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Kunachowicz D, Ściskalska M, Kepinska M. Modulatory Effect of Lifestyle-Related, Environmental and Genetic Factors on Paraoxonase-1 Activity: A Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:2813. [PMID: 36833509 PMCID: PMC9957543 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20042813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is a calcium-dependent, HDL-bound serum hydrolase active toward a wide variety of substrates. PON1 displays three types of activities, among which lactonase, paraoxonase, arylesterase and phosphotriesterase can be distinguished. Not only is this enzyme a major organophosphate compound detoxifier, but it is also an important constituent of the cellular antioxidant system and has anti-inflammatory and antiatherogenic functions. The concentration and activity of PON1 is highly variable among individuals, and these differences can be both of genetic origin and be a subject of epigenetic regulation. Owing to the fact that, in recent decades, the exposure of humans to an increasing number of different xenobiotics has been continuously rising, the issues concerning the role and activity of PON1 shall be reconsidered with particular attention to growing pharmaceuticals intake, dietary habits and environmental awareness. In the following manuscript, the current state of knowledge concerning the influence of certain modifiable and unmodifiable factors, including smoking, alcohol intake, gender, age and genotype variation on PON1 activity, along with pathways through which these could interfere with the enzyme's protective functions, is presented and discussed. Since exposure to certain xenobiotics plays a key role in PON1 activity, the influence of organophosphates, heavy metals and several pharmaceutical agents is also specified.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marta Kepinska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Division of Biomedical and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University, Borowska 211A, 50–556 Wrocław, Poland
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Otocka-Kmiecik A. Effect of Carotenoids on Paraoxonase-1 Activity and Gene Expression. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14142842. [PMID: 35889799 PMCID: PMC9318174 DOI: 10.3390/nu14142842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is an antioxidant enzyme attached to HDL with an anti-atherogenic potential. It protects LDL and HDL from lipid peroxidation. The enzyme is sensitive to various modulating factors, such as genetic polymorphisms as well as pharmacological, dietary (including carotenoids), and lifestyle interventions. Carotenoids are nutritional pigments with antioxidant activity. The aim of this review was to gather evidence on their effect on the modulation of PON1 activity and gene expression. Carotenoids administered as naturally occurring nutritional mixtures may present a synergistic beneficial effect on PON1 status. The effect of carotenoids on the enzyme depends on age, ethnicity, gender, diet, and PON1 genetic variation. Carotenoids, especially astaxanthin, β-carotene, and lycopene, increase PON1 activity. This effect may be explained by their ability to quench singlet oxygen and scavenge free radicals. β-carotene and lycopene were additionally shown to upregulate PON1 gene expression. The putative mechanisms of such regulation involve PON1 CpG-rich region methylation, Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKKII) pathway induction, and upregulation via steroid regulatory element-binding protein-2 (SREBP-2). More detailed and extensive research on the mechanisms of PON1 modulation by carotenoids may lead to the development of new targeted therapies for cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneta Otocka-Kmiecik
- Department of Experimental Physiology, Medical University of Lodz, 6/8 Mazowiecka St., 92-215 Lodz, Poland
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3
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Morris G, Puri BK, Bortolasci CC, Carvalho A, Berk M, Walder K, Moreira EG, Maes M. The role of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein A and paraoxonase-1 in the pathophysiology of neuroprogressive disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 125:244-263. [PMID: 33657433 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Lowered high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol has been reported in major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, first episode of psychosis, and schizophrenia. HDL, its major apolipoprotein component, ApoA1, and the antioxidant enzyme paraoxonase (PON)1 (which is normally bound to ApoA1) all have anti-atherogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory roles, which are discussed in this paper. The paper details the pathways mediating the anti-inflammatory effects of HDL, ApoA1 and PON1 and describes the mechanisms leading to compromised HDL and PON1 levels and function in an environment of chronic inflammation. The molecular mechanisms by which changes in HDL, ApoA1 and PON1 might contribute to the pathophysiology of the neuroprogressive disorders are explained. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory actions of ApoM-mediated sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) signalling are reviewed as well as the deleterious effects of chronic inflammation and oxidative stress on ApoM/S1P signalling. Finally, therapeutic interventions specifically aimed at improving the levels and function of HDL and PON1 while reducing levels of inflammation and oxidative stress are considered. These include the so-called Mediterranean diet, extra virgin olive oil, polyphenols, flavonoids, isoflavones, pomegranate juice, melatonin and the Mediterranean diet combined with the ketogenic diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerwyn Morris
