1
|
Nagata T, Huang Y. Elucidating the role of intrinsic adenosine A1 receptors in acute alcoholism using human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes. Biosci Rep 2024; 44:BSR20231682. [PMID: 38419509 PMCID: PMC10958140 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20231682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Acute alcoholic hepatitis (AAH) from binge drinking is a serious disease. It is associated with a high mortality rate, especially among young adults. Apoptosis is known to be a primary cause of liver damage, and it can be induced by either intrinsic signaling pathways or by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Adenosine A1 receptors (ADORA1) are known to be involved in ethanol metabolism; however, underlying mechanism is not well understood. For investigating how the intrinsic ADORA1 function in ethanol metabolism in normal human hepatocytes without interference by extrinsic molecules, primary hepatocytes pose a challenge, due to unavoidable contamination by other kinds of cells in the liver. Also, they are difficult to culture stably. As a novel alternative, hepatocytes derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells were employed because they display similar function to primary hepatocytes and they can be stably cultured. The dynamics and integrity of signal transduction mechanisms were investigated by following chronological changes in gene expression. This shed light on how and when the ADORA1 function and on causal relationships between the pathways and clinical symptoms. The findings of the present study shows that ADORA1 are most activated soon after exposure to ethanol, and transfection of small interfering RNA targeting ADORA1-messenger-RNA (ADORA1-siRNA) into the hepatocytes significantly suppresses production of actin protein and ROS. It suggests that ADORA1 in the liver contribute to apoptosis in acute alcoholism through both intrinsic pathway and ROS activity. Also, actin that is abundant in the cells could be an appropriate biomarker evaluating hepatic function status.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuning George Huang
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Nguyen AT, Althwab SA, Qiu H, Zbasnik R, Urrea C, Carr TP, Schlegel V. Great Northern Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Lower Cholesterol in Hamsters Fed a High-Saturated-Fat Diet. J Nutr 2022; 152:2080-2087. [PMID: 35511604 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxac102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dietary interventions for high cholesterol, a primary risk factor for cardiovascular disease, are generally considered before prescribing drugs. OBJECTIVE This study investigated the effects of whole Great Northern beans (wGNBs) and their hull (hGNB) incorporated into a high-saturated-fat (HSF) diet on cholesterol markers and hepatic/small intestinal genes involved in cholesterol regulation. METHODS Each of the 4 groups of 11 male golden Syrian hamsters at 9 wk old were fed a normal-fat [NF; 5% (wt:wt) of soybean oil], HSF [5% (wt:wt) of soybean oil + 10% (wt:wt) of coconut oil], HSF+5% (wt:wt) wGNB, or HSF+0.5% (wt:wt) hGNB diet for 4 wk. Cholesterol markers and expression of genes involved in cholesterol metabolism and absorption were analyzed from plasma, liver, intestinal, and fecal samples. Data were analyzed by 1-factor ANOVA and Pearson correlations. RESULTS Compared with the HSF group, the HSF+wGNB group had 62% and 85% lower plasma and liver cholesterol and 3.6-fold and 1.4-fold greater fecal excretion of neutral sterol and bile acid, respectively (P ≤ 0.05). The HSF+hGNB group had 54% lower plasma triglycerides (P < 0.001) and 53% lower liver esterified cholesterol (P = 0.0002) than the HSF group. Compared with the HSF group, the expression of small intestinal Niemann-Pick C1 like 1 (Npc1l1), acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 2 (Acat2), and ATP binding cassette transporter subfamily G member 5 (Abcg5) were 75%, 70%, and 49% lower, respectively, and expression of hepatic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (Hmgr) was 11.5-fold greater in the HSF+wGNB group (P ≤ 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Consumption of wGNBs resulted in lower cholesterol concentration in male hamsters fed an HSF diet by promoting fecal cholesterol excretion, most likely caused by Npc1l1 and Acat2 suppression. The hGNB may partially contribute to the cholesterol-lowering effect of the wGNBs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- An T Nguyen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA.,Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Dalat University, Dalat, Vietnam
| | - Sami A Althwab
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA.,Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University, Buraidah, Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia
| | - Haowen Qiu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Richard Zbasnik
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Carlos Urrea
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, Panhandle Research and Extension Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Scottsbluff, NE, USA
| | - Timothy P Carr
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Vicki Schlegel
