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Tajer L, Paillart JC, Dib H, Sabatier JM, Fajloun Z, Abi Khattar Z. Molecular Mechanisms of Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobial Peptides in the Modern Era: An Updated Review. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1259. [PMID: 39065030 PMCID: PMC11279074 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12071259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a serious global health concern, resulting in a significant number of deaths annually due to infections that are resistant to treatment. Amidst this crisis, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional antibiotics (ATBs). These cationic peptides, naturally produced by all kingdoms of life, play a crucial role in the innate immune system of multicellular organisms and in bacterial interspecies competition by exhibiting broad-spectrum activity against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. AMPs target bacterial pathogens through multiple mechanisms, most importantly by disrupting their membranes, leading to cell lysis. However, bacterial resistance to host AMPs has emerged due to a slow co-evolutionary process between microorganisms and their hosts. Alarmingly, the development of resistance to last-resort AMPs in the treatment of MDR infections, such as colistin, is attributed to the misuse of this peptide and the high rate of horizontal genetic transfer of the corresponding resistance genes. AMP-resistant bacteria employ diverse mechanisms, including but not limited to proteolytic degradation, extracellular trapping and inactivation, active efflux, as well as complex modifications in bacterial cell wall and membrane structures. This review comprehensively examines all constitutive and inducible molecular resistance mechanisms to AMPs supported by experimental evidence described to date in bacterial pathogens. We also explore the specificity of these mechanisms toward structurally diverse AMPs to broaden and enhance their potential in developing and applying them as therapeutics for MDR bacteria. Additionally, we provide insights into the significance of AMP resistance within the context of host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Layla Tajer
- Laboratory of Applied Biotechnology (LBA3B), Azm Center for Research in Biotechnology and Its Applications, Department of Cell Culture, EDST, Lebanese University, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon; (L.T.); (Z.F.)
| | - Jean-Christophe Paillart
- CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l’ARN, UPR 9002, Université de Strasbourg, 2 Allée Konrad Roentgen, F-67000 Strasbourg, France;
| | - Hanna Dib
- College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East, Egaila 54200, Kuwait;
| | - Jean-Marc Sabatier
- CNRS, INP, Inst Neurophysiopathol, Aix-Marseille Université, 13385 Marseille, France
| | - Ziad Fajloun
- Laboratory of Applied Biotechnology (LBA3B), Azm Center for Research in Biotechnology and Its Applications, Department of Cell Culture, EDST, Lebanese University, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon; (L.T.); (Z.F.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences 3, Lebanese University, Campus Michel Slayman Ras Maska, Tripoli 1352, Lebanon
| | - Ziad Abi Khattar
- Faculty of Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of Balamand, Kalhat, P.O. Box 100, Tripoli, Lebanon
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Sidarta M, Lorente Martín AI, Monsalve A, Marinho Righetto G, Schäfer AB, Wenzel M. Lipid phase separation impairs membrane thickness sensing by the Bacillus subtilis sensor kinase DesK. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0392523. [PMID: 38717171 PMCID: PMC11237406 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03925-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Membrane fluidity and thickness have emerged as crucial factors for the activity of and resistance to several antimicrobials. However, the lack of tools to study membrane fluidity and, in particular, thickness in living bacteria limits our understanding of this interplay. The Bacillus subtilis histidine kinase/phosphatase DesK is a molecular sensor that directly detects membrane thickness. It controls activity of DesR, which regulates expression of the lipid desaturase Des, known for its role in cold adaptation and daptomycin susceptibility. We hypothesized that this property could be exploited to develop biosensors and reporters for antibiotic-induced changes in membrane fluidity and thickness. To test this, we designed three assays based on the des system: activation of the Pdes promoter as reporter for membrane thickening, localization of DesK-GFP(green-fluorescent protein) as proxy for rigidified membrane domains, and antibiotic sensitivity of des, desK, and desR deletion mutants as readout for the importance of membrane rigidification/thickening under the tested condition. While we could not confirm the suitability of the des system as reporter for antibiotic-induced changes in membrane thickness, we did observe that des expression is only activated by mild temperature shocks, likely due to partitioning of the sensor DesK into fluid membrane domains upon phase separation, precluding effective thickness sensing under harsh cold shock and antibiotic stress conditions. Similarly, we did not observe any sensitivity of the deletion mutants to either temperature or antibiotic stress, raising the question to what extent the des system contributes to fluidity adaptation under these conditions. IMPORTANCE The B. subtilis des system is a prime model for direct molecular membrane thickness sensor and, as such, has been well studied in vitro. Our study shows that our understanding of its function in vivo and its importance under temperature and antibiotic stress is still very limited. Specifically, our results suggest that (i) the des system senses very subtle membrane fluidity changes that escape detection by established fluidity reporters like laurdan; (ii) membrane thickness sensing by DesK is impaired by phase separation due to partitioning of the protein into the fluid phase; and (iii) fluidity adaptations by Des are too subtle to elicit growth defects under rigidifying conditions, raising the question of how much the des system contributes to adaptation of overall membrane fluidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margareth Sidarta
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Centre for Antibiotic Resistance Research in Gothenburg (CARe), Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ana I. Lorente Martín
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anuntxi Monsalve
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Gabriela Marinho Righetto
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Centre for Antibiotic Resistance Research in Gothenburg (CARe), Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ann-Britt Schäfer
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Centre for Antibiotic Resistance Research in Gothenburg (CARe), Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Michaela Wenzel
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Centre for Antibiotic Resistance Research in Gothenburg (CARe), Gothenburg, Sweden
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Chandole PK, Pawar TJ, Olivares-Romero JL, Tivari SR, Garcia Lara B, Patel H, Ahmad I, Delgado-Alvarado E, Kokate SV, Jadeja Y. Exploration of novel cationic amino acid-enriched short peptides: design, SPPS, biological evaluation and in silico study. RSC Adv 2024; 14:17710-17723. [PMID: 38832247 PMCID: PMC11145139 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra08313f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a critical challenge worldwide, necessitating the pursuit of novel approaches to counteract bacterial and fungal pathogens. In this context, we explored the potential of cationic amino acid-enriched short peptides, synthesized via solid-phase methods, as innovative antimicrobial candidates. Our comprehensive evaluation assessed the antibacterial and antifungal efficacy of these peptides against a panel of significant pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger. Utilizing molecular docking techniques, we delved into the molecular interactions underpinning the peptides' action against these microorganisms. The results revealed a spectrum of inhibitory activities, with certain peptide sequences displaying pronounced effectiveness across various pathogens. These findings underscore the peptides' potential as promising antimicrobial agents, with molecular docking offering valuable insights into their mechanisms of action. This study enriches antimicrobial peptide (AMP) research by identifying promising candidates for further refinement and development toward therapeutic application, highlighting their significance in addressing the urgent issue of AMR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tushar Janardan Pawar
- Red de Estudios Moleculares Avanzados, Instituto de Ecología A.C. Carretera Antigua a Coatepec 351 Xalapa 91073 Veracruz Mexico
| | - José Luis Olivares-Romero
- Red de Estudios Moleculares Avanzados, Instituto de Ecología A.C. Carretera Antigua a Coatepec 351 Xalapa 91073 Veracruz Mexico
| | - Sunil R Tivari
- Department of Chemistry, Marwadi University Rajkot-360003 Gujarat India
| | - Bianney Garcia Lara
- Departamento de Química, Universidad de Guanajuato Noria Alta S/N Guanajuato-36050 Guanajuato Mexico
| | - Harun Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Shirpur District Dhule-425405 Maharashtra India
| | - Iqrar Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Shirpur District Dhule-425405 Maharashtra India
| | - Enrique Delgado-Alvarado
- Micro and Nanotechnology Research Center, Universidad Veracruzana Blvd. Av. Ruiz Cortines No. 455 Fracc. Costa Verde Boca del Río 94294 Mexico
| | - Siddhant V Kokate
- Department of Chemistry, S. S. C. College Junnar Pune-410502 Maharashtra India
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Selvaraj SP, Chen JY. Conjugation of antimicrobial peptides to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 259:115680. [PMID: 37515922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
The growing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has brought with it a continual increase in the numbers of deaths from multidrug-resistant (MDR) infections. Since the current arsenal of antibiotics has become increasingly ineffective, there exists an urgent need for discovery and development of novel antimicrobials. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are considered to be a promising class of molecules due to their broad-spectrum activities and low resistance rates compared with other types of antibiotics. Since AMPs also often play major roles in elevating the host immune response, the molecules may also be called "host defense peptides." Despite the great promise of AMPs, the majority remain unsuitable for clinical use due to issues of structural instability, degradation by proteases, and/or toxicity to host cells. Moreover, AMP activities in vivo can be influenced by many factors, such as interaction with blood and serum biomolecules, physiological salt concentrations or different pH values. To overcome these limitations, structural modifications can be made to the AMP. Among several modifications, physical and chemical conjugation of AMP to other biomolecules is widely considered an effective strategy. In this review, we discuss structural modification strategies related to conjugation of AMPs and their possible effects on mode of action. The conjugation of fatty acids, glycans, antibiotics, photosensitizers, polymers, nucleic acids, nanoparticles, and immobilization to biomaterials are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Prasad Selvaraj
- Molecular and Biological Agricultural Science Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan
| | - Jyh-Yih Chen
- Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, 23-10 Dahuen Rd, Jiaushi, Ilan, 262, Taiwan; The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center and the Rong Hsing Research Center for Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan.