- Deakin University, IMPACT - The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | | | - Chiara C Bortolasci
- Deakin University, IMPACT - The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Deakin University, CMMR Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Andre Carvalho
- Deakin University, IMPACT - The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Michael Berk
- Deakin University, IMPACT - The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, The Department of Psychiatry and The Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ken Walder
- Deakin University, IMPACT - The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Deakin University, CMMR Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Estefania G Moreira
- Post-Graduation Program in Health Sciences, State University of Londrina, Londrina, PR, Brazil
| | - Michael Maes
- Deakin University, IMPACT - The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, King Chulalongkorn University Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand; Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
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Amani M, Darbin A, Pezeshkian M, Afrasiabi A, Safaie N, Jodati A, Darabi M, Shaaker M, Latifi Z, Fattahi A, Farjah GH, Nouri M, Khadem-Ansari MH. The role of cholesterol-enriched diet and paraoxonase 1 inhibition in atherosclerosis progression. J Cardiovasc Thorac Res 2017; 9:133-139. [PMID: 29118945 PMCID: PMC5670334 DOI: 10.15171/jcvtr.2017.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Atherosclerosis could be deemed as a chronic, progressive, and inflammatory disease. It has been well-documented that high-density lipoprotein (HDL) can reduce the risk of the atherosclerosis occurrence through exerting some anti-atherogenic mechanisms. In recent years, the strong evidence has suggested that paraoxonase 1 (PON1) may contribute to antioxidant properties of HDL. In the present study, the impact of a diet enriched with cholesterol and also the PON1 inhibition on atheroma formation and lipid profile has been investigated.
Methods: In this study, 24 New Zealand rabbits were randomly assigned to three groups receiving standard diet, atherogenic diet, and atherogenic diet plus once daily intramuscular injection of nandrolone decanoate as the PON1 inhibitor. Triglyceride, cholesterol, HDL, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) were determined and both cholesterol accumulation in aorta and fatty streak formation were evaluated.
Results: The comparison of the results in three groups reveals that cholesterol level in the group received cholesterol-enriched diet plus once daily injection of PON1 inhibitor was higher than the groups received standard diet or atherogenic diet without PON1 inhibitor (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the percentage of atheroma with type-I lesions was equal to 75% compared with the group received atherogenic diet plus nandrolone at 30%. Additionally, the differences in fatty streak formation in aorta, as well as the right and left coronary arteries in three groups given show that the difference between groups receiving atherogenic diet and standard diet was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than the difference between groups receiving atherogenic diet plus PON1 inhibitor and standard diet.
Conclusion: It can be concluded that lack of paraoxanase1 or even reduced the activity of this enzyme could accelerate the progression of fatty streak lesions toward advanced atherosclerotic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoumeh Amani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Akbar Darbin
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Masoud Pezeshkian
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Abbas Afrasiabi
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Naser Safaie
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ahmadreza Jodati
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Masoud Darabi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Maghsod Shaaker
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Zeinab Latifi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amir Fattahi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Gholam-Hossein Farjah
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Mohammad Nouri
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Affiliation(s)
- Narmadaa Thyagarajan
- From Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
| | - Alexander M Brannan
- From Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
| | - Robert J Brown
- From Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada.
