment and implied endorsement were found to mediate default success such that the positive influence of endowment outweighed the (surprising) negative effect via endorsement. In contrast to general theoretical expectations of default nudges, an endorsement by an online food provider is unlikely to encourage plant-based choices.

The effect of social norms on vegetarian choices is moderated by intentions to follow a vegetarian diet in the future: Evidence from a laboratory and field study

Social norms could be a tool in dietary transition toward more sustainable diets, but the results of social norms interventions aimed at encouraging the selection of plant-based foods to date have been inconsistent. One reason for this might be because there are important moderating factors that have yet to be investigated. Here we examine social modeling of vegetarian food choices and test whether modeling is dependent upon individual intentions to follow a vegetarian diet in the future in two different settings. In a laboratory study of 37 women, participants with low intentions to become a vegetarian consumed fewer plant-based foods in the presence of a vegetarian confederate, compared to eating alone. In an observational study of 1,037 patrons of a workplace restaurant, participants with a higher score of on vegetarian intentions had a greater likelihood of taking a vegetarian main course or starter, and a vegetarian social norm was associated with a greater likelihood of a vegetarian choice for the main course but not for the starter. These data suggest that participants with low intentions to follow a vegetarian diet may exhibit reactance against an explicit vegetarian norm in an unfamiliar context (as in Study 1) but that general norm following regardless of dietary intentions be more likely when it is conveyed implicitly in a familiar context (as in Study 2).

Personal values, motives, and healthy and sustainable food choices: Examining differences between home meals and restaurant meals

People are increasingly eating out in restaurants, where meals tend to be higher in calories, less nutritious, and contain more meat. In this paper, we argue that differences in the motivational processes underlying people's food choices could help to explain why food choices made in restaurants are typically unhealthier and less sustainable than at home. Using online survey data from 301 Dutch participants, we compared the influence of stable personal values and transient food choice motives on the healthiness and sustainability of meals chosen in a hypothetical choice task, which was geared to the home and restaurant consumption contexts. As expected, participants opted for unhealthy and meat-based meals more often in the restaurant than the home context. Conservation values related negatively and self-transcendence values positively to choosing sustainable meals both in the home and in the restaurant context, although the relation with self-transcendence values was significantly weaker in the restaurant context. Also, taste and social eating were considered more important for choosing restaurant meals, while health was a more important motive for food choices at home. Finally, model comparisons revealed that motives were better predictors of healthy meal choices in both contexts, while the influence of values and motives on sustainable meal choices was more similar. In conclusion, the results from the present study enhance our understanding of differences between choosing home and restaurant meals by providing an account of the values and motives associated with the healthiness and sustainability of home and restaurant meal choices.

Experimental evidence of the impact of framing of actors and victims in conservation narratives

Media narratives play a crucial role in framing marine conservation dilemmas by depicting human actors, such as fish consumers or the fishing industry, as responsible for negative effects of their actions on species and ecosystems. However, there is little evidence documenting how such narratives affect preferences for reducing bycatch. Behavioral science research shows that people can act less prosocially when more actors are responsible for a collective outcome (responsibility diffusion effect) and when more victims need to be helped (compassion fade effect); thus, the media's framing of actors and victims may have a significant effect on preferences. We conducted the first test of responsibility diffusion and compassion fade in a marine context in an online experiment (1548 participants in the United Kingdom). In 9 media narratives, we varied the type of actors responsible for fisheries bycatch (e.g., consumers and industry) and victims (e.g., a single species, multiple species, and ecosystems) in media narratives and determined the effects of the narratives on participants' support for bycatch policies and intentions to alter fish consumption. When responsibility for negative effects was attributed to consumers and industry, the probability of participants reporting support for fisheries policies (e.g., bycatch enforcement or consumer taxes) was ∼30% higher (odds ratio = 1.32) than when only consumers were attributed responsibility. These effects were primarily driven by female participants. Narratives had no effect on personal intentions to consume fish. Varying the type of victim had no effect on policy support and intentions. Our results suggest that neither responsibility diffusion nor compassion fade automatically follows from increasing the types of actors and victims in media narratives and that effects can depend on the type of outcome and population subgroup.