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Ganesan N, Mishra B, Felix L, Mylonakis E. Antimicrobial Peptides and Small Molecules Targeting the Cell Membrane of Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2023; 87:e0003722. [PMID: 37129495 PMCID: PMC10304793 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00037-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical management of Staphylococcus aureus infections presents a challenge due to the high incidence, considerable virulence, and emergence of drug resistance mechanisms. The treatment of drug-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), is further complicated by the development of tolerance and persistence to antimicrobial agents in clinical use. To address these challenges, membrane disruptors, that are not generally considered during drug discovery for agents against S. aureus, should be explored. The cell membrane protects S. aureus from external stresses and antimicrobial agents, but membrane-targeting antimicrobial agents are probably less likely to promote bacterial resistance. Nontypical linear cationic antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), highly modified AMPs such as daptomycin (lipopeptide), bacitracin (cyclic peptide), and gramicidin S (cyclic peptide), are currently in clinical use. Recent studies have demonstrated that AMPs and small molecules can penetrate the cell membrane of S. aureus, inhibit phospholipid biosynthesis, or block the passage of solutes between the periplasm and the exterior of the cell. In addition to their primary mechanism of action (MOA) that targets the bacterial membrane, AMPs and small molecules may also impact bacteria through secondary mechanisms such as targeting the biofilm, and downregulating virulence genes of S. aureus. In this review, we discuss the current state of research into cell membrane-targeting AMPs and small molecules and their potential mechanisms of action against drug-resistant physiological forms of S. aureus, including persister cells and biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narchonai Ganesan
- Infectious Diseases Division, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Biswajit Mishra
- Infectious Diseases Division, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
- Department of Medicine, The Miriam Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - LewisOscar Felix
- Infectious Diseases Division, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Eleftherios Mylonakis
- Infectious Diseases Division, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
- Department of Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
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Duque HM, Rodrigues G, Santos LS, Franco OL. The biological role of charge distribution in linear antimicrobial peptides. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2023; 18:287-302. [PMID: 36720196 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2023.2173736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) have received particular attention due to their capacity to kill bacteria. Although much is known about them, peptides are currently being further researched. A large number of AMPs have been discovered, but only a few have been approved for topical use, due to their promiscuity and other challenges, which need to be overcome. AREAS COVERED AMPs are diverse in structure. Consequently, they have varied action mechanisms when targeting microorganisms or eukaryotic cells. Herein, the authors focus on linear peptides, particularly those that are alpha-helical structured, and examine how their charge distribution and hydrophobic amino acids could modulate their biological activity. EXPERT OPINION The world currently needs urgent solutions to the infective problems caused by resistant pathogens. In order to start the race for antimicrobial development from the charge distribution viewpoint, bioinformatic tools will be necessary. Currently, there is no software available that allows to discriminate charge distribution in AMPs and predicts the biological effects of this event. Furthermore, there is no software available that predicts the side-chain length of residues and its role in biological functions. More specialized software is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry Morales Duque
- Centro de Análises Proteômicas e Bioquímicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, PC: (CEP) 70.790-160, Brasília-DF, Brazil
| | - Gisele Rodrigues
- Centro de Análises Proteômicas e Bioquímicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, PC: (CEP) 70.790-160, Brasília-DF, Brazil
| | - Lucas Souza Santos
- Centro de Análises Proteômicas e Bioquímicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, PC: (CEP) 70.790-160, Brasília-DF, Brazil
| | - Octávio Luiz Franco
- Centro de Análises Proteômicas e Bioquímicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, PC: (CEP) 70.790-160, Brasília-DF, Brazil.,S-inova Biotech, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Dom Bosco, PC: (CEP) 79117-010, Campo Grande-MS, Brazil
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Molecular dynamics simulations to study the role of biphenylalanine in promoting the antibacterial activity of ultrashort peptides. J Mol Graph Model 2022; 117:108282. [PMID: 35961218 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2022.108282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The hydrophobic amino acid biphenylalanine (B) plays a key role in the antibacterial activity of ultrashort peptides. In this study, the interactions of tetrapeptide BRBR-NH2 (BRBR) and pentapeptide BRBRB-NH2 (BRBRB) with dioleoylphosphatidylcholine/dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPC/DOPG) mixed model membrane were studied by molecular dynamics simulation to assess the role of biphenylalanine in promoting the antibacterial activity of ultrashort peptides. At low peptide concentrations, both peptides presented amphiphilic conformations; residues B of the pentapeptide approached the membrane faster than those of the tetrapeptide and made more contacts with the membrane; BRBRB exhibited stronger membrane affinity than BRBR. However, due to the low peptide concentrations, the effects of these two peptides on the membrane were not significantly different. At high peptide concentrations, the strong affinity of BRBRB made it have more interaction with membrane than BRBR and most residues B of BRBRB inserted into the membrane; BRBRB was more prone to aggregation and caused the membrane more disordered and thinner than BRBR. Hydrophobic residues often act as anchors in the antibacterial activity of ultrashort antimicrobial peptides. Adding a hydrophobic residue B to the C-terminal of BRBR could improve the ability of the peptide to "grasp" the membrane. At high peptide concentrations, the addition of residue B might enhance the antibacterial activity of the peptide. Thus, our results will be helpful in designing efficient antibacterial drugs.
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Tryptophan, more than just an interfacial amino acid in the membrane activity of cationic cell-penetrating and antimicrobial peptides. Q Rev Biophys 2022; 55:e10. [PMID: 35979810 DOI: 10.1017/s0033583522000105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Trp is unique among the amino acids since it is involved in many different types of noncovalent interactions such as electrostatic and hydrophobic ones, but also in π-π, π-cation, π-anion and π-ion pair interactions. In membranotropic peptides and proteins, Trp locates preferentially at the water-membrane interface. In antimicrobial or cell-penetrating peptides (AMPs and CPPs respectively), Trp is well-known for its strong role in the capacity of these peptides to interact and affect the membrane organisation of both bacteria and animal cells at the level of the lipid bilayer. This essential amino acid can however be involved in other types of interactions, not only with lipids, but also with other membrane partners, that are crucial to understand the functional roles of membranotropic peptides. This review is focused on this latter less known role of Trp and describes in details, both in qualitative and quantitative ways: (i) the physico-chemical properties of Trp; (ii) its effect in CPP internalisation; (iii) its importance in AMP activity; (iv) its role in the interaction of AMPs with glycoconjugates or lipids in bacteria membranes and the consequences on the activity of the peptides; (v) its role in the interaction of CPPs with negatively charged polysaccharides or lipids of animal membranes and the consequences on the activity of the peptides. We intend to bring highlights of the physico-chemical properties of Trp and describe its extensive possibilities of interactions, not only at the well-known level of the lipid bilayer, but with other less considered cell membrane components, such as carbohydrates and the extracellular matrix. The focus on these interactions will allow the reader to reevaluate reported studies. Altogether, our review gathers dedicated studies to show how unique are Trp properties, which should be taken into account to design future membranotropic peptides with expected antimicrobial or cell-penetrating activity.