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pramfalk C, Jakobsson T, Verzijl CRC, Minniti ME, Obensa C, Ripamonti F, Olin M, Pedrelli M, Eriksson M, Parini P. Generation of new hepatocyte-like in vitro models better resembling human lipid metabolism. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2020; 1865:158659. [PMID: 32058035 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2020.158659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to human hepatocytes in vivo, which solely express acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) 2, both ACAT1 and ACAT2 (encoded by SOAT1 and SOAT2) are expressed in primary human hepatocytes and in human hepatoma cell lines. Here, we aimed to create hepatocyte-like cells expressing the ACAT2, but not the ACAT1, protein to generate a model that - at least in this regard - resembles the human condition in vivo and to assess the effects on lipid metabolism. Using the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats technology, we knocked out SOAT1 in HepG2 and Huh7.5 cells. The wild type and SOAT2-only-cells were cultured with fetal bovine or human serum and the effects on lipoprotein and lipid metabolism were studied. In SOAT2-only-HepG2 cells, increased levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein B and lipoprotein(a) in the cell media were detected; this was likely dependent of the increased expression of key genes involved in lipid metabolism (e.g. MTP, APOB, HMGCR, LDLR, ACACA, and DGAT2). Opposite effects were observed in SOAT2-only-Huh7.5 cells. Our study shows that the expression of SOAT1 in hepatocyte-like cells contributes to the distorted phenotype observed in HepG2 and Huh7.5 cells. As not only parameters of lipoprotein and lipid metabolism but also some markers of differentiation/maturation increase in the SOAT2-only-HepG2 cells cultured with HS, this cellular model represent an improved model for studies of lipid metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Pramfalk
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden; Patient Area Nephrology and Endocrinology, Inflammation and Infection Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tomas Jakobsson
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Cristy R C Verzijl
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Mirko E Minniti
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Clara Obensa
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Federico Ripamonti
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Maria Olin
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Matteo Pedrelli
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Mats Eriksson
- Patient Area Nephrology and Endocrinology, Inflammation and Infection Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Metabolism Unit, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paolo Parini
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden; Patient Area Nephrology and Endocrinology, Inflammation and Infection Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Metabolism Unit, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Sun L, Yu F, Yi F, Xu L, Jiang B, Le L, Xiao P. Acteoside From Ligustrum robustum (Roxb.) Blume Ameliorates Lipid Metabolism and Synthesis in a HepG2 Cell Model of Lipid Accumulation. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:602. [PMID: 31178740 PMCID: PMC6543445 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to ascertain the mechanism underlying the effects of acteoside (ACT) from Ligustrum robustum (Roxb.) Blume (Oleaceae) on lipid metabolism and synthesis. ACT, a water-soluble phenylpropanoid glycoside, is the most abundant and major active component of L. robustum; the leaves of L. robustum, known as kudingcha (bitter tea), have long been used in China as an herbal tea for weight loss. Recently, based on previous studies, our team reached a preliminary conclusion that phenylpropanoid glycosides from L. robustum most likely contribute substantially to reducing lipid levels, but the mechanism remains unclear. Here, we conducted an in silico screen of currently known phenylethanoid glycosides from L. robustum and attempted to explore the hypolipidemic mechanism of ACT, the representative component of phenylethanoid glycosides in L. robustum, using RNA-seq technology, quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and Western blotting. First, the screening results for six compounds were docked with 15 human protein targets, and 3 of 15 protein targets were related to cardiovascular diseases. Based on previous experimental data and docking results, we selected ACT, which exerted positive effects, for further study. We generated a lipid accumulation model using HepG2 cells treated with a high concentration of oleic acid and then extracted RNA from cells treated for 24 h with 50 μmol/L ACT. Subsequently, we performed a transcriptomic analysis of the RNA-seq results, which revealed a large number of differentially expressed genes. Finally, we randomly selected some genes and proteins for further validation using qPCR and Western blotting; the results agreed with the RNA-seq data and confirmed their reliability. In conclusion, our experiments proved that ACT from L. robustum alters lipid metabolism and synthesis by regulating the expression of multiple genes, including Scarb1, Scarb2, Srebf1, Dhcr7, Acat2, Hmgcr, Fdft1, and Lss, which are involved several pathways, such as the glycolytic, AMPK, and fatty acid degradation pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Le Sun
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Yu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Yi
- Key Laboratory of Cosmetics, China National Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, China
| | - Lijia Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Baoping Jiang
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Liang Le
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Peigen Xiao
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Li L, Guo WL, Zhang W, Xu JX, Qian M, Bai WD, Zhang YY, Rao PF, Ni L, Lv XC. Grifola frondosapolysaccharides ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders and gut microbiota dysbiosis in high-fat diet fed rats. Food Funct 2019; 10:2560-2572. [DOI: 10.1039/c9fo00075e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
G. frondosapolysaccharides have the potential to ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders in part through modulating gut microbiota and mRNA expression of genes involved in hepatic lipid and cholesterol metabolism.