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Moren X, Lhomme M, Bulla A, Sanchez JC, Kontush A, James RW. Proteomic and lipidomic analyses of paraoxonase defined high density lipoprotein particles: Association of paraoxonase with the anti-coagulant, protein S. Proteomics Clin Appl 2015; 10:230-8. [PMID: 26358807 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201500062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Revised: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Characterizing high density lipoprotein (HDL) particles and their relevance to HDL function is a major research objective. One aim is to identify functionally distinct particles. To try to limit both functional and compositional heterogeneity the present study focused on paraoxonase-1 (PON1) as a target for isolation of a minor HDL subfraction. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Immunoaffinity techniques were applied to isolate PON1-containing HDL (P-HDL) and total HDL (T-HDL), which were subsequently characterized and compared. RESULTS Analyses of the lipidomes showed significant differences between the fractions in the relative concentrations of individual lipid subspecies, notably reduced levels of unsaturated lysophosphatidylcholine (p < 0.05) in P-HDL (reflected in a significantly reduced total lysophosphatidylcholine polyunsaturated fatty acid content, p < 0.004). Significant differences were also observed for the proteomes. P-HDL was highly enriched in the anti-coagulant, vitamin K activated protein S (prot S) (p < 0.0001), and alpha2 macroglobulin (p < 0.01), compared to T-HDL. Conversely, procoagulant proteins kininogen 1 and histidine-rich glycoprotein were largely excluded from P-HDL. Immunoabsorption of PON1 from plasma significantly reduced prot S anti-coagulant activity. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The P-HDL lipidome and proteome showed significant differences from T-HDL. Enrichment in anti-coagulation proteins indicates complementary functionalities within P-HDL particles and underlines their anti-atherosclerotic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xenia Moren
- Clinical Diabetes Unit, Department of Medical Specialities, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marie Lhomme
- INSERM, UMR-ICAN, 1166, University of Pierre and Marie Curie - Paris 6, Pitié - Salpétrière University Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Bulla
- Department of Genetic and Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Charles Sanchez
- Translational Biomarker Group (TBG), Department of Human Protein Sciences, University Medical Centre, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anatol Kontush
- INSERM, UMR-ICAN, 1166, University of Pierre and Marie Curie - Paris 6, Pitié - Salpétrière University Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Richard W James
- Clinical Diabetes Unit, Department of Medical Specialities, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Lou-Bonafonte JM, Gabás-Rivera C, Navarro MA, Osada J. PON1 and Mediterranean Diet. Nutrients 2015; 7:4068-92. [PMID: 26024295 PMCID: PMC4488773 DOI: 10.3390/nu7064068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Mediterranean diet has been proven to be highly effective in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) has been implicated in the development of those conditions, especially atherosclerosis. The present work describes a systematic review of current evidence supporting the influence of Mediterranean diet and its constituents on this enzyme. Despite the differential response of some genetic polymorphisms, the Mediterranean diet has been shown to exert a protective action on this enzyme. Extra virgin olive oil, the main source of fat, has been particularly effective in increasing PON1 activity, an action that could be due to low saturated fatty acid intake, oleic acid enrichment of phospholipids present in high-density lipoproteins that favor the activity, and increasing hepatic PON1 mRNA and protein expressions induced by minor components present in this oil. Other Mediterranean diet constituents, such as nuts, fruits and vegetables, have been effective in modulating the activity of the enzyme, pomegranate and its compounds being the best characterized items. Ongoing research on compounds isolated from all these natural products, mainly phenolic compounds and carotenoids, indicates that some of them are particularly effective, and this may enhance the use of nutraceuticals and functional foods capable of potentiating PON1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Lou-Bonafonte
- Departamento de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud y del Deporte, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Aragón-Universidad de Zaragoza, Huesca, E-22002, Spain.
- CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, E-28029, Spain.
| | - Clara Gabás-Rivera
- CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, E-28029, Spain.
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Aragón-Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, E-50013, Spain.
| | - María A Navarro
- CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, E-28029, Spain.
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Aragón-Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, E-50013, Spain.
| | - Jesús Osada
- CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, E-28029, Spain.