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Barbosa M, Simões H, Pinto SN, Macedo AS, Fonte P, Prazeres DMF. Fusions of a Carbohydrate Binding Module with the Small Cationic Hexapeptide RWRWRW Confer Antimicrobial Properties to Cellulose-based Materials. Acta Biomater 2022; 143:216-232. [PMID: 35257951 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a critical worldwide healthcare problem. In the specific case of wound care, new and effective alternatives to currently available solutions are urgently needed. Cellulose-based dressings, for example, could be made more attractive if rendered antimicrobial. This work proposes a new strategy to modify cellulose-based materials with the short antimicrobial hexapeptide MP196 (RWRWRW-NH2) that relies on a biomolecular recognition approach based on carbohydrate binding modules (CBMs). Specifically, we focused on the modification of hydrogels, paper, and microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) with fusions of the CBM3 from Clostridium thermocellum (C. thermocellum) with derivatives of MP196. The fusions are prepared by promoting the formation of a disulfide bond between Cys-terminated derivatives of MP196 and a CBM3 that is pre-anchored in the materials. The CBM3-MP196-modified materials displayed antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli (E. coli), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) that was significantly higher when compared with the activity of materials prepared by physical adsorption of MP196. The biomolecular strategy provides a more favorable orientation, exposure, and distancing of the peptide from the matrix. This versatile concept provides a toolbox for the functionalization of cellulose materials of different origins and architectures with a broad choice in peptides. Functionalization under mild biological conditions avoids further purification steps, allowing for translational research and multiple applications as drug delivery systems, scaffolds for tissue engineering and biomaterials. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a critical worldwide healthcare problem. In the specific case of wound care, new and effective alternatives to currently available solutions are urgently needed. This work proposes a new strategy to modify cellulose-based materials with a short antimicrobial hexapeptide that relies on a biomolecular recognition approach based on carbohydrate binding modules. The modified materials displayed antibacterial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The biomolecular strategy provides a favorable orientation, exposure, and distancing of the peptide from the matrix. This versatile concept offers a toolbox for the functionalization of different cellulose materials with a broad choice in peptides. Functionalization under mild biological conditions avoids further purification steps, allowing for translational research and multiple applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Barbosa
- iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy at Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Hélvio Simões
- iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy at Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sandra N Pinto
- iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy at Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana S Macedo
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences - Applied Chemistry Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Fonte
- iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy at Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; Center of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Gambelas Campus, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Algarve, Gambelas Campus, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - D Miguel F Prazeres
- iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy at Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
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Bugli F, Massaro F, Buonocore F, Saraceni PR, Borocci S, Ceccacci F, Bombelli C, Di Vito M, Marchitiello R, Mariotti M, Torelli R, Sanguinetti M, Porcelli F. Design and Characterization of Myristoylated and Non-Myristoylated Peptides Effective against Candida spp. Clinical Isolates. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23042164. [PMID: 35216297 PMCID: PMC8875392 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23042164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing resistance of fungi to antibiotics is a severe challenge in public health, and newly effective drugs are required. Promising potential medications are lipopeptides, linear antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) conjugated to a lipid tail, usually at the N-terminus. In this paper, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo antifungal activity of three short myristoylated and non-myristoylated peptides derived from a mutant of the AMP Chionodracine. We determined their interaction with anionic and zwitterionic membrane-mimicking vesicles and their structure during this interaction. We then investigated their cytotoxic and hemolytic activity against mammalian cells. Lipidated peptides showed a broad spectrum of activity against a relevant panel of pathogen fungi belonging to Candida spp., including the multidrug-resistant C. auris. The antifungal activity was also observed vs. biofilms of C. albicans, C. tropicalis, and C. auris. Finally, a pilot efficacy study was conducted on the in vivo model consisting of Galleria mellonella larvae. Treatment with the most-promising myristoylated peptide was effective in counteracting the infection from C. auris and C. albicans and the death of the larvae. Therefore, this myristoylated peptide is a potential candidate to develop antifungal agents against human fungal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Bugli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (F.B.); (M.D.V.); (R.M.); (M.M.)
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A, Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy;
| | - Federica Massaro
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agrofood and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.M.); (F.B.); (P.R.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Francesco Buonocore
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agrofood and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.M.); (F.B.); (P.R.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Paolo Roberto Saraceni
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agrofood and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.M.); (F.B.); (P.R.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Stefano Borocci
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agrofood and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.M.); (F.B.); (P.R.S.); (S.B.)
- CNR—Institute for Biological Systems, Area Della Ricerca di Roma 1, SP35d 9, 00010 Montelibretti, Italy
| | - Francesca Ceccacci
- CNR—Institute For Biological Systems, Sede Secondaria di Roma-Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Università La Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy; (F.C.); (C.B.)
| | - Cecilia Bombelli
- CNR—Institute For Biological Systems, Sede Secondaria di Roma-Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Università La Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy; (F.C.); (C.B.)
| | - Maura Di Vito
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (F.B.); (M.D.V.); (R.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Rosalba Marchitiello
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (F.B.); (M.D.V.); (R.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Melinda Mariotti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (F.B.); (M.D.V.); (R.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Riccardo Torelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A, Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy;
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (F.B.); (M.D.V.); (R.M.); (M.M.)
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A, Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy;
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (F.P.); Tel.: +39-063-015-4218 (M.S.); +39-076-135-7041 (F.P.)
| | - Fernando Porcelli
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agrofood and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.M.); (F.B.); (P.R.S.); (S.B.)
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (F.P.); Tel.: +39-063-015-4218 (M.S.); +39-076-135-7041 (F.P.)
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11
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Conjugation of Antimicrobial Peptide to Zinc Phthalocyanine for an Efficient Photodynamic Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. COATINGS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings12020200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy is an attractive and novel therapeutic approach to treat microbial infections. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have the potential to specifically target and kill the microorganism while showing no effect toward mammalian cells. In the current study, antimicrobial peptide (GGG(RW)3), an analogue of MP-196, was conjugated to a zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) photosensitizer (PS) for photoinactivation assay to enhance the bacterial killing efficacy of the peptide. The AMPs showed selectivity toward the Gram-positive strain of bacteria. We observed that the conjugate ZnPc-GGG(RW)3 also displayed a photoinactivation effect against the Gram-positive strains of S. aureus. The results showed that ZnPc-GGG(RW)3 induced a 6-log reduction (i.e., 99.999% cell killing) in Gram-positive S. aureus at a light dose of 22 J/cm2 upon illumination under red light, while the peptide did not exhibit such a significant effect when tested alone at the same concentration. The conjugate also showed 50% inhibition of the bacterial strain in the dark at a higher concentration. Furthermore, the addition of potassium iodide salt to the PS at lower concentrations also significantly killed the Gram-negative E. coli strain and killed the E. coli strain with up to a 5-log reduction at a light dose of 22 J/cm2 under red light illumination. We demonstrated the efficacy of antimicrobial peptide (GGG(RW)3 enhanced by conjugation to a ZnPc photosensitizer.