Collapse
|
6
|
Chen H, Sheng L, Gong Z, Ru S, Bian H. Investigation of the molecular mechanisms of hepatic injury upon naphthalene exposure in zebrafish (Danio rerio). ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2018; 27:650-660. [PMID: 29748829 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-018-1943-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Naphthalene has been used worldwide as a commercial insecticide for decades, which when detected in the environment can have various negative effects on non-target organism, such as hepatotoxicity. However, the molecular mechanisms of how naphthalene acts to affect the liver in zebrafish (Danio rerio) remains unknown. In this study, we evaluated the potential toxic effects of naphthalene on livers in female adult zebrafish over a 21-day subacute exposure. Global hepatic gene expression was examined by microarrays and the results indicated the regulated genes were associated significantly with vital hepatic injury pathways and GO categories upon naphthalene exposure, such as disruptions in lipid metabolism, inflammatory response, and the carcinogenic processes. According to our observations of liver histology, nuclear enlargement as a potential indicator of cancers and hepatic lipometabolic disorder precisely were supported. The 96 h acute naphthalene tests on Tg(lysC:DsRed) and LiPan lines larvae revealed recruitment of neutrophils by the liver, as well as decreased liver size, which further confirmed hepatic inflammation response to naphthalene exposure. Thus, these findings advance the field of ecotoxicology by unveiling a new role of naphthalene as a leading cause of liver damage and provide potential biomarker-genes for environmental naphthalene monitoring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongshan Chen
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Lianxi Sheng
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130117, China.
| | - Zhiyuan Gong
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shaoguo Ru
- Marine Life Science College, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, 266003, Shandong province, China
| | - Hongfeng Bian
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130117, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Drouin-Chartier JP, Tremblay AJ, Hogue JC, Lemelin V, Lamarche B, Couture P. Plasma PCSK9 correlates with apoB-48-containing triglyceride-rich lipoprotein production in men with insulin resistance. J Lipid Res 2018; 59:1501-1509. [PMID: 29946054 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m086264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal triglyceride (TG)-rich lipoproteins (TRLs) are important in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in insulin resistance (IR). We investigated the association of plasma proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) concentrations with apoB-48-containing TRL metabolism in 148 men displaying various degrees of IR by measuring in vivo kinetics of TRL apoB-48 during a constant-fed state after a primed-constant infusion of L-[5,5,5-D3]leucine. Plasma PCSK9 concentrations positively correlated with TRL apoB-48 pool size (r = 0.31, P = 0.0002) and production rate (r = 0.24, P = 0.008) but not the fractional catabolic rate (r = -0.04, P = 0.6). Backward stepwise multiple linear regression analysis identified PCSK9 concentrations as a positive predictor of TRL apoB-48 production rate (standard β = +0.20, P = 0.007) independent of BMI, age, T2D/metformin use, dietary fat intake during the kinetic study, and fasting concentrations of TGs, insulin, glucose, LDL cholesterol, or C-reactive protein. We also assessed intestinal expression of key genes involved in chylomicron processing from duodenal samples of 71 men. Expression of PCSK9 and HMG-CoAR genes was positively associated (r = 0.43, P = 0.002). These results support PCSK9 association with intestinal secretion and plasma overaccumulation of TRL apoB-48 in men with IR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - André J Tremblay
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Jean-Charles Hogue
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec-Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
| | | | - Benoît Lamarche
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods Laval University, Quebec City, Canada.,School of Nutrition, Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Patrick Couture