Social Norms Support the Protein Transition: The Relevance of Social Norms to Explain Increased Acceptance of Alternative Protein Burgers over 5 Years

Developing alternative protein products-based on protein sources other than regular meat-is a possible pathway to counter environmental and health burdens. However, alternative proteins are not always accepted by consumers, and more research is needed to support a shift to more alternative proteins. Prior studies have mainly focused on individual drivers and perceptions; although we expect that social norms-the perceptions of the opinions of relevant others-are highly relevant in accepting alternative proteins. Online surveys were conducted among 2461 respondents in 2015 and 2000 respondents in 2019 (cross-sectional datasets); a subsample (n = 500) responded to both surveys (longitudinal dataset). We add to the literature by (1) demonstrating the added explanatory value of social norms beyond a range of individual drivers; (2) showing that this finding holds over time, and (3) comparing the impact of social norms across different dietary consumer groups. Meat lovers and flexitarians are more prone to follow social norms whereas meat abstainers are more prone to follow their individual attitudes and values. This study highlights the relevance of investigations beyond personal variables such as personal norms and attitudes and underscores the relevance of considering the social aspects of accepting alternative proteins.

Plant-Based Only: Investigating Consumers' Sensory Perception, Motivation, and Knowledge of Different Plant-Based Alternative Products on the Market

Consumer acceptance and product development of sustainable, healthy, and tasty plant-based alternative products (PBAPs) are closely interlinked. However, information on consumer perceptions of the sensory profile of plant-based meat, cheese, and milk remains scarce. The study aimed to investigate German consumers’ (1) sensory evaluation of PBAPs and (2) consumers´ motivations and knowledge underlying the purchase of such products. This was analyzed in relation to different dietary styles of consumers (omnivore, flexitarian, vegetarian, vegan). A sample of 159 adults completed two tasks: first, a sensory test in which participants tasted and rated three different PBAPs in two consecutive sessions, and second, a questionnaire on consumption behavior, motivation, and knowledge. Results show few differences between nutrition styles in sensory evaluation of individual product attributes. However, overall liking was rated significantly higher by vegans than by omnivores. All dietary styles reported animal welfare and environmental aspects as the main motivations for consuming PBAPs. Most participants acknowledged that meat and cheese alternatives are highly processed foods and not a fad but are not automatically healthier or more environmentally friendly than their animal-based counterparts. Future research should focus on emerging product segments such as plant-based cheeses to better understand how consumers evaluate PBAPs.

A reversal of defaults: Implementing a menu-based default nudge to promote out-of-home consumer adoption of plant-based meat alternatives

Restaurants are characterized by high levels of meat being consumed in this out-of-home setting, while plant-based meat alternatives remain a niche product, thus preserving a high environmental impact of food consumption. We tested whether subtly re-designing the restaurant menu, so that plant-based meat alternatives were perceived as the default to a greater extent, increased consumer selection of plant-based meat alternatives. Consumers' freedom of choice was preserved by leaving all choice options on the menu. An online experiment in The Netherlands showed that consumers choose plant-based meat alternatives more often relative to meat when the plant-based option is framed as the default. In a field experiment in a Dutch restaurant, we found that the amount of ordered plant-based meat alternative dishes substantially increased relative to an equivalent meat dish when implementing a default nudge (bean alternative: from 8.6% to 80.0%; seaweed alternative: from 16.1% to 58.3%). Thus, re-designing the menu in a way that suggests that plant-based meat alternatives are the default, while preserving autonomous decision-making, is a promising route to promote out-of-home adoption of plant-based meat alternatives in restaurants.

Where we work determines what we eat: A qualitative exploration of the multi-dimensional influences on meat consumption when home and office working during the Covid 19 lockdown in London, UK

Food choices, including the decision to consume meat, are complex and determined by many inter-related influences. This study examined the choice of working professionals to consume meat in the context of forced changes in working conditions during lockdowns in London during the Covid 19 outbreak in 2020–21. Guided by an adapted Ecological Framework depicting influences on food choice in this context, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 33 employees of a financial services consultancy who normally work from offices in central London but were homeworking at the time of research. Food choices associated with all meals (but especially lunches) when working in each setting were explored. Four key themes emerged from the research. Firstly, when office-working the influence of colleagues (social environment factor) on the choice to consume meat was variable and individual-level factors, particularly personality traits, impacted the extent of social influence. Secondly, limited availability of non-meat options and preferences for buying meat-based meals outside the home (physical environment factor), contributed to more meat consumption when office-working. Thirdly, alignment of food choices between household members (social environment factor), largely for convenience reasons, resulted in a greater likelihood of non-meat meals being eaten when homeworking. Finally, not having to commute (physical environment factor) meant participants had more time available, resulting in changes to routines and priorities (individual-level factors), with some reduced meat consumption. Overall, research findings contribute to building understanding of how both home and office-working influence the choice to consume meat. Findings may be used to inform strategies to reduce meat consumption, which will in turn play a role in supporting global climate change targets and reducing harm to the natural environment associated with food choices.