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12
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Panjla A, Kaul G, Chopra S, Titz A, Verma S. Short Peptides and Their Mimetics as Potent Antibacterial Agents and Antibiotic Adjuvants. ACS Chem Biol 2021; 16:2731-2745. [PMID: 34779605 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.1c00626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been increasing unrelentingly worldwide, thus negatively impacting human health. The discovery and development of novel antibiotics is an urgent unmet need of the hour. However, it has become more challenging, requiring increasingly time-consuming efforts with increased commercial risks. Hence, alternative strategies are urgently needed to potentiate the existing antibiotics. In this context, short cationic peptides or peptide-based antimicrobials that mimic the activity of naturally occurring antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) could overcome the disadvantages of AMPs having evolved as potent antibacterial agents. Besides their potent antibacterial efficacy, short peptide conjugates have also gained attention as potent adjuvants to conventional antibiotics. Such peptide antibiotic combinations have become an increasingly cost-effective therapeutic option to tackle AMR. This Review summarizes the recent progress for peptide-based small molecules as promising antimicrobials and as adjuvants for conventional antibiotics to counter multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apurva Panjla
- Department of Chemistry, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur-208016, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Grace Kaul
- Department of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow-226031, Uttar Pradesh, India
- AcSIR: Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Sidharth Chopra
- Department of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow-226031, Uttar Pradesh, India
- AcSIR: Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Alexander Titz
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz-Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), 38124, Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sandeep Verma
- Department of Chemistry, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur-208016, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Center for Nanoscience, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur-208016, Uttar Pradesh, India
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13
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Li W, Separovic F, O'Brien-Simpson NM, Wade JD. Chemically modified and conjugated antimicrobial peptides against superbugs. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:4932-4973. [PMID: 33710195 DOI: 10.1039/d0cs01026j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the greatest threats to human health that, by 2050, will lead to more deaths from bacterial infections than cancer. New antimicrobial agents, both broad-spectrum and selective, that do not induce AMR are urgently required. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a novel class of alternatives that possess potent activity against a wide range of Gram-negative and positive bacteria with little or no capacity to induce AMR. This has stimulated substantial chemical development of novel peptide-based antibiotics possessing improved therapeutic index. This review summarises recent synthetic efforts and their impact on analogue design as well as their various applications in AMP development. It includes modifications that have been reported to enhance antimicrobial activity including lipidation, glycosylation and multimerization through to the broad application of novel bio-orthogonal chemistry, as well as perspectives on the direction of future research. The subject area is primarily the development of next-generation antimicrobial agents through selective, rational chemical modification of AMPs. The review further serves as a guide toward the most promising directions in this field to stimulate broad scientific attention, and will lead to new, effective and selective solutions for the several biomedical challenges to which antimicrobial peptidomimetics are being applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyi Li
- Melbourne Dental School, Centre for Oral Health Research, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia. and Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Frances Separovic
- Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia and School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Neil M O'Brien-Simpson
- Melbourne Dental School, Centre for Oral Health Research, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia. and Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - John D Wade
- School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia and The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
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14
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Kosikowska-Adamus P, Sikorska E, Wyrzykowski D, Walewska A, Golda A, Deptuła M, Obuchowski M, Prahl A, Pikuła M, Lesner A. Lipidation of Temporin-1CEb Derivatives as a Tool for Activity Improvement, Pros and Cons of the Approach. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22136679. [PMID: 34206444 PMCID: PMC8269107 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The alarming raise of multi-drug resistance among human microbial pathogens makes the development of novel therapeutics a priority task. In contrast to conventional antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), besides evoking a broad spectrum of activity against microorganisms, could offer additional benefits, such as the ability to neutralize toxins, modulate inflammatory response, eradicate bacterial and fungal biofilms or prevent their development. The latter properties are of special interest, as most antibiotics available on the market have limited ability to diffuse through rigid structures of biofilms. Lipidation of AMPs is considered as an effective approach for enhancement of their antimicrobial potential and in vivo stability; however, it could also have undesired impact on selectivity, solubility or the aggregation state of the modified peptides. In the present work, we describe the results of structural modifications of compounds designed based on cationic antimicrobial peptides DK5 and CAR-PEG-DK5, derivatized at their N-terminal part with fatty acids with different lengths of carbon chain. The proposed modifications substantially improved antimicrobial properties of the final compounds and their effectiveness in inhibition of biofilm development as well as eradication of pre-formed 24 h old biofilms of Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus. The most active compounds (C5-DK5, C12-DK5 and C12-CAR-PEG-DK5) were also potent against multi-drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 strain and clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Both experimental and in silico methods revealed strong correlation between the length of fatty acid attached to the peptides and their final membranolytic properties, tendency to self-assemble and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Kosikowska-Adamus
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland; (E.S.); (D.W.); (A.W.); (A.P.); (A.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Emilia Sikorska
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland; (E.S.); (D.W.); (A.W.); (A.P.); (A.L.)
| | - Dariusz Wyrzykowski
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland; (E.S.); (D.W.); (A.W.); (A.P.); (A.L.)
| | - Aleksandra Walewska
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland; (E.S.); (D.W.); (A.W.); (A.P.); (A.L.)
| | - Anna Golda
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Milena Deptuła
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Embryology, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.D.); (M.P.)
| | - Michał Obuchowski
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology UG-MUG, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland;
| | - Adam Prahl
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland; (E.S.); (D.W.); (A.W.); (A.P.); (A.L.)
| | - Michał Pikuła
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Embryology, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.D.); (M.P.)
| | - Adam Lesner
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, 80-309 Gdańsk, Poland; (E.S.); (D.W.); (A.W.); (A.P.); (A.L.)
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15
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Zhang D, Chen J, Jing Q, Chen Z, Ullah A, Jiang L, Zheng K, Yuan C, Huang M. Development of a Potent Antimicrobial Peptide With Photodynamic Activity. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:624465. [PMID: 34140932 PMCID: PMC8203924 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.624465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria poses a serious challenge to medical practice worldwide. A small peptide with sequence RWRWRW was previously identified as a core antimicrobial peptide with limited antimicrobial spectrum to bacteria, especially Gram-positive bacteria. By conjugating this peptide and its analogs with lipophilic phthalocyanine (Pc), we identified a new antibiotic peptide [PcG3K5(RW)3]. The peptide demonstrates increased antimicrobial effect to both Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative Escherichia coli. In addition, Pc also provides added and potent antimicrobial effect upon red light illumination. The inhibitory efficacy of PcG3K5(RW)3 was increased by ~140-fold to nanomolar range upon illumination. Moreover, PcG3K5(RW)3 was safe for mammalian cell and promoted wound healing in the mouse infection model. Our work provides a new direction to optimize antimicrobial peptides to enhance antimicrobial efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jingyi Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Qian Jing
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Zheng Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Azeem Ullah
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | | | - Ke Zheng
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Cai Yuan
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
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16
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Xuan HL, Duc TD, Thuy AM, Chau PM, Tung TT. Chemical approaches in the development of natural nontoxic peptide Polybia-MP1 as a potential dual antimicrobial and antitumor agent. Amino Acids 2021; 53:843-852. [PMID: 33948731 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-021-02995-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Polybia-MP1 is a well-known natural antimicrobial peptide that has been intensively studied recently due to its therapeutic potential. MP1 exhibited not only potent antibacterial activity but also antifungal and anticancer properties. More importantly, MP1 shows relatively low hemolytic activity compared to other antimicrobial peptides having a similar origin. Thus, besides investigating possible mechanisms of action, great efforts have been invested to develop this peptide to become more "druggable". In this review, we summarized all the chemical approaches, both success and failure, that using MP1 as a lead compound to create modified analogs with better pharmacological properties. As there have been thousands of natural AMPs found and deposited in numerous databases, such useful information in both the success and failure will provide insight into the research and development of antimicrobial peptides and guiding for the next steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huy L Xuan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, PHENIKAA University, Hanoi, 12116, Vietnam.,PHENIKAA Institute for Advanced Study (PIAS), PHENIKAA University, Hanoi, 12116, Vietnam
| | - Tam D Duc
- Lam Son School for the Gifted, Thanh Hoa, Vietnam
| | - Anh M Thuy
- Lam Son School for the Gifted, Thanh Hoa, Vietnam
| | | | - Truong T Tung
- Faculty of Pharmacy, PHENIKAA University, Hanoi, 12116, Vietnam. .,PHENIKAA Institute for Advanced Study (PIAS), PHENIKAA University, Hanoi, 12116, Vietnam.
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17
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Comparison of Proteomic Responses as Global Approach to Antibiotic Mechanism of Action Elucidation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 65:AAC.01373-20. [PMID: 33046497 PMCID: PMC7927858 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01373-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
New antibiotics are urgently needed to address the mounting resistance challenge. In early drug discovery, one of the bottlenecks is the elucidation of targets and mechanisms. To accelerate antibiotic research, we provide a proteomic approach for the rapid classification of compounds into those with precedented and unprecedented modes of action. We established a proteomic response library of Bacillus subtilis covering 91 antibiotics and comparator compounds, and a mathematical approach was developed to aid data analysis. New antibiotics are urgently needed to address the mounting resistance challenge. In early drug discovery, one of the bottlenecks is the elucidation of targets and mechanisms. To accelerate antibiotic research, we provide a proteomic approach for the rapid classification of compounds into those with precedented and unprecedented modes of action. We established a proteomic response library of Bacillus subtilis covering 91 antibiotics and comparator compounds, and a mathematical approach was developed to aid data analysis. Comparison of proteomic responses (CoPR) allows the rapid identification of antibiotics with dual mechanisms of action as shown for atypical tetracyclines. It also aids in generating hypotheses on mechanisms of action as presented for salvarsan (arsphenamine) and the antirheumatic agent auranofin, which is under consideration for repurposing. Proteomic profiling also provides insights into the impact of antibiotics on bacterial physiology through analysis of marker proteins indicative of the impairment of cellular processes and structures. As demonstrated for trans-translation, a promising target not yet exploited clinically, proteomic profiling supports chemical biology approaches to investigating bacterial physiology.