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods Laval University, Quebec City, Canada .,Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec-Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Li Y, Song Y, Zhao M, Guo Y, Yu C, Chen W, Shao S, Xu C, Zhou X, Zhao L, Zhang Z, Bo T, Xia Y, Proud CG, Wang X, Wang L, Zhao J, Gao L. A novel role for CRTC2 in hepatic cholesterol synthesis through SREBP-2. Hepatology 2017; 66:481-497. [PMID: 28395113 PMCID: PMC5575482 DOI: 10.1002/hep.29206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cholesterol synthesis is regulated by the transcription factor sterol regulatory element binding protein 2 (SREBP-2) and its target gene 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), which is the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate-responsive element (CRE) binding protein-regulated transcription coactivator (CRTC) 2 is the master regulator of glucose metabolism. However, the effect of CRTC2 on cholesterol and its potential molecular mechanism remain unclear. Here, we demonstrated that CRTC2 expression and liver cholesterol content were increased in patients with high serum cholesterol levels who underwent resection of liver hemangiomas, as well as in mice fed a 4% cholesterol diet. Mice with adenovirus-mediated CRTC2 overexpression also showed elevated lipid levels in both serum and liver tissues. Intriguingly, hepatic de novo cholesterol synthesis was markedly increased under these conditions. In contrast, CRTC2 ablation in mice fed a 4% cholesterol diet (18 weeks) showed decreased lipid levels in serum and liver tissues compared with those in littermate wild-type mice. The expression of lipogenic genes (SREBP-2 and HMGCR) was consistent with hepatic CRTC2 levels. In vivo imaging showed enhanced adenovirus-mediated HMGCR-luciferase activity in adenovirus-mediated CRTC2 mouse livers; however, the activity was attenuated after mutation of CRE or sterol regulatory element sequences in the HMGCR reporter construct. The effect of CRTC2 on HMGCR in mouse livers was alleviated upon SREBP-2 knockdown. CRTC2 modulated SREBP-2 transcription by CRE binding protein, which recognizes the half-site CRE sequence in the SREBP-2 promoter. CRTC2 reduced the nuclear protein expression of forkhead box O1 and subsequently increased SREBP-2 transcription by binding insulin response element 1, rather than insulin response element 2, in the SREBP-2 promoter. CONCLUSION CRTC2 regulates the transcription of SREBP-2 by interfering with the recognition of insulin response element 1 in the SREBP-2 promoter by forkhead box O1, thus inducing SREBP-2/HMGCR signaling and subsequently facilitating hepatic cholesterol synthesis. (Hepatology 2017;66:481-497).
Collapse
|
9
|
Wang D, Qiu L, Wu X, Wei H, Xu F. Evaluation of kudzu root extract-induced hepatotoxicity. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2015; 176:321-6. [PMID: 26545459 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Revised: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Kudzu root, the root of Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi, has been used as food and medicine for centuries, but few studies indicate that kudzu root may cause liver damage. AIM OF STUDY We studied the hepatotoxicity of kudzu root extract in mice, HepG2 cells and mice hepatocytes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Mice were administrated with kudzu root extract (10mg/day) for 4 weeks, and then the biochemical analysis and histopathological changes were carried out. To explore the potential mechanism by which kudzu root extract-induced hepatotoxicity, HepG2 cells and mice hepatocytes were co-cultured with kudzu root extract or puerarin, which is a kudzu root isoflavone, for 2h. RESULTS The increase of serum ALT and AST and histopathological changes in treated mice revealed that kudzu root extract was hepatotoxic. The increase of LDH leakage for HepG2 cells and mice hepatocytes further confirmed hepatotoxicity of kudzu root extract. Kudzu root extract and puerarin significantly up-regulated Mt1 mRNA involved in the acute phase response and Bax which is crucial for apoptosis. Gclc, Nrf2 and Ho-1 mRNA expressions did not change in treatment group. CONCLUSIONS Kudzu root extract may be hepatotoxic and caution may be required for its use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dengyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Liang Qiu
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Xiaoli Wu
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Hua Wei
- Jiangxi OAI Joint Research Institute, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Feng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Read SA, Tay E, Shahidi M, George J, Douglas MW. Hepatitis C virus infection mediates cholesteryl ester synthesis to facilitate infectious particle production. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:1900-1910. [PMID: 24859394 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.065300-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol is a critical component of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) life cycle, as demonstrated by its accumulation within infected hepatocytes and lipoviral particles. To cope with excess cholesterol, hepatic enzymes ACAT1 and ACAT2 produce cholesteryl esters (CEs), which are destined for storage in lipid droplets or for secretion as apolipoproteins. Here we demonstrate in vitro that cholesterol accumulation following HCV infection induces upregulation of the ACAT genes and increases CE synthesis. Analysis of human liver biopsy tissue showed increased ACAT2 mRNA expression in liver infected with HCV genotype 3, compared with genotype 1. Inhibiting cholesterol esterification using the potent ACAT inhibitor TMP-153 significantly reduced production of infectious virus, but did not inhibit virus RNA replication. Density gradient analysis showed that TMP-153 treatment caused a significant increase in lipoviral particle density, suggesting reduced lipidation. These data suggest that cholesterol accumulation following HCV infection stimulates the production of CE, a major component of lipoviral particles. Inhibition of CE synthesis reduces HCV particle density and infectivity, suggesting that CEs are required for optimal infection of hepatocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Read