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Aragón-Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, E-50013, Spain.
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Cohen E, Aviram M, Khatib S, Artoul F, Rabin A, Mannheim D, Karmeli R, Salamon T, Vaya J. Human carotid plaque phosphatidylcholine specifically interacts with paraoxonase 1, increases its activity, and enhances its uptake by macrophage at the expense of its binding to HDL. Free Radic Biol Med 2014; 76:14-24. [PMID: 25091896 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Human carotid atherosclerotic plaque is in direct contact with circulatory blood components. Thus, plaque and blood components may affect each other. The current study presents the effects of plaque chloroform:methanol (C:M) extract on the HDL-associated enzyme paraoxnase 1 (PON1). This study is part of our investigation on the mutual effects of the interactions between atherosclerotic lesions and blood components. Recombinant PON1 (rePON1) was incubated with the human carotid plaques C:M extract and PON1 activities were analyzed. Lactonase and paraoxonase activities were elevated due to C:M treatment, by 140 and by 69%, respectively. Analytical chemistry analyses revealed specific phosphatidylcholines (PCs) as the plaque active components. Tryptophan fluorescence quenching assay, together with molecular docking, shows that PON1 activity is enhanced in correlation with the level of PC affinity to PON1. Molecular docking revealed that PCs interact specifically with H2-PON1 α-helix, which together with H1 enzyme α-helix links the protein to the HDL surface. These findings are supported by additional results from the PON1 ∆20 mutant that lack its H1-α-helix. Incubation of this mutant with the plaque C:M extract increased PON1 activity by only 20%, much less than the wild-type PON1 that elevated PON1 activity at the same concentration by as much as 95%. Furthermore, as much as the affinity of the enzyme to the PC was augmented, the ability of PON1 to bind to the HDL particle decreased. Finally, PON1 interaction with PC enhance its uptake into the macrophage cytoplasm. In conclusions, Specific lesion phosphatidylcholines (PCs) present in the human carotid plaque significantly enhance PON1 catalytic activities due to their interaction with the enzyme. Such a lesion׳s PC-PON1 interaction, in turn, competes with HDL PCs and enhances PON1 uptake by macrophage at the expense of PON1 binding to the HDL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elad Cohen
- Department of Oxidative Stress and Human Diseases, MIGAL-Galilee Research Institute, P.O. Box 831, Kiryat Shmona 11016, and Tel Hai College, Israel; Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Rambam Medical Center, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Michael Aviram
- Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Rambam Medical Center, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Soliman Khatib
- Department of Oxidative Stress and Human Diseases, MIGAL-Galilee Research Institute, P.O. Box 831, Kiryat Shmona 11016, and Tel Hai College, Israel
| | - Fadi Artoul
- Department of Oxidative Stress and Human Diseases, MIGAL-Galilee Research Institute, P.O. Box 831, Kiryat Shmona 11016, and Tel Hai College, Israel
| | - Asaf Rabin
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Carmel Medical Center, Haifa, Israel
| | - Dalit Mannheim
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Carmel Medical Center, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ron Karmeli
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Carmel Medical Center, Haifa, Israel
| | - Tal Salamon
- Vascular Surgery Unit, Ziv Medical center, Zefat, Israel
| | - Jacob Vaya
- Department of Oxidative Stress and Human Diseases, MIGAL-Galilee Research Institute, P.O. Box 831, Kiryat Shmona 11016, and Tel Hai College, Israel.
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Rosenblat M, Volkova N, Aviram M. HDL3 stimulates paraoxonase 1 antiatherogenic catalytic and biological activities in a macrophage model system: in vivo and in vitro studies. Biofactors 2014; 40:536-45. [PMID: 25230879 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
We analyzed in-vivo and in-vitro high density lipoprotein (HDL) effects on paraoxonase 1 (PON1) antiatherogenic properties in serum and in macrophages. Intraperitoneal injection to C57BL/6 mice of recombinant PON1 (rePON1) + HDL, in comparison to HDL or to rePON1 alone, significantly increased serum PON1 arylesterase activity (by 20%), and serum-mediated cholesterol efflux from J774A.1 macrophages (by 18%). Similarly, in peritoneal macrophages (MPM) harvested from mice injected with HDL + rePON1 versus rePON1 alone, we observed reduction in oxidative stress (by 11%), increase in cellular PON1 activity (by 14%) and in HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux (by 38%). Incubation of serum or HDL with rePON1, substantially increased PON1 arylesterase activity, two-fold more than the expected additive values. HDL2 and HDL3 increased PON1 activity by 199% or 274%, respectively. Macrophage (J774A.1) cholesterol efflux rate significantly increased by HDL3 + rePON1 versus HDL3 alone (by 19%), but not by HDL2 + rePON1 versus HDL2 alone. Oxidation of HDL3 reduced its ability to induce macrophage cholesterol efflux, and abolished HDL3 stimulatory effects on rePON1. Addition of exogenous polyphenol quercetin (60 µM), but not phosphatidylcholine or apolipoprotein A1, to HDL + rePON1 increased PON1 activity (by 404%), increased the ability to reduce oxidative stress in J774A.1 macrophages (by 53%) and to stimulate macrophage cholesterol efflux (by 14%). Upon adding the hypocholesterolemic drug simvastatin (15 µg/mL) to HDL + rePON1, PON1 activity and the ability to induce macrophage cholesterol efflux increased, in comparison to HDL + rePON1. We thus concluded that HDL (mostly HDL3), stimulates PON1 antiatherogenic activities in macrophages, and these PON1 activities were further stimulated by quercetin, or by simvastatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Rosenblat