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18
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Benfield AH, Henriques ST. Mode-of-Action of Antimicrobial Peptides: Membrane Disruption vs. Intracellular Mechanisms. FRONTIERS IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY 2020; 2:610997. [PMID: 35047892 PMCID: PMC8757789 DOI: 10.3389/fmedt.2020.610997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides are an attractive alternative to traditional antibiotics, due to their physicochemical properties, activity toward a broad spectrum of bacteria, and mode-of-actions distinct from those used by current antibiotics. In general, antimicrobial peptides kill bacteria by either disrupting their membrane, or by entering inside bacterial cells to interact with intracellular components. Characterization of their mode-of-action is essential to improve their activity, avoid resistance in bacterial pathogens, and accelerate their use as therapeutics. Here we review experimental biophysical tools that can be employed with model membranes and bacterial cells to characterize the mode-of-action of antimicrobial peptides.
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19
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Schäfer AB, Wenzel M. A How-To Guide for Mode of Action Analysis of Antimicrobial Peptides. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:540898. [PMID: 33194788 PMCID: PMC7604286 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.540898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a promising alternative to classical antibiotics in the fight against multi-resistant bacteria. They are produced by organisms from all domains of life and constitute a nearly universal defense mechanism against infectious agents. No drug can be approved without information about its mechanism of action. In order to use them in a clinical setting, it is pivotal to understand how AMPs work. While many pore-forming AMPs are well-characterized in model membrane systems, non-pore-forming peptides are often poorly understood. Moreover, there is evidence that pore formation may not happen or not play a role in vivo. It is therefore imperative to study how AMPs interact with their targets in vivo and consequently kill microorganisms. This has been difficult in the past, since established methods did not provide much mechanistic detail. Especially, methods to study membrane-active compounds have been scarce. Recent advances, in particular in microscopy technology and cell biological labeling techniques, now allow studying mechanisms of AMPs in unprecedented detail. This review gives an overview of available in vivo methods to investigate the antibacterial mechanisms of AMPs. In addition to classical mode of action classification assays, we discuss global profiling techniques, such as genomic and proteomic approaches, as well as bacterial cytological profiling and other cell biological assays. We cover approaches to determine the effects of AMPs on cell morphology, outer membrane, cell wall, and inner membrane properties, cellular macromolecules, and protein targets. We particularly expand on methods to examine cytoplasmic membrane parameters, such as composition, thickness, organization, fluidity, potential, and the functionality of membrane-associated processes. This review aims to provide a guide for researchers, who seek a broad overview of the available methodology to study the mechanisms of AMPs in living bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michaela Wenzel
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
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20
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The impact of non-ideality of lipid mixing on peptide induced lipid clustering. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183248. [PMID: 32145281 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The influence of several antimicrobial trivalent cyclic hexapeptides on the mixing behavior of bilayer lipid membranes containing phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) with varying composition was studied using DSC and ITC. The peptides contained three arginines and three aromatic amino acids and had different sequences. All of them induce clustering of PG-rich clusters with bound peptides after binding. In a previous publication we could show that a correlation between clustering efficacy and the antimicrobial activity of the peptides exists (S. Finger et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1848 (2015) 2998-3006). In the current study we investigated whether the non-ideality of the lipid mixture had any effect on the clustering efficacy and the critical peptide/lipid clustering ratio. We could show that for PG/PE membranes containing 1:1 M ratios and lipids with equal or unequal chain lengths, the amount of clustered PG depended only slightly on the absolute chain length and on the chain length difference between PG and PE. Much larger differences were observed when the PG/ PE mixing ratio was changed. In mixtures of DPPG/DPPE with high PG content, the amount of clustered PG per added peptide was much higher than in PE-rich mixtures. The ITC experiments showed that the critical peptide/lipid ratio for cluster formation is also strongly dependent on the PG/PE ratio in the mixture. In the PG/PE 3:1 mixture, the formation of clusters with bound peptide is much more likely than for mixtures with less PG. For 1:1 and 1:3 lipid mixtures, the critical peptide/lipid ratio for demixing is between 0.002 and 0.004. Therefore, even in these mixtures clustering occurs way below charge saturation of the PG in the mixture and the PG-rich clusters are not charge compensated either. The peptide concentration necessary for inducing clustering amounts to ~8 μM, a value well within the range of minimal inhibitory concentration values observed for the cyclic peptides studied here. Our results show that not only the structure of the cyclic peptide influences the clustering efficacy but also the mixing behavior of the lipids in the bilayers has an influence on the amount of clustering induced by binding of cyclic peptides.
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21
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Wüllner D, Haupt A, Prochnow P, Leontiev R, Slusarenko AJ, Bandow JE. Interspecies Comparison of the Bacterial Response to Allicin Reveals Species-Specific Defense Strategies. Proteomics 2019; 19:e1900064. [PMID: 31622046 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201900064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Allicin, a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent from garlic, disrupts thiol and redox homeostasis, proteostasis, and cell membrane integrity. Since medicine demands antimicrobials with so far unexploited mechanisms, allicin is a promising lead structure. While progress is being made in unraveling its mode of action, little is known on bacterial adaptation strategies. Some isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli withstand exposure to high allicin concentrations due to as yet unknown mechanisms. To elucidate resistance and sensitivity-conferring cellular processes, the acute proteomic responses of a resistant P. aeruginosa strain and the sensitive species Bacillus subtilis are compared to the published proteomic response of E. coli to allicin treatment. The cellular defense strategies share functional features: proteins involved in translation and maintenance of protein quality, redox homeostasis, and cell envelope modification are upregulated. In both Gram-negative species, protein synthesis of the majority of proteins is downregulated while the Gram-positive B. subtilis responded by upregulation of multiple regulons. A comparison of the B. subtilis proteomic response to a library of responses to antibiotic treatment reveals 30 proteins specifically upregulated by allicin. Upregulated oxidative stress proteins are shared with nitrofurantoin and diamide. Microscopy-based assays further indicate that in B. subtilis cell wall integrity is impaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Wüllner
- Applied Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Annika Haupt
- Applied Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Pascal Prochnow
- Applied Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Roman Leontiev
- Department of Plant Physiology (Bio III), RWTH Aachen University, 52056, Aachen, Germany.,Division of Bioorganic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Saarland University, 66041, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Alan J Slusarenko
- Department of Plant Physiology (Bio III), RWTH Aachen University, 52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Julia E Bandow
- Applied Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
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22
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Abstract
Over the past decade the number and variety of protein post-translational modifications that have been detected and characterized in bacteria have rapidly increased. Most post-translational protein modifications occur in a relatively low number of bacterial proteins in comparison with eukaryotic proteins, and most of the modified proteins carry low, substoichiometric levels of modification; therefore, their structural and functional analysis is particularly challenging. The number of modifying enzymes differs greatly among bacterial species, and the extent of the modified proteome strongly depends on environmental conditions. Nevertheless, evidence is rapidly accumulating that protein post-translational modifications have vital roles in various cellular processes such as protein synthesis and turnover, nitrogen metabolism, the cell cycle, dormancy, sporulation, spore germination, persistence and virulence. Further research of protein post-translational modifications will fill current gaps in the understanding of bacterial physiology and open new avenues for treatment of infectious diseases.