- Storr Liver Unit, Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Enoch Tay
- Storr Liver Unit, Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mahsa Shahidi
- Storr Liver Unit, Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Jacob George
- Storr Liver Unit, Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mark W Douglas
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney at Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
- Storr Liver Unit, Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Fryer LGD, Jones B, Duncan EJ, Hutchison CE, Ozkan T, Williams PA, Alder O, Nieuwdorp M, Townley AK, Mensenkamp AR, Stephens DJ, Dallinga-Thie GM, Shoulders CC. The endoplasmic reticulum coat protein II transport machinery coordinates cellular lipid secretion and cholesterol biosynthesis. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:4244-61. [PMID: 24338480 PMCID: PMC3924288 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.479980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Triglycerides and cholesterol are essential for life in most organisms. Triglycerides serve as the principal energy storage depot and, where vascular systems exist, as a means of energy transport. Cholesterol is essential for the functional integrity of all cellular membrane systems. The endoplasmic reticulum is the site of secretory lipoprotein production and de novo cholesterol synthesis, yet little is known about how these activities are coordinated with each other or with the activity of the COPII machinery, which transports endoplasmic reticulum cargo to the Golgi. The Sar1B component of this machinery is mutated in chylomicron retention disorder, indicating that this Sar1 isoform secures delivery of dietary lipids into the circulation. However, it is not known why some patients with chylomicron retention disorder develop hepatic steatosis, despite impaired intestinal fat malabsorption, and why very severe hypocholesterolemia develops in this condition. Here, we show that Sar1B also promotes hepatic apolipoprotein (apo) B lipoprotein secretion and that this promoting activity is coordinated with the processes regulating apoB expression and the transfer of triglycerides/cholesterol moieties onto this large lipid transport protein. We also show that although Sar1A antagonizes the lipoprotein secretion-promoting activity of Sar1B, both isoforms modulate the expression of genes encoding cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes and the synthesis of cholesterol de novo. These results not only establish that Sar1B promotes the secretion of hepatic lipids but also adds regulation of cholesterol synthesis to Sar1B's repertoire of transport functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lee G D Fryer
- From the Endocrinology Centre, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London and Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M 6BQ, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
The COUP-TFII variant lacking a DNA-binding domain inhibits the activation of the Cyp7a1 promoter through physical interaction with COUP-TFII. Biochem J 2013; 452:345-57. [PMID: 23458092 DOI: 10.1042/bj20121200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The COUP-TFII (chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factor II) nuclear receptor, which is composed of a DNA-binding domain and a ligand-binding domain, exerts pleiotropic effects on development and cell differentiation by regulating the transcription of its target genes, including Cyp7a1 (cytochrome P450, family 7, subfamily a, polypeptide 1), which plays important roles in catabolism of cholesterol in the liver. Although multiple variants of COUP-TFII exist, their roles in the regulation of Cyp7a1 expression have not been elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the roles of COUP-TFII-V2 (variant 2), which lacks a DNA-binding domain, in the regulation of the transcriptional control of the Cyp7a1 gene by COUP-TFII in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. We found that COUP-TFII-V2 was significantly expressed in Huh7 cells, in which Cyp7a1 was not expressed. Furthermore, knockdown of COUP-TFII-V2 enhanced endogenous Cyp7a1 expression in Huh7 cells. Although COUP-TFII activates the Cyp7a1 promoter through direct binding to DNA, this activation was affected by COUP-TFII-V2, which physically interacted with COUP-TFII and inhibited its DNA-binding ability. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed that COUP-TFII-V2 inhibited the binding of endogenous COUP-TFII to the intact Cyp7a1 promoter. The results of the present study suggest that COUP-TFII-V2 negatively regulates the function of COUP-TFII by inhibiting its binding to DNA to decrease Cyp7a1 expression.