- The Lipid Research Laboratory, the Technion Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Research Institute, Rambam Health Care Campus, Technion- Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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Effect of the nutritional supplement ALAnerv® on the serum PON1 activity in post-acute stroke patients. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 65:743-50. [PMID: 23950599 DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(13)71054-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2012] [Revised: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is one of the HDL-associated proteins which contributes to the antioxidant properties of these lipoproteins. The aim of this pilot study was to evaluate the effect of the nutritional supplement ALAnerv® on serum PON1 activity in post-acute stroke patients undergoing rehabilitation. METHODS We enrolled 28 post-acute stroke patients and randomly divided them into (-) ALA or (+) ALA study groups. All the patients underwent the same rehabilitation program and received comparable standard medications. Moreover, (+) ALA patients received ALAnerv® for two weeks (2 pills/day). The serum PON1 activity was assessed on blood samples taken at the admission and at the discharge moments, respectively. We used paraoxon (paraoxonase activity, PONA), phenyl acetate (arylesterase activity, ARYLA) and dihydrocoumarin (lactonase activity, LACTA) as substrates, the latter activity being regarded as physiologically relevant. A control group of 14 apparently healthy subjects was also created. RESULTS In the (+) ALA group, LACTA significantly increased during the study period (17.6 ± 3.2 vs. 27.6 ± 3.5, p = 0.002). Moreover, the percentage of LACTA variation between (-) ALA and (+) ALA groups during the study was also statistically different (-11.7 ± 6.9% vs. +95.1 ± 29.7%, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS These preliminary results suggest that ALA nerv® could contribute to the improvement of the physiologically relevant LACTA of PON1 in post-acute stroke patients, enabling this enzyme to contribute to the redox correction. Also, this study raises the question about the effect of a longer treatment period over the other enzymatic activities of serum PON1.
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Haraguchi Y, Toh R, Hasokawa M, Nakajima H, Honjo T, Otsui K, Mori K, Miyamoto-Sasaki M, Shinohara M, Nishimura K, Ishida T, Hirata KI. Serum myeloperoxidase/paraoxonase 1 ratio as potential indicator of dysfunctional high-density lipoprotein and risk stratification in coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis 2014; 234:288-94. [PMID: 24704632 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Granular leukocyte-derived myeloperoxidase (MPO) promotes oxidation of lipoproteins, while paraoxonase 1 (PON1) has antioxidant properties for high-density lipoprotein (HDL). We evaluated their effects on coronary risk stratification and function of lipoproteins. METHODS AND RESULTS A total 158 patients who had previously undergone percutaneous coronary intervention and who had been hospitalized for coronary re-angiography were enrolled. Coronary lesions (restenosis or de novo lesion) were observed in 84 patients but not associated with conventional lipid profile. In contrast, serum MPO levels and PON1 activities were significantly associated with the prevalence of coronary lesions. The high MPO/PON1 ratio, when cutoff values were set at 1.59, was independently correlated with restenosis (odds ratio 6.4, 95% CI 2.2-19.3, P = 0.001) and de novo lesions (odds ratio 3.5, 95% CI 1.3-9.4, P = 0.014). We isolated HDL from patients with high or low MPO/PON1 ratio, and compared anti-inflammatory properties of HDL. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells were stimulated with inflammatory cytokine, and the expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) was evaluated. HDL isolated from patients with low serum MPO/PON1 ratio inhibited VCAM-1 expression significantly greater than that with high MPO/PON1 ratio. We also demonstrated that the cholesterol efflux capacity of apolipoprotein B-depleted serum from patients with high MPO/PON1 ratio was significantly decreased than that with low MPO/PON1 ratio. CONCLUSIONS MPO/PON1 ratio could be a useful marker for secondary prevention of coronary artery disease through modulation of HDL function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Haraguchi
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Ryuji Toh
- Department of Evidence-Based Laboratory Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan.