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23
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Dong N, Chou S, Li J, Xue C, Li X, Cheng B, Shan A, Xu L. Short Symmetric-End Antimicrobial Peptides Centered on β-Turn Amino Acids Unit Improve Selectivity and Stability. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2832. [PMID: 30538681 PMCID: PMC6277555 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are excellent candidates to combat the increasing number of multi- or pan-resistant pathogens worldwide based on their mechanism of action, which is different from that of antibiotics. In this study, we designed short peptides by fusing an α-helix and β-turn sequence-motif in a symmetric-end template to promote the higher cell selectivity, antibacterial activity and salt-resistance of these structures. The results showed that the designed peptides PQ and PP tended to form an α-helical structure upon interacting with a membrane-mimicking environment. They displayed high cell selectivity toward bacterial cells over eukaryotic cells. Their activities were mostly maintained in the presence of different conditions (salts, serum, heat, and pH), which indicated their stability in vivo. Fluorescence spectroscopy and electron microscopy analyses indicated that PP and PQ killed bacterial cells through membrane pore formation, thereby damaging membrane integrity. This study revealed the potential application of these designed peptides as new candidate antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Dong
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Shuli Chou
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Jiawei Li
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Chenyu Xue
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xinran Li
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Baojing Cheng
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Anshan Shan
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Li Xu
- The Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition and Immunity, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
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24
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Bagheri M, Amininasab M, Dathe M. Arginine/Tryptophan-Rich Cyclic α/β-Antimicrobial Peptides: The Roles of Hydrogen Bonding and Hydrophobic/Hydrophilic Solvent-Accessible Surface Areas upon Activity and Membrane Selectivity. Chemistry 2018; 24:14242-14253. [PMID: 29969522 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201802881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The bacterial selectivity of an amphiphilic library of small cyclic α/β-tetra-, α/β-penta-, and α/β-hexapeptides rich in arginine/tryptophan (Arg/Trp) residues, which contains asymmetric backbone configurations and differ in hydrophobicity and alternating d,l-amino acids, was investigated against Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli. The structural analyses showed that the peptides tend to form assemblies of different shapes. All-l-peptides, especially the most hydrophobic pentamers, were more strongly anti-B. subtilis. With the exception to cyclo(Phe-d-Trp-β3 hArg-Arg-d-Trp) (Phe=phenylalanine), the peptides had no effects on inner membrane of E. coli, but lyzed the lipopolysaccharide layer according to their activity pattern. The activities adversely changed with a decrease in the number of amide intramolecular hydrogen bonds in assemblies of diastereomeric peptides and the ratio of hydrophobic/hydrophilic solvent-accessible surface areas. The remarkable enhanced entropic contribution for the partitioning of the least conformationally constrained cyclo(Trp-d-Phe-β3 hTrp-Arg-d-Arg) sequence into the membranes supported the strong self-assembly behavior, therefore making the peptide less penetrable through the E. coli outer layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Bagheri
- Peptide Chemistry Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, 16 Azar Street, 14176-14335, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehriar Amininasab
- Department of cell and molecular Biology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of, Tehran, Iran
| | - Margitta Dathe
- Leibniz institute of molecular pharmacology (FMP), Robert Roessle Street 10, 13125, Berlin, Germany
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25
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Direct carborane-peptide conjugates: Synthesis and evaluation as non-natural lipopeptide mimetics. Chem Phys Lipids 2018; 213:62-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2018.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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26
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Gomes KAGG, Dos Santos DM, Santos VM, Piló-Veloso D, Mundim HM, Rodrigues LV, Lião LM, Verly RM, de Lima ME, Resende JM. NMR structures in different membrane environments of three ocellatin peptides isolated from Leptodactylus labyrinthicus. Peptides 2018; 103:72-83. [PMID: 29596881 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2018.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The peptides ocellatin-LB1, -LB2 and -F1 have previously been isolated from anurans of the Leptodactylus genus and the sequences are identical from residue 1-22, which correspond to ocellatin-LB1 sequence (GVVDILKGAAKDIAGHLASKVM-NH2), whereas ocellatin-LB2 carries an extra N and ocellatin-F1 extra NKL residues at their C-termini. These peptides showed different spectra of activities and biophysical investigations indicated a direct correlation between membrane-disruptive properties and antimicrobial activities, i.e. ocellatin-F1 > ocellatin-LB1 > ocellatin-LB2. To better characterize their membrane interactions, we report here the detailed three-dimensional NMR structures of these peptides in TFE-d2:H2O (60:40) and in the presence of zwitterionic DPC-d38 and anionic SDS-d25 micellar solutions. Although the three peptides showed significant helical contents in the three mimetic environments, structural differences were noticed. When the structures of the three peptides in the presence of DPC-d38 micelles are compared to each other, a more pronounced curvature is observed for ocellatin-F1 and the bent helix, with the concave face composed mostly of hydrophobic residues, is consistent with the micellar curvature and the amphipathic nature of the molecule. Interestingly, an almost linear helical segment was observed for ocellatin-F1 in the presence of SDS-d25 micelles and the conformational differences in the two micellar environments are possibly related to the presence of the extra Lys residue near the peptide C-terminus, which increases the affinity of ocellatin-F1 to anionic membranes in comparison with ocellatin-LB1 and -LB2, as proved by isothermal titration calorimetry. To our knowledge, this work reports for the first time the three-dimensional structures of ocellatin peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla A G G Gomes
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, P.O. Box 486, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Instituto de Engenharia, Ciência e Tecnologia, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, 39440-000 Janaúba, MG, Brazil
| | - Daniel M Dos Santos
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, P.O. Box 486, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Virgílio M Santos
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, P.O. Box 486, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Dorila Piló-Veloso
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, P.O. Box 486, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Higor M Mundim
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Av. Esperança, s/n, Campus Samambaia, 74690-900 Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Leticia V Rodrigues
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Av. Esperança, s/n, Campus Samambaia, 74690-900 Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Luciano M Lião
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Av. Esperança, s/n, Campus Samambaia, 74690-900 Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo M Verly
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, 39100-000 Diamantina, MG, Brazil
| | - Maria Elena de Lima
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, P.O. Box 486, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Jarbas M Resende
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, P.O. Box 486, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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27
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Almahboub SA, Narancic T, Devocelle M, Kenny ST, Palmer-Brown W, Murphy C, Nikodinovic-Runic J, O'Connor KE. Biosynthesis of 2-aminooctanoic acid and its use to terminally modify a lactoferricin B peptide derivative for improved antimicrobial activity. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 102:789-799. [PMID: 29177937 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8655-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Terminal modification of peptides is frequently used to improve their hydrophobicity. While N-terminal modification with fatty acids (lipidation) has been reported previously, C-terminal lipidation is limited as it requires the use of linkers. Here we report the use of a biocatalyst for the production of an unnatural fatty amino acid, (S)-2-aminooctanoic acid (2-AOA) with enantiomeric excess > 98% ee and the subsequent use of 2-AOA to modify and improve the activity of an antimicrobial peptide. A transaminase originating from Chromobacterium violaceum was employed with a conversion efficiency 52-80% depending on the ratio of amino group donor to acceptor. 2-AOA is a fatty acid with amino functionality, which allowed direct C- and N-terminal conjugation respectively to an antimicrobial peptide (AMP) derived from lactoferricin B. The antibacterial activity of the modified peptides was improved by up to 16-fold. Furthermore, minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of C-terminally modified peptide were always lower than N-terminally conjugated peptides. The C-terminally modified peptide exhibited MIC values of 25 μg/ml for Escherichia coli, 50 μg/ml for Bacillus subtilis, 100 μg/ml for Salmonella typhimurium, 200 μg/ml for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and 400 μg/ml for Staphylococcus aureus. The C-terminally modified peptide was the only peptide tested that showed complete inhibition of growth of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Almahboub