Making More Sustainable Food Choices One Meal at a Time: Psychological and Practical Aspects of Meat Reduction and Substitution

Switching out meat in favour of plant-based alternatives such as meat substitutes is an important step towards eating more sustainably. Here, the aim was to identify and explore the specific barriers experienced by Swedish consumers when replacing meat with more sustainable alternatives. All meat-eating participants in this study reported some interest in reducing their meat consumption. Aspects of home-use and central-location test methods were combined by using a digital conferencing system to host cooking sessions and focus group discussions online, which was shown to be a viable setup even in this hands-on setting. The discussions targeted participants' experience preparing meals using meat substitutes as well as their perceived motivators and barriers to reducing meat consumption. Four themes identified through thematic analysis indicated that meat-eating participants, despite their desire or intent to reduce their meat consumption, experienced barriers relating to the following: internal conflict due to holding multiple positive and negative beliefs about meat simultaneously (ambivalence), justification of eating meat (rationalisation), a desire for variety in and control over their food choices (agency), and sensitivity to the views and expectations of other people and the situational context regarding meat (social and structuralfactors). Possible strategies to support ambivalent individuals in aligning their behaviour with their beliefs instead of vice versa are discussed in the context of the meat paradox. Agency and practical skills, including increasing knowledge in preparing meals with plant-based proteins, likely play a role in bridging this intention-behaviour gap.

Eating out of Home: Influence on Nutrition, Health, and Policies: A Scoping Review

Eating out of home (EOH) is a common practice worldwide but research gaps have been identified. The aims of this review were (a) to find a common definition for EOH, (b) to determine the nutritional contribution of EOH, and (c) to analyze the relationship of EOH with health parameters in adults. Fifty-seven articles were finally selected. The definition of EOH was not harmonized between researchers and the comparison between studies was quite difficult. Restaurant and fast food were the terms most used, followed by chain restaurant, à la carte, sit-down restaurant, eating at table, full service, ready to eat, takeaway, buffet and buffet by weight, bar, cafes, and cafeterias, either alone or attached to at least one of the above. The profile of the main EOH participant was a highly educated, high-income, and unmarried young man. EOH was related to a body mass index (BMI) or being overweight in a different way depending on age, sex, or EOH frequency. A high rate of EOH led to poorer diet quality, characterized by higher intakes of energy, total and saturated fats, sugar, and sodium, as well as lower intakes of fiber, dairy, fruit, vegetables, and micronutrients. Regarding beverages, a higher intake of soft drinks, sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juices, beer, and other alcohol was observed when EOH. There is a need for a methodological consensus for analyzing the impact of EOH on dietary intake and health to avoid bias. Additionally, measures and policies should be utilized to help consumers to make healthier choices when EOH is compatible with business regarding those running EOH establishments.

The lack of opportunity to eat together is associated with an increased risk of weight loss among independent older adults: a prospective cohort study based on the JAGES

OBJECTIVE

the present study aimed to investigate the relationship between the frequency of eating together and the risk of weight loss in older adults.

METHODS

this was a three-year follow-up prospective cohort study based on a self-reported questionnaire. We used data from the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study (JAGES) conducted in 2016 and 2019. The participants were independent older adults aged ≥65 years in Japan. We used >5% weight loss during follow-up as the outcome variable and frequency of eating together as the explanatory variable. The relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were estimated based on the Poisson regression model with a Huber-White sandwich estimator for standard errors, including possible confounders.

RESULTS

among 56,919 participants, the mean age was 73.0 years (1SD = 5.5) at baseline, and 47.9% were male. About 15.1% (n = 8,596) of the participants experienced >5% weight loss during follow-up. The proportion of each category of the eating together frequency was 36.6% for 'every day', 10.3% for 'several times a week', 26.8% for 'several times a month', 20.5% for 'several times a year' and 5.8% for 'seldom'. Compared to 'every day', only 'several times a year (RR = 1.07, 95% CI = 1.01-1.13)' and 'seldom (RR = 1.17, 95% CI = 1.08-1.27)' were significantly associated with the increased risk of >5% weight loss.

CONCLUSION

there is a temporal association between less frequent opportunities to eat together and the increased risk of weight loss among independent older adults.