| | - Minoru Hasokawa
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Hideto Nakajima
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Tomoyuki Honjo
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Kazunori Otsui
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Kenta Mori
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Maki Miyamoto-Sasaki
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Masakazu Shinohara
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Kunihiro Nishimura
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Epidemiologic Informatics, Office of Evidence-Based Medicine and Risk Analysis, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, 5-7-1 Fujishiro-dai, Suita, Osaka 565-8565, Japan
| | - Tatsuro Ishida
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Hirata
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
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12
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Improving serum levels of HDL and its subfractions, as well as, oxidative/inflammatory properties has become a fundamental aim in today's atherosclerosis research. Efforts to reach this goal are paralleled by achievements in drug development toward decreasing serum LDL levels and oxidative status. RECENT FINDINGS Paraoxonase1 (PON1) is an HDL-associated enzyme that is deemed responsible for many of the HDL's antiatherogenic and cardioprotective characteristics. PON1 is highly sensitive to variations in its milieu, and endogenous compounds (fatty acids, phospholipids), nutritional ingredients (flavonoids and other antioxidants), and environmental elements (reactive nitrogen and oxygen species, metals, surfactants), significantly affect the enzyme's activities. PON1 was shown to be responsible for some of the HDL antiatherogenic characteristics such as HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux from macrophages, and the inhibition of LDL oxidation. SUMMARY The present review summarizes the recent literature related to various elements in PON1's milieu that regulate its activities, with an emphasis on its interrelation with components of the human carotid atherosclerotic lesion (plaque) which are in constant contact with circulating HDL-associated PON1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Aviram
- Technion Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, and Rambam Medical Center, Haifa, Israel
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13
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Rosenblat M, Elias A, Volkova N, Aviram M. Monocyte-macrophage membrane possesses free radicals scavenging activity: stimulation by polyphenols or by paraoxonase 1 (PON1). Free Radic Res 2013; 47:257-67. [PMID: 23316782 DOI: 10.3109/10715762.2013.765562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In the current study, we analysed free radicals scavenging activity of monocytes-macrophages in the absence or presence of antioxidants such as polyphenols or paraoxonase 1 (PON1). THP-1 human monocytic cell line, murine J774A.1 macrophages, as well as human primary monocytes have the capability to scavenge free radicals, as measured by the 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) assay. This effect (which could be attributed to the cell's membrane) was cell number and incubation time dependent. Upon incubation of J774A.1 macrophages with acetylated LDL (Ac-LDL), with VLDL, or with the radical generator, AAPH, the cells' lipid peroxides content, and paraoxonase 2 (PON2) activity were significantly increased. While non-treated cells decreased DPPH absorbance by 65%, the Ac-LDL-, VLDL- or AAPH-treated cells, decreased it by only 33%, 30%, or 45%, respectively. We next analysed the effect of J774A.1 macrophage enrichment with antioxidants, such as polyphenols or PON1 on the cells' free radicals scavenging activity. Non-treated cells decreased DPPH absorbance by 50%, whereas vitamin E-, punicalagin- or PJ-treated cells significantly further decreased it, by 75%. Similarly, in PON1-treated cells DPPH absorbance was further decreased by 63%, in association with 23% increment in PON1 catalytic activity. In cells under oxidative stress [treated with AAPH-, or with oxidized LDL], PON1 activity was decreased by 31% or 40%, as compared to the activity observed in PON1 incubated with non-treated cells. We conclude that monocytes-macrophages possess free radicals scavenging activity, which is decreased under atherogenic conditions, and increased upon cell enrichment with potent antioxidants such as nutritional polyphenols, or PON1.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rosenblat
- Lipid Research Laboratory, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Research Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Rambam Medical Center, Haifa, Israel
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14
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Effect of Phospholipids on the Catalytic Performance of Lipase. CHINESE JOURNAL OF CATALYSIS 2013. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1088.2012.11043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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15
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Extra-virgin olive oil consumption improves the capacity of HDL to mediate cholesterol efflux and increases ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression in human macrophages. Br J Nutr 2012; 109:1844-55. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114512003856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The present study was aimed to investigate the effect of 12 weeks of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) consumption on the capacity of HDL to promote cholesterol efflux (CE) and to determine which CE pathways are modulated by EVOO consumption. Whole HDL and HDL2/HDL3 subclasses were isolated from the plasma of twenty-six healthy volunteers before and after 12 weeks of EVOO consumption (25 ml/d). EVOO consumption increased the capacity of serum and HDL to mediate CE from THP-1, J774 macrophages and Fu5AH cells by 9·8–24·57 %, depending on the cell type. The increase in CE was independent of both HDL concentration and subclass distribution. The three HDL-mediated CE pathways (ATP-binding cassette (ABC) A1, ABCG1 and scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI)) were modulated by EVOO consumption. The fluidity of the phospholipidic layer of HDL increased by 13 % (P< 0·001) following EVOO consumption compared with baseline. EVOO consumption also increased the release of excess cholesterol from human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDM) by 44 % (P< 0·001), and ABCA1 and ABCG1 mRNA transcription by 16·08 % (P< 0·001) and 35·79 % (P< 0·01), respectively. The protein expression of these two cholesterol transporters also increased after EVOO consumption. In contrast, SR-BI mRNA and protein expression in HMDM were significantly lower after 12 weeks of EVOO consumption. Incubating J774 macrophages with EVOO polyphenol extracts induced a concentration-dependent up-regulation of ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression in macrophages. After 12 weeks of EVOO consumption, the capacity of HDL to mediate CE was improved and the ability of HMDM to release excess cholesterol was enhanced by increasing the expression of ABCA1 and ABCG1 transporters.