- UCD Earth Institute and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, O'Brien Centre for Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Tanja Narancic
- UCD Earth Institute and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, O'Brien Centre for Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Marc Devocelle
- Centre for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, Department of Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 123 St Stephens Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Shane T Kenny
- Bioplastech Ltd., Nova UCD, Belfield Innovation Park, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - William Palmer-Brown
- UCD Earth Institute and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, O'Brien Centre for Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Cormac Murphy
- UCD Earth Institute and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, O'Brien Centre for Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Jasmina Nikodinovic-Runic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Kevin E O'Connor
- UCD Earth Institute and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, O'Brien Centre for Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. .,BEACON - Bioeconomy Research Centre, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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28
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Liu C, Zou Y, Song H, Jiang YY, Hu HG. Arylboronate Ester Protected Amino Acids as Orthogonal Building Blocks for Fmoc Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis. European J Org Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201701064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liu
- Department of Organic Chemistry; College of Pharmacy; Second Military Medical University; 200433 Shanghai China
| | - Yan Zou
- Department of Organic Chemistry; College of Pharmacy; Second Military Medical University; 200433 Shanghai China
| | - Hui Song
- College of Pharmacy; Weifang Medical University; 261053 Weifang, Shandong China
| | - Yuan-Ye Jiang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Qufu Normal University; 273165 Qufu China
| | - Hong-Gang Hu
- Department of Organic Chemistry; College of Pharmacy; Second Military Medical University; 200433 Shanghai China
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29
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Albada B, Metzler-Nolte N. Highly Potent Antibacterial Organometallic Peptide Conjugates. Acc Chem Res 2017; 50:2510-2518. [PMID: 28953347 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Resistance of pathogenic bacteria against currently marketed antibiotics is again increasing. To meet the societal need for effective cures, scientists are faced with the challenge of developing more potent but equally bacteria-specific drugs. Currently, most efforts are directed toward the modification of existing antibiotics, but ideally, compounds with a new mode of action are required. In this Account, we detail our findings in the area of novel metal-based antibiotics. Our strategy is based on the modification of simple antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with organometallic agents, resulting in organometallic AMPs (OM-AMPs). Since bacteria have most likely never encountered these synthetically prepared unnatural organometallic agents, we anticipated that such agents could well become potentiating players in the antibiotics arena. Moreover, exploiting some of the particular properties of metal complexes should also help to elucidate the mode of action of small cationic AMPs, the molecular details of which have remained elusive despite intensive efforts. Using standard Fmoc/tBu-based solid-phase peptide synthesis approaches, we have prepared various organometallic-peptide conjugates with covalently linked group 8 and 9 metallocenes (ferrocene, ruthenocene, osmocene, and cobaltocenium). As a starting point we took the (RW)3 antibacterial hexapeptide lead structure. After modifying the peptide sequence (generations 1 and 2), changing the nature and position of the organometallic group (generation 3), and optimizing the amino acid chirality (generation 5), we identified several organometallic antibacterial peptides that are currently among the most active synthetic AMPs (synAMPs) that have ever been prepared. Through these rational and systematic optimizations, we were able to increase the antibacterial activity of a short non-organometallic synAMP 18-fold to submicromolar activity, rivaling the activity of vancomycin (often the drug of last resort) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Moreover, by making use of the unique physicochemical properties of ruthenocene, we were able to determine the mode of action of these short AMPs in unprecedented detail. We propose that the OM-AMP integrates into the bacterial membrane and changes its biophysical properties, which ultimately results in detachment of vital enzymes for respiration and cell-wall biosynthesis such as specifically cytochrome c and MurG from their locations in the membrane. Further explorations of these small OM-AMP derivatives that are summarized in this Account include lipid substitution, multivalent display of metalated di- or tripeptides on a trivalent scaffold with different linkers, and increasing the metal-to-peptide ratio such that every tryptophan in the (RW)3 scaffold is eventually replaced by a metalated lysine. While initial experiments with our OM-AMPs for systemic applications were largely disappointing, these OM-AMPs turned out to be potent antibiotics for topical applications. In this sense, two applications are described as examples in this Account, namely, bacterial decontamination of wastewater by reverse osmosis membranes (coated with our OM-AMPs by Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction) and synergistic activities of one of our synAMPs with colistin and tobramycin for the treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections that are associated with cystic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bauke Albada
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nils Metzler-Nolte
- Inorganic
Chemistry I − Bioinorganic Chemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
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30
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Junior EFC, Guimarães CFRC, Franco LL, Alves RJ, Kato KC, Martins HR, de Souza Filho JD, Bemquerer MP, Munhoz VHO, Resende JM, Verly RM. Glycotriazole-peptides derived from the peptide HSP1: synergistic effect of triazole and saccharide rings on the antifungal activity. Amino Acids 2017; 49:1389-1400. [PMID: 28573520 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-017-2441-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This work proposes a strategy that uses solid-phase peptide synthesis associated with copper(I)-catalyzed azide alkyne cycloaddition reaction to promote the glycosylation of an antimicrobial peptide (HSP1) containing a carboxyamidated C-terminus (HSP1-NH2). Two glycotriazole-peptides, namely [p-Glc-trz-G1]HSP1-NH2 and [p-GlcNAc-trz-G1]HSP1-NH2, were prepared using per-O-acetylated azide derivatives of glucose and N-acetylglucosamine in the presence of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4·5H2O) and sodium ascorbate as a reducing agent. In order to investigate the synergistic action of the carbohydrate motif linked to the triazole-peptide structure, a triazole derivative [trz-G1]HSP1-NH2 was also prepared. A set of biophysical approaches such as DLS, Zeta Potential, SPR and carboxyfluorescein leakage from phospholipid vesicles confirmed higher membrane disruption and lytic activities as well as stronger peptide-LUVs interactions for the glycotriazole-peptides when compared to HSP1-NH2 and to its triazole derivative, which is in accordance with the performed biological assays: whereas HSP1-NH2 presents relatively low and [trz-G1]HSP1-NH2 just moderate fungicidal activity, the glycotriazole-peptides are significantly more effective antifungal agents. In addition, the glycotriazole-peptides and the triazole derivative present strong inhibition effects on ergosterol biosynthesis in Candida albicans, when compared to HSP1-NH2 alone. In conclusion, the increased fungicidal activity of the glycotriazole-peptides seems to be the result of (A) more pronounced membrane-disruptive properties, which is related to the presence of a saccharide ring, together with (B) the inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis, which seems to be related to the presence of both the monosaccharide and the triazole rings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo F C Junior
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, 39100-000, Brazil
| | - Carlos F R C Guimarães
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, PO Box 486, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Lucas L Franco
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, PO Box 486, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Ricardo J Alves
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, PO Box 486, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Kelly C Kato
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, 39100-000, Brazil
| | - Helen R Martins
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, 39100-000, Brazil
| | - José D de Souza Filho
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, PO Box 486, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Marcelo P Bemquerer
- Laboratório de Espectrometria de Massa, Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA)-Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, Estação Parque Biológico, Final W5, Asa Norte, Brasília, DF, 70770-900, Brazil
| | - Victor H O Munhoz
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, 39100-000, Brazil
| | - Jarbas M Resende
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, PO Box 486, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo M Verly
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, 39100-000, Brazil.