The role of plant-based alternative foods in sustainable and healthy food systems: Consumption trends in the UK

A global transformation towards sustainable food systems is crucial for delivering on climate change mitigation targets worldwide. In high- and middle-income settings, plant-based meat and dairy alternatives present potential substitutes for animal sourced foods, and a pathway to transition to more sustainable diets. We examined plant-based alternative foods (PBAF) consumption trends in the UK by analysing repeated cross-sectional food consumption data from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2008-2019. Dietary data for 15,655 individuals aged 1.5 years and over were analysed to assess aggregate change in intake of PBAF and six other food groups that play a role in transformative dietary change. Characteristics associated with consumption of PBAF were explored using logistic regression, and consumption patterns in high and low meat consumers were explored by examining intake of potential animal product substitute food groups. The proportion of individuals reporting consumption of any PBAFs increased from 6.7% in 2008-2011, to 13.1% in 2017-2019 (p < 0.01). Compared to 2008-2011 PBAF consumption rose by 115% in 2017-2019 (p < 0.01). Females were 46% more likely than males to report consumption of PBAF (p < 0.01). Millennials (age 24-39 years) were the most likely generation to report PBAF consumption (p < 0.01 compared to generation Z (age 11-23 years) and traditionalists (age 75+ years)), as were individuals of the highest income tertile (p < 0.01). Among "low meat consumers", PBAF consumption was on average higher than "high meat consumers" (18.6 g versus 4.8 g PBAF per day, p < 0.01). Our results support the hypothesis of a pivotal role of PBAF in the transition towards sustainable food systems in the UK, by demonstrating they are becoming increasingly popular among UK consumers. This highlights the urgent need to assess in detail the environmental and health impacts of large scale and population-wide consumption of PBAF in comparison to their animal-based equivalents.

Trends in UK meat consumption: analysis of data from years 1-11 (2008-09 to 2018-19) of the National Diet and Nutrition Survey rolling programme

BACKGROUND

High meat consumption, particularly red meat and processed meat, negatively affects our health, while meat production is one of the largest contributors to global warming and environmental degradation. The aim of our study was to explore trends in meat consumption within the UK and the associated changes in environmental impact. We also aimed to identify any differences in intake associated with gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and year of birth.

METHODS

Our study aimed to describe consumption of red, white, and processed meat within the UK, using data from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey rolling programme (2008-09 to 2018-19), and the associated changes in environmental impact. Meat consumption was based on disaggregated meat data, from 4 day food diaries that excluded all non-meat components of composite dishes. For each year surveyed, trends for meat intake were reported as mean grams per capita per day and linear-regression models were used to test for trends. We used multivariable linear-regression models to examine differences among consumers, as a percentage of food energy, by gender, ethnicity, equivalised household income, and year of birth.

FINDINGS

From 2008 to 2019, average meat consumption per capita per day decreased from 103·7 g (SE 2·3) to 86·3 g (2·9) per day (ptrend<0·0001), including an absolute reduction in red-meat consumption of 13·7 g (ptrend<0·0001), an absolute reduction in processed meat consumption of 7·0 g (ptrend<0·0001), and a 3·2 g increase (ptrend=0·0027) in white-meat consumption. Collectively, these changes were associated with a significant reduction in all six environmental indicators over the whole period. The two middle birth-year groups (people born in 1960-79 and 1980-99) and White individuals were the highest meat consumers. Meat intake increased over time among people born after 1999, was unchanged among Asian and Asian British populations, and decreased in all other population subgroups. We found no difference in intake with gender or household income.

INTERPRETATION

Despite the overall reduction in meat intake, reaching meat-consumption targets that align with sustainable diets will require a substantial acceleration of this trend.

FUNDING

The Wellcome Trust, Our Planet Our Health programme (Livestock, Environment, and People).

Young adults' experiences with flexitarianism: The 4Cs

Meat reduction has important implications for public health and the environment. With people more likely to reduce their meat consumption than eliminate it completely, there is increased interest in flexitarian (reduced meat) diets. Young adults in particular are transitioning towards a flexitarian diet, yet there is very little research on this crucial sub-set of the population. In this research, 23 interviews are conducted with young adults aged 18-35 in New Zealand to explore their lived experiences (i.e., motivations, strategies and barriers) towards flexitarianism. The research finds young adults are encouraged to transition towards flexitarianism due to increased control, through a transition away from home which is enabled through cooking strategies, social support and experimentation. Young flexitarians are motivated to reduce meat consumption due to concern about various individual (health, variety, price, reduce social unease) and altruistic (environment and ethics) motivations. Continued meat consumption is mainly driven by a need to compromise at social gatherings, and due to positive associations with variety, nutrients and fullness as well as taste due to cravings. The findings have several implications for social marketing and public health, particularly around supportive social settings, seeing flexitarianism as a 'not all or nothing approach' (one does not have to be a full vegetarian or a meat eater, but can instead be something in between), positive emotions such as pride associated with meat reduction, and that documentaries and social networks are key triggers for meat reduction.