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16
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Lou-Bonafonte JM, Arnal C, Navarro MA, Osada J. Efficacy of bioactive compounds from extra virgin olive oil to modulate atherosclerosis development. Mol Nutr Food Res 2012; 56:1043-57. [DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201100668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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17
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Brugè F, Bacchetti T, Principi F, Scarpa ES, Littarru GP, Tiano L. Olive oil supplemented with Coenzyme Q(10): effect on plasma and lipoprotein oxidative status. Biofactors 2012; 38:249-56. [PMID: 22488910 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Olive oil consumption is associated with protective cardiovascular properties, including some beneficial modifications in lipoprotein profile and composition. Coenzyme Q(10) (CoQ(10)) exerts a protective effect on plasma lipoproteins. Aim of the study was to investigate whether extra virgin (EV) olive oil enriched with CoQ(10) affects CoQ(10) levels and oxidative status in plasma and in isolated lipoproteins. Twelve subjects were administered 20 mL olive oil per day for 2 weeks, followed by 2 weeks of olive oil enriched with 20 mg and 2 more weeks with 40 mg of CoQ(10). Plasma and isolated lipoproteins were collected in each phase of the study and subsequently analyzed to assess lipid profile, CoQ10 levels, ORAC assay, resistance of lipoproteins to peroxidation and paroxonase 1 activity. Plasma CoQ(10) levels significantly increased with the 20 mg (+73%) and 40 mg dose (+170%), while the percentage of oxidized CoQ(10) decreased. A significant inverse correlation was found in plasma between percentage of oxidized CoQ(10) and total antioxidant capacity. A lower susceptibility of LDL to peroxidation was also found. Finally, a positive correlation was observed between concentration of CoQ(10) in HDL and paraoxonase-1 activity. EV olive oil enriched with both doses of CoQ(10) significantly affects its bioavailability and plasma redox status. These changes are associated with a decreased susceptibility of plasma lipoproteins to peroxidation associated with a chain-breaking antioxidant activity of the formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Brugè
- Department of Clinical and Dental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy
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18
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Ferretti G, Bacchetti T. Effect of dietary lipids on paraoxonase-1 activity and gene expression. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2012; 22:88-94. [PMID: 22118836 DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2011.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Revised: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Aim of the paper was to summarize the literature about the effect of dietary lipids on activity of paraoxonase-1 (PON1), a multifunctional enzyme associated with high density lipoprotein (HDL). PON1 exerts a protective effect against oxidative damage of cells and lipoproteins and modulates the susceptibility of HDL and LDL to atherogenic modifications such as homocysteinylation. DATA SYNTHESIS The present review shows evidence that the amount and the composition of dietary lipids are key factors in the modulation of PON1. The effect of dietary lipids is also modulated by PON1 polymorphisms. The molecular mechanisms involved include an effect on PON1 hepatic synthesis or secretion and/or modification of PON1 interactions with HDL. Changes of PON1 activity could also be related to dietary intake of oxidized lipids that behave as PON1 inhibitors. CONCLUSION Dietary fatty acids by the modulation of PON1 gene expression and activity could constitute an useful approach for the prevention of human diseases associated with oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Ferretti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Cliniche Sperimentali e Odontostomatologiche, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy.