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31
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Molchanova N, Hansen PR, Damborg P, Nielsen HM, Franzyk H. Lysine-Based α-Peptide/β-Peptoid Peptidomimetics: Influence of Hydrophobicity, Fluorination, and Distribution of Cationic Charge on Antimicrobial Activity and Cytotoxicity. ChemMedChem 2017; 12:312-318. [PMID: 28052595 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201600553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant bacteria pose a serious threat to public health worldwide. Previously, α-peptide/β-peptoid hybrid oligomers were found to display activity against Gram-negative multidrug-resistant bacteria. In the present work, the influence of hydrophobicity, fluorination, and distribution of cationic/hydrophobic residues on antimicrobial, hemolytic, and cytotoxic properties of α-peptide/β-peptoid hybrids were investigated. An array of 22 peptidomimetics was tested. Analogues with enhanced hydrophobicity were found to exhibit increased activity against Gram-positive bacteria. Incorporation of fluorinated residues into the peptidomimetics conferred increased potency against Gram-positive bacteria, while hemolytic properties and activity against Gram-negative bacteria depended on the degree and type of fluorination. Generally, shorter oligomers were less potent than the corresponding longer analogues. However, some short analogues exhibited equal or higher antimicrobial activity. The alternating hydrophobic/cationic design proved superior to other distribution patterns of cationic side chains and hydrophobic moieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Molchanova
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paul R Hansen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Damborg
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Hanne M Nielsen
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Henrik Franzyk
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
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32
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Martinez OF, Agbale CM, Nomiyama F, Franco OL. Deciphering bioactive peptides and their action mechanisms through proteomics. Expert Rev Proteomics 2016; 13:1007-1016. [PMID: 27650042 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2016.1238305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Bioactive peptides such as antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), ribosomally synthesized and post translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) and the non-ribosomal peptides (NRPs) have emerged with promising applications in medicine, agriculture and industry. However, their development has been limited by several difficulties making it necessary to search for novel discovery methods. In this context, proteomics has been considered a reliable tool. Areas covered: This review highlights recent developments in proteomic tools that facilitate the discovery of AMPs, RiPPs and NRPs as well as the elucidation of action mechanisms of AMPs and resistance mechanisms of pathogens to them. Expert commentary: Proteomic approaches have emerged as useful tools for the study of bioactive peptides, especially mass spectrometry-based peptidomics profiling, a promising strategy for AMP discovery. Furthermore, the rapidly expanding fields of genome mining and genome sequencing techniques, as well as mass spectrometry, have revolutionized the discovery of novel RiPPs and NRPs from complex biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osmel Fleitas Martinez
- a Pos-Graduação em Patologia olecular , Universidade de Brasilia , Brasilia-DF Brazil.,b Centro de Analises Proteomicas e Bioquimicas, Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Ciencias Genomicas e Biotecnologia , Universidade Catolica de Brasilia , Brasília , Brazil
| | - Caleb Mawuli Agbale
- c S-Inova Biotech, Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Biotecnologia , Universidade Catolica Dom Bosco , Campo Grande , Brazil.,d Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences , University of Cape Coast , Cape Coast , Ghana
| | - Fernanda Nomiyama
- b Centro de Analises Proteomicas e Bioquimicas, Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Ciencias Genomicas e Biotecnologia , Universidade Catolica de Brasilia , Brasília , Brazil
| | - Octávio Luiz Franco
- a Pos-Graduação em Patologia olecular , Universidade de Brasilia , Brasilia-DF Brazil.,b Centro de Analises Proteomicas e Bioquimicas, Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Ciencias Genomicas e Biotecnologia , Universidade Catolica de Brasilia , Brasília , Brazil.,c S-Inova Biotech, Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Biotecnologia , Universidade Catolica Dom Bosco , Campo Grande , Brazil
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33
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Malanovic N, Lohner K. Antimicrobial Peptides Targeting Gram-Positive Bacteria. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2016; 9:E59. [PMID: 27657092 PMCID: PMC5039512 DOI: 10.3390/ph9030059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have remarkably different structures as well as biological activity profiles, whereupon most of these peptides are supposed to kill bacteria via membrane damage. In order to understand their molecular mechanism and target cell specificity for Gram-positive bacteria, it is essential to consider the architecture of their cell envelopes. Before AMPs can interact with the cytoplasmic membrane of Gram-positive bacteria, they have to traverse the cell wall composed of wall- and lipoteichoic acids and peptidoglycan. While interaction of AMPs with peptidoglycan might rather facilitate penetration, interaction with anionic teichoic acids may act as either a trap for AMPs or a ladder for a route to the cytoplasmic membrane. Interaction with the cytoplasmic membrane frequently leads to lipid segregation affecting membrane domain organization, which affects membrane permeability, inhibits cell division processes or leads to delocalization of essential peripheral membrane proteins. Further, precursors of cell wall components, especially the highly conserved lipid II, are directly targeted by AMPs. Thereby, the peptides do not inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis via binding to proteins like common antibiotics, but form a complex with the precursor molecule, which in addition can promote pore formation and membrane disruption. Thus, the multifaceted mode of actions will make AMPs superior to antibiotics that act only on one specific target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nermina Malanovic
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Biophysics Division, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Austria.
| | - Karl Lohner
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Biophysics Division, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Austria.
- BioTechMed Graz, Humboldtstrasse 50/III, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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34
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Wenzel M, Prochnow P, Mowbray C, Vuong C, Höxtermann S, Stepanek JJ, Albada HB, Hall J, Metzler-Nolte N, Bandow JE. Towards Profiles of Resistance Development and Toxicity for the Small Cationic Hexapeptide RWRWRW-NH2. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:86. [PMID: 27617260 PMCID: PMC4999427 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
RWRWRW-NH2 (MP196) is an amphipathic hexapeptide that targets the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane and inhibits cellular respiration and cell wall synthesis. In previous studies it showed promising activity against Gram-positive bacteria and no significant cytotoxicity or hemolysis. MP196 is therefore used as lead structure for developing more potent antibiotic derivatives. Here we present a more comprehensive study on the parent peptide MP196 with regard to clinically relevant parameters. We found that MP196 acts rapidly bactericidal killing 97% of initial CFU within 10 min at two times MIC. We were unable to detect resistance in standard 24 and 48 h resistance frequency assays. However, MP196 was effective against some but not all MRSA and VISA strains. Serum binding of MP196 was intermediate and we confirmed its low toxicity against mammalian cell lines. MP196 did neither induce NFκB activation nor cause an increase in IL8 levels at 250 μg/mL, and no IgE-dependent activation of basophil granulocytes was detected at 500 μg/mL. Yet, MP196 demonstrated acute toxicity in mice upon injection into the blood stream. Phase contrast microscopy of mouse blood treated with MP196 revealed a shrinking of erythrocytes at 250 μg/mL and severe morphological changes and lysis of erythrocytes at 500 μg/mL. These data suggest that MP196 derivatization directed at further lowering hemolysis could be instrumental in overcoming acute toxicity. The assessment of hemolysis is a critical step in the evaluation of the clinical potential of promising antimicrobial peptides and should be accompanied by microscopy-based morphological analysis of blood cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Wenzel
- Applied Microbiology, Ruhr University Bochum Bochum, Germany
| | - Pascal Prochnow
- Applied Microbiology, Ruhr University Bochum Bochum, Germany
| | - Catherine Mowbray
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Cuong Vuong
- AiCuris Anti-infective Cures GmbH Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Stefan Höxtermann
- Clinic for Dermatology and Allergology, St. Josef Hospital Bochum, Germany
| | | | - H Bauke Albada
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I - Bioinorganic Chemistry, Ruhr University Bochum Bochum, Germany
| | - Judith Hall
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Nils Metzler-Nolte
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I - Bioinorganic Chemistry, Ruhr University Bochum Bochum, Germany
| | - Julia E Bandow
- Applied Microbiology, Ruhr University Bochum Bochum, Germany
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Rashid R, Veleba M, Kline KA. Focal Targeting of the Bacterial Envelope by Antimicrobial Peptides. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:55. [PMID: 27376064 PMCID: PMC4894902 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are utilized by both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. AMPs such as the human beta defensins, human neutrophil peptides, human cathelicidin, and many bacterial bacteriocins are cationic and capable of binding to anionic regions of the bacterial surface. Cationic AMPs (CAMPs) target anionic lipids [e.g., phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and cardiolipins (CL)] in the cell membrane and anionic components [e.g., lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA)] of the cell envelope. Bacteria have evolved mechanisms to modify these same targets in order to resist CAMP killing, e.g., lysinylation of PG to yield cationic lysyl-PG and alanylation of LTA. Since CAMPs offer a promising therapeutic alternative to conventional antibiotics, which are becoming less effective due to rapidly emerging antibiotic resistance, there is a strong need to improve our understanding about the AMP mechanism of action. Recent literature suggests that AMPs often interact with the bacterial cell envelope at discrete foci. Here we review recent AMP literature, with an emphasis on focal interactions with bacteria, including (1) CAMP disruption mechanisms, (2) delocalization of membrane proteins and lipids by CAMPs, and (3) CAMP sensing systems and resistance mechanisms. We conclude with new approaches for studying the bacterial membrane, e.g., lipidomics, high resolution imaging, and non-detergent-based membrane domain extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafi Rashid
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore
| | - Mark Veleba
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kimberly A Kline
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore
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Reinhardt A, Neundorf I. Design and Application of Antimicrobial Peptide Conjugates. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E701. [PMID: 27187357 PMCID: PMC4881524 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17050701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are an interesting class of antibiotics characterized by their unique antibiotic activity and lower propensity for developing resistance compared to common antibiotics. They belong to the class of membrane-active peptides and usually act selectively against bacteria, fungi and protozoans. AMPs, but also peptide conjugates containing AMPs, have come more and more into the focus of research during the last few years. Within this article, recent work on AMP conjugates is reviewed. Different aspects will be highlighted as a combination of AMPs with antibiotics or organometallic compounds aiming to increase antibacterial activity or target selectivity, conjugation with photosensitizers for improving photodynamic therapy (PDT) or the attachment to particles, to name only a few. Owing to the enormous resonance of antimicrobial conjugates in the literature so far, this research topic seems to be very attractive to different scientific fields, like medicine, biology, biochemistry or chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Reinhardt
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zuelpicher Str. 47, D-50674 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Ines Neundorf
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zuelpicher Str. 47, D-50674 Cologne, Germany.
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