Collapse
|
13
|
Côté I, Ngo Sock ET, Lévy É, Lavoie JM. An atherogenic diet decreases liver FXR gene expression and causes severe hepatic steatosis and hepatic cholesterol accumulation: effect of endurance training. Eur J Nutr 2012; 52:1523-32. [PMID: 23117815 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-012-0459-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to determine the effects of an atherogenic diet (AD; 40 % lipid, 1.25 % cholesterol, kcal) on triglyceride (TAG) and cholesterol accumulation in liver and on gene expression of liver X receptor (LXR) and farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and their target genes and to observe if these responses are affected by endurance training. METHODS Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 32) were divided into two groups and randomly assigned to an AD or a standard diet (SD) for 7 weeks. Half of the rats in each group were assigned to an exercise training program for 5 days/week. RESULTS The AD resulted in a large (P < 0.01) accumulation in liver TAG (4×) along with elevated liver and plasma cholesterol without any gain in peripheral fat mass. The liver TAG and cholesterol accumulations were associated with an important reduction (P < 0.01; 60 %) in FXR, but no change in LXR transcripts. Accompanying the reduction in FXR gene expression, we found an increase (P < 0.001) in SREBP-1c and a decrease (P < 0.01) in MTP mRNAs suggesting an increased lipogenesis and a reduced VLDL production, respectively. The AD was also associated with lower HMG-CoA-r, squalene synthase, and ABCG8 transcripts (P < 0.001). In the intestine, exercise training resulted in higher NPC1L1, ABCG5, and ABCG8 in SD-fed animals, while all these increases were suppressed under the AD feeding. CONCLUSIONS It is concluded that dietary cholesterol favors liver TAG and cholesterol accumulations associated with an important reduction in FXR transcripts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Côté
- Department of Kinesiology, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succ. centre-ville, Montreal, QC H3C 3J7, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Colin S, Briand O, Touche V, Wouters K, Baron M, Pattou F, Hanf R, Tailleux A, Chinetti G, Staels B, Lestavel S. Activation of intestinal peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α increases high-density lipoprotein production. Eur Heart J 2012; 34:2566-74. [PMID: 22843443 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-α is a transcription factor controlling lipid metabolism in liver, heart, muscle, and macrophages. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α activation increases plasma HDL cholesterol and exerts hypotriglyceridaemic actions via the liver. However, the intestine expresses PPAR-α, produces HDL and chylomicrons, and is exposed to diet-derived PPAR-α ligands. Therefore, we examined the effects of PPAR-α activation on intestinal lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. METHODS AND RESULTS The impact of PPAR-α activation was evaluated in term of HDL-related gene expression in mice, ex vivo in human jejunal biopsies and in Caco-2/TC7 cells. Apolipoprotein-AI/HDL secretion, cholesterol esterification, and trafficking were also studied in vitro. In parallel to improving plasma lipid profiles and increasing liver and intestinal expression of fatty acid oxidation genes, treatment with the dual PPAR-α/δ ligand GFT505 resulted in a more pronounced increase in plasma HDL compared with fenofibrate in mice. GFT505, but not fenofibrate, increased the expression of HDL production genes such as apolipoprotein-AI and ATP-binding cassette A1 transporter in murine intestines. A similar increase was observed upon PPAR-α activation of human biopsies and Caco-2/TC7 cells. Additionally, HDL secretion by Caco-2/TC7 cells increased. Moreover, PPAR-α activation decreased the cholesterol esterification capacity of Caco-2/TC7 cells, modified cholesterol trafficking, and reduced apolipoprotein-B secretion. CONCLUSION Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α activation reduces cholesterol esterification, suppresses chylomicron, and increases HDL secretion by enterocytes. These results identify the intestine as a target organ of PPAR-α ligands with entero-hepatic tropism to reduce atherogenic dyslipidaemia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Colin
- Université Lille Nord de France, Lille F-59000, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
|
16
|