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19
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Tavori H, Aviram M, Khatib S, Musa R, Mannheim D, Karmeli R, Vaya J. Human carotid lesion linoleic acid hydroperoxide inhibits paraoxonase 1 (PON1) activity via reaction with PON1 free sulfhydryl cysteine 284. Free Radic Biol Med 2011; 50:148-56. [PMID: 21044882 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.10.708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Revised: 10/01/2010] [Accepted: 10/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is an HDL-associated lactonase with antiatherogenic properties. These include dampening the oxidation properties of human carotid lesion lipid extract (LLE), which in turn inactivates the enzyme. The aims of this study were to identify the PON1 inhibitor in LLE and explore the mechanism of inhibition. LLE inhibited both recombinant PON1 and HDL-PON1 lactonase activity in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Addition of antioxidants or electrophiles to LLE did not prevent PON1 inhibition. LLE was unable to inhibit a PON1 mutant lacking Cys284, whereas it did inhibit all other PON1 mutants tested. The inhibitor in the LLE was identified as linoleic acid hydroperoxide (LA-OOH) and inhibition was specific to this hydroperoxide. During its inhibition, PON1 acted like a peroxidase enzyme, reducing LA-OOH to LA-hydroxide via its Cys284. A similar reaction occurred with external thiols, such as DDT or cysteine, which also prevented PON1 inhibition and restored enzyme activity after inhibition. Thus, the antiatherogenic properties of HDL could be, at least in part, related to the sulfhydryl-reducing characteristics of its associated PON1, which are further protected and recycled by the sulfhydryl amino acid cysteine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hagai Tavori
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, MIGAL-Galilee Technology Center, Kiryat Shmona 11016, Israel
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20
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Gugliucci A, Kinugasa E, Kotani K, Caccavello R, Kimura S. Serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) lactonase activity is lower in end-stage renal disease patients than in healthy control subjects and increases after hemodialysis. Clin Chem Lab Med 2011; 49:61-7. [PMID: 20961187 DOI: 10.1515/cclm.2011.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Gugliucci
- Glycation, Oxidation and Disease Laboratory, Division of Basic Medical Sciences, Touro University-California, Mare Island, Vallejo, CA 94592, USA.
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Tavori H, Rosenblat M, Vaya J, Aviram M. Paraoxonase 1 interactions with atherosclerotic lesions and arterial macrophages protect against foam cell formation and atherosclerosis development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.2217/clp.10.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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22
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Paraoxonase 1 interactions with HDL, antioxidants and macrophages regulate atherogenesis - a protective role for HDL phospholipids. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 660:153-66. [PMID: 20221878 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-350-3_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Macrophage cholesterol accumulation and foam cell formation is the hallmark of early atherogenesis. In addition to macrophages, at least three more major players regulate atherosclerosis development; paraoxonase 1 (PON1), antioxidants, and HDL. PON1 is an HDL-associated lactonase which posses antioxidant and anti-atherogenic properties. PON1 protects against macrophage-mediated LDL oxidation, and increases HDL binding to macrophages which, in turn, stimulates HDL's ability to promote cholesterol efflux. These two major anti-atherogenic properties of HDL (and of PON1) require, at least in part, macrophage binding sites for HDL-associated PON1. Indeed, PON1, as well as HDL-associated PON1, specifically binds to macrophages, leading to anti-atherogenic effects. Macrophage PON1 binding sites may thus be a target for future cardioprotection therapy. Studying the interactions among PON1, antioxidants, and macrophages can thus assist in achieving appropriate treatment and prevention of atherosclerosis.
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Paraoxonase 1 Attenuates Human Plaque Atherogenicity: Relevance to the Enzyme Lactonase Activity. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 660:99-111. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-350-3_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
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24
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is an HDL-associated protein of 354 amino acids with a molecular mass of 43 000 Da. It is synthesized in the liver, and in serum it is almost exclusively associated with HDL. PON1 has been reported to be an important contributor to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of HDL. PON1 impedes oxidative modification of LDL. PON1 serum activity is related to systemic lipid peroxidation stress and prospective cardiovascular risk. In this review, we discuss the relationship between PON1 activity and atherosclerotic diseases and various factors modulating PON1 activity including genes, age, lifestyle factors and medical conditions. Finally, evidence that pharmacological agents may affect PON1 activity is summarized. RECENT FINDINGS There is increasing evidence from both animal and human studies linking low PON1 activity to an increased likelihood of cardiovascular diseases. Two prospective studies reported a significantly lower incidence of major cardiovascular events in participants with the highest systemic PON1 activity, compared with those with the lowest activity. SUMMARY PON1 is a potentially antiatherogenic HDL-associated enzyme that protects LDL from oxidative modification. Enhancing PON1 activity could be an important target for future pharmacological agents aimed at decreasing cardiovascular risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Handrean Soran
- University Department of Medicine, Central Manchester and Manchester Children's University Hospitals Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK
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