Bioactive polysaccharides from Cordyceps sinensis: Isolation, structure features and bioactivities

Future prospect of polysaccharide as a potential therapy in hepatocellular carcinoma: A review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. HCC almost exclusively develops in patients with chronic liver disease, driven by a vicious cycle of liver injury, inflammation and regeneration that typically spans decades. A variety of new agents are in development for the treatment of the disease. Polysaccharide is important component of higher plants, membrane of the animal cell and the cell wall of microbes. It is also closely related to the physiological functions. Recently, there has been growing interest in polysaccharides as bioactive natural products, particularly in treating HCC. This paper provides a review of recent experimental and clinical studies on the effects and potential applications of polysaccharides in HCC treatment, aiming to offer theoretical insights and inspiration for further research on the bioactivity mechanisms of polysaccharides in HCC treatment.

A New Galactoglucomannan from the Mycelium of the Medicinal Parasitic Fungus Cordyceps cicadae and Its Immunomodulatory Activity In Vitro and In Vivo

A new galactoglucomannan (C-0-1) was purified from the medicinal parasitic fungus of Cordyceps cicadae using an anion-exchange column and gel permeation column. The results of high-performance liquid chromatography and high-performance gel permeation chromatography indicated that C-0-1 consists of galactose, glucose, and mannose in a ratio of 5:1:4 and has a molecular weight of 23.3 kDa. The combined structural elucidation analysis methods including partial acid hydrolysis, methylation analysis, and NMR experiments revealed that C-0-1 was a comb-like polysaccharide with a core structure including (1→2)-α-D-Manp residues in the backbone and branches at O-6 of the main chain. (1→4)-α-D-Glcp, (1→2)-β-D-Galf, (1→2,6)-β-D-Galf, and terminal β-Galf were located at the side chains. An in vitro experiment using RAW 264.7 cells indicated that C-0-1 exhibits good immunomodulatory activity by enhancing inducible nitric oxide synthase secretion and the production of some major inflammatory cytokines. On inhibiting the cytokine production using anti-pattern recognition receptors antibodies, it was revealed that the activation of macrophages is mainly carried out by C-0-1 through the mannose receptor. Toll-like receptor 4 and Toll-like receptor 2 were also involved in this identification process. An in vivo experiment on immunosuppressive mice treated with cyclophosphamide indicated that C-0-1 improves the secretion of serum-related cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10) and affects the balance of T helper cells Th1/Th2. Given the structural and bioactivity similarity between Cordyceps cicadae and Cordyceps sinensis, we can conclude that Cordyceps cicadae could be used as an important medicinal fungus like Cordyceps sinensis.

Controlled Drug Release from Nanoengineered Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are naturally occurring complex molecules with exceptional physicochemical properties and bioactivities. They originate from plant, animal, and microbial-based resources and processes and can be chemically modified. The biocompatibility and biodegradability of polysaccharides enable their increased use in nanoscale synthesis and engineering for drug encapsulation and release. This review focuses on sustained drug release studies from nanoscale polysaccharides in the fields of nanotechnology and biomedical sciences. Particular emphasis is placed on drug release kinetics and relevant mathematical models. An effective release model can be used to envision the behavior of specific nanoscale polysaccharide matrices and reduce impending experimental trial and error, saving time and resources. A robust model can also assist in translating from in vitro to in vivo experiments. The main aim of this review is to demonstrate that any study that establishes sustained release from nanoscale polysaccharide matrices should be accompanied by a detailed analysis of drug release kinetics by modeling since sustained release from polysaccharides not only involves diffusion and degradation but also surface erosion, complicated swelling dynamics, crosslinking, and drug-polymer interactions. As such, in the first part, we discuss the classification and role of polysaccharides in various applications and later elaborate on the specific pharmaceutical processes of polysaccharides in ionic gelling, stabilization, cross-linking, grafting, and encapsulation of drugs. We also document several drug release models applied to nanoscale hydrogels, nanofibers, and nanoparticles of polysaccharides and conclude that, at times, more than one model can accurately describe the sustained release profiles, indicating the existence of release mechanisms running in parallel. Finally, we conclude with the future opportunities and advanced applications of nanoengineered polysaccharides and their theranostic aptitudes for future clinical applications.

Fractional extraction and structural characterization of glycogen particles from the whole cultivated caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (syn. Cordyceps sinensis) is a valuable medicinal fungus in traditional Chinese medicine, and one or more polysaccharides are the key constituents with important medical effects. Glycogen as a functional polysaccharide is widely identified in eukaryotes including fungi. However, there is no definitive report of glycogen presence in O. sinensis. In this study, we carefully fractionated polysaccharides from cultivated caterpillar fungus O. sinensis, which were then characterized via methods for glycogen analysis. According to the results, 1.03 ± 0.43 % of polysaccharides were quantified via amyloglucosidase digestion in the whole cultivated caterpillar fungus, which had a typical spherical shape under transmission electron microscope with an average peak radius of 37.63 ± 0.57 nm via size exclusion chromatography and an average chain length of 12.47 ± 0.94 degree of polymerization via fluorophore-assisted capillary electrophoresis. Taken together, this study confirmed that the polysaccharides extracted form O. sinensis were mostly glycogen.

Structural Characterization of Mannoglucan Isolated from Ophiocordyceps sobolifera and Its Antioxidant Activities

A novel polysaccharide structure (PS-T80) was collected from Ophiocordyceps sobolifera biomass and characterized via a combination of chemical and spectral analyses. Employing high-performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC), the average molecular weight is proven to be 7.4 × 10⁴ Da. Furthermore, a sugar composition analysis of the obtained polysaccharide suggests two main sugars, β-d-glucose and α-d-mannose, at a molar ratio of 2:1, respectively