Morales MG, Amigo L, Balboa E, Acuña M, Castro J, Molina H, Miquel JF, Nervi F, Rigotti A, Zanlungo S. Deficiency of Niemann-Pick C1 protein protects against diet-induced gallstone formation in mice. Liver Int 2010; 30:887-97. [PMID: 20408952 DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-3231.2010.02230.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a critical cellular mechanism for the uptake of lipoprotein cholesterol in the liver. Because Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1) protein is a key component for the intracellular distribution of cholesterol originating from lipoprotein endocytosis, it may play an important role in controlling biliary cholesterol secretion and gallstone formation induced by a lithogenic diet. METHODS We studied biliary cholesterol secretion, gallbladder lipid composition and gallstone formation in NPC1-deficient mice fed a low-fat lithogenic diet (1.5% cholesterol and 0.5% cholic acid) compared with control animals under the same diet. RESULTS The lipid secretion response to the lithogenic diet was impaired in NPC1 (-/-) mice, leading to a decreased cholesterol output and an increased hepatic cholesterol concentration compared with the lithogenic diet-fed wild-type mice. A decreased cholesterol saturation index was found in the gallbladder bile of NPC1 (+/-) and (-/-) mice after lithogenic diet feeding. Consequently, mice with a partial or a total deficiency of NPC1 had a drastically lower frequency of gallbladder cholesterol crystals and a reduced prevalence of gallstones. CONCLUSION Hepatic NPC1 expression is an important factor for regulating the biliary secretion of diet-derived cholesterol as well as for diet-induced cholesterol gallstone formation in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Gabriela Morales
- Departamento de Gastroenterología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Li JZ, Lei Y, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Ye J, Xia X, Pan X, Li P. Control of cholesterol biosynthesis, uptake and storage in hepatocytes by Cideb. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2010; 1801:577-86. [PMID: 20123130 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2010.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2009] [Revised: 01/11/2010] [Accepted: 01/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cideb, a member of CIDE family proteins, has emerged as an important regulator in the development of obesity and diabetes by controlling fatty acid synthesis and VLDL secretion in hepatocytes. Here, we investigated the role of Cideb in cholesterol biosynthesis, uptake and storage in the liver by using Cideb-null mice as a model system. Cideb-null mice and wild-type mice were treated with normal diet (ND) or high cholesterol diet (HCD) for one month. The metabolic parameters of cholesterol metabolism and expression profiles of genes in cholesterol biosynthesis and storage were measured. Cideb-null mice had lower levels of plasma cholesterol and LDL when fed with both ND and HCD and increased rate of cholesterol absorption. Furthermore, the liver of Cideb-null mice has lower rates of cholesterol biosynthesis and reduced expression levels of sterol response element-binding protein (SREBP) cleavage-activation protein (SCAP), and lower levels of nuclear form of SREBP2 and its downstream target genes in cholesterol biosynthesis pathway under a normal diet treatment. On the contrary, hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis rate between wild-type and Cideb-null mice was similar after high cholesterol diet treatment. Interestingly, hepatic cholesterol storage in the liver of Cideb-null mice was significantly increased due to its increased LDL receptor (LDLR) and acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) expression. Finally, we observed drastically reduced cholesterol levels in the heart of Cideb-null mice fed with a high cholesterol diet. Overall, our data suggest that Cideb is a novel regulator in controlling cholesterol homeostasis in the liver. Therefore, Cideb could serve as an important therapeutical target for the treatment of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Zhong Li
- Protein Science Laboratory of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Current World Literature. Curr Opin Lipidol 2009; 20:135-42. [PMID: 19276892 DOI: 10.1097/mol.0b013e32832a7e09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
19
|
Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Obesity. Current world literature. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2009; 16:189-202. [PMID: 19300094 DOI: 10.1097/med.0b013e328329fcc2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
20
|