Are mixed meat and vegetable protein products good alternatives for reducing meat consumption? A case study with burgers

The principal motivations for the worldwide trend towards reducing meat consumption are health, the environment and animal welfare. The present study investigated the willingness of omnivores to introduce mixed (beef-vegetable protein) and 100% vegetable protein products into their diet. The participants (n = 251) were young adult omnivores who consumed meat at least once a week. The stimuli were images of six different products representing two beef burgers, two mixed-protein burgers (50% beef and 50% seitan or soy) and two 100% vegetable protein burgers (seitan and soy). The participants were asked to write down spontaneous associations with each product (Word Association technique) and score their expected liking and purchase intention for them. In addition, they completed a questionnaire (36 statements) to evaluate their attitude towards meat reduction, considering six aspects: diet, habits, ethics, hedonism, health, and the environment. According to their response to these statements, they were classified into three attitude groups: anti- (ANTI, n = 106), intermediate- (INTERM, n = 89), and pro- (PRO, n = 56) meat reduction. All the participants expected to like the 100% beef burger most, the PRO group expected to like all six products to a similar degree and the ANTI group expected to like the mixed product significantly more than the 100% vegetable product, indicating that the introduction of mixed proteins could be a small first step towards meat reduction for those most attached to meat. The associations elicited by the different burgers were mostly the same but were mentioned with different frequencies, which also depended on the attitude group. These distinctive association patterns showed clear connections to the motives underlying each group's attitude towards meat reduction. It may be concluded that mixed products would be a reliable although timid option for consumers who are attached to meat to reduce their meat intake, while any of the products containing vegetable proteins would be an option for consumers who are more favourable towards meat reduction.

Qualitative Evaluation of the STOEMP Network in Ghent: An Intersectoral Approach to Make Healthy and Sustainable Food Available to All

The STOEMP network is, to our knowledge, one of the first initiatives to bring different sectors together in a municipality so as to increase accessibility to healthy and sustainable foods for all, with particular attention for the disadvantaged population. This qualitative study aimed to gain an in-depth insight into how the STOEMP network aims to reach its goal of making healthy, sustainable food available to everyone, through an intersectoral, collaborative process, exploring the facilitators and challenges of taking a systems-oriented approach to achieving this. Interviews were conducted among 15 stakeholders of the STOEMP network between March-July 2019 in Ghent (Belgium). Factors that facilitated the development and work of the network are reported, including having an external, neutral process manager, shared values, multisector engagement, enthusiasm, resources, and sense of ownership, as well as the barriers that were faced, such as time issues, uncertainty regarding continuation and funding, and discrepancy in visions. These issues reflect the strengths and challenges of taking a systems approach that aims to formulate solutions to widening access to healthy and sustainable foods. STOEMP would like to influence policy and thereby strengthen its impact, but needs further discussions to collectively formulate exact needs.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the social facilitation of eating

BACKGROUND

Research suggests that people tend to eat more when eating with other people, compared with when they eat alone, and this is known as the social facilitation of eating. However, little is known about when and why this phenomenon occurs.

OBJECTIVES

This review aimed to quantify the evidence for social facilitation of eating and identify moderating factors and underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

We systematically reviewed studies that used experimental and nonexperimental approaches to examine food intake/food choice as a function of the number of co-eaters. The following databases were searched during April 2019: PsychInfo, Embase, Medline, and Social Sciences Citation Index. Studies that used naturalistic techniques were narratively synthesized, and meta-analyses were conducted to synthesize results from experimental studies.

RESULTS

We reviewed 42 studies. We found strong evidence that people select and eat more when eating with friends, compared with when they eat alone [Z = 5.32; P < 0.001; standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.48, 1.03]. The meta-analysis revealed no evidence for social facilitation across studies that had examined food intake when participants ate alone or with strangers/acquaintances (Z = 1.32; P = 0.19; SMD = 0.21, 95% CI: -0.10, 0.51). There was some evidence that the social facilitation of eating is moderated by gender, weight status, and food type. However, this evidence was limited by a lack of experimental research examining the moderating effect of these factors on the social facilitation of eating among friends. In 2 studies, there was evidence that the effect of the social context on eating may be partly mediated by longer meal durations and the perceived appropriateness of eating.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that eating with others increases food intake relative to eating alone, and this is moderated by the familiarity of co-eaters. The review identifies potential mechanisms for the social facilitation of eating and highlights the need for further research to establish mediating factors. Finally, we propose a new theoretical framework in which we suggest that the social facilitation of eating has evolved as an efficient evolutionary adaptation.