Do HQ, Van Landeghem L, Wielgosz-Collin G, Takoudju M, Huvelin JM, Kornprobst JM, Bard JM, Barnathan G, Nazih H. Unusual sterolic mixture, and 24-isopropylcholesterol, from the sponge Ciocalypta sp. reduce cholesterol uptake and basolateral secretion in Caco-2 cells. J Cell Biochem 2009; 106:659-65. [PMID: 19160412 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
An unusual sterolic mixture (82.3% of 24-isopropylated sterols) and its major component, 24-isopropylcholesterol, isolated from a marine sponge, Ciocalypta sp. (Halichondriidae), reduce cholesterol uptake, basolateral secretion and ACAT-2 mRNA expression and increase the expression of ABCA1 mRNA in Caco-2 cells. The decreases of cholesterol uptake and secretion induced by 24-isopropylcholesterol alone were more than that of both the sterolic mixture and beta-sitosterol. These data add a new sterol, 24-isopropylcholesterol, to sterols that may reduce intestinal cholesterol absorption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Quang Do
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Laboratoire de Biochimie pharmaceutique, Mer-Molécules-Santé, EA 2160, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Jiang ZY, Jiang CY, Wang L, Wang JC, Zhang SD, Einarsson C, Eriksson M, Han TQ, Parini P, Eggertsen G. Increased NPC1L1 and ACAT2 expression in the jejunal mucosa from Chinese gallstone patients. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 379:49-54. [PMID: 19071091 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.11.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2008] [Accepted: 11/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of cholesterol gallstones is a very common disease. The aim of this study is to probe for underlying intestinal molecular defects associated with development of gallstones. Twelve Chinese patients with cholesterol gallstone disease (GS) and 31 gallstone-free (GSF) patients were investigated. Quantitation of mRNA levels for individual genes in mucosal biopsies from jejunum was carried out with real-time PCR. The frequency of two SNPs in the ABCG8 gene (Y54C and T400K) was determined by allelic discrimination. The intestinal mRNA expression of NPC1L1 and ACAT2 were significantly higher in GS than GSF (P<0.05). No differences were observed concerning the levels for plasma lipids, plant sterols and 7alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one between GS and GSF. No correlations were observed between patients carrying the different genotypes for Y54C or T400K and their mRNA levels for ABCG5 or ABCG8. The increased NPC1L1 and ACAT2 mRNA levels in gallstone patients might indicate an upregulated absorption and esterification of cholesterol in the small intestine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhao-Yan Jiang
- Department of Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Parini P, Gustafsson U, Davis MA, Larsson L, Einarsson C, Wilson M, Rudling M, Tomoda H, Omura S, Sahlin S, Angelin B, Rudel LL, Eriksson M. Cholesterol synthesis inhibition elicits an integrated molecular response in human livers including decreased ACAT2. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008; 28:1200-6. [PMID: 18340009 PMCID: PMC2757773 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.107.157172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to identify how different degrees of cholesterol synthesis inhibition affect human hepatic cholesterol metabolism. METHODS AND RESULTS Thirty-seven normocholesterolemic gallstone patients randomized to treatment with placebo, 20 mg/d fluvastatin, or 80 mg/d atorvastatin for 4 weeks were studied. Based on serum lathosterol determinations, cholesterol synthesis was reduced by 42% and 70% in the 2 groups receiving statins. VLDL cholesterol was reduced by 20% and 55%. During gallstone surgery, a liver biopsy was obtained and hepatic protein and mRNA expression of rate-limiting steps in cholesterol metabolism were assayed and related to serum lipoproteins. A marked induction of LDL receptors and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) coenzyme A (CoA) reductase was positively related to the degree of cholesterol synthesis inhibition (ChSI). The activity, protein, and mRNA for ACAT2 were all reduced during ChSI, as was apoE mRNA. The lowering of HDL cholesterol in response to high ChSI could not be explained by altered expression of the HDL receptor CLA-1, ABCA1, or apoA-I. CONCLUSIONS Statin treatment reduces ACAT2 activity in human liver and this effect, in combination with a reduced Apo E expression, may contribute to the favorable lowering of VLDL cholesterol seen in addition to the LDL lowering during statin treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Parini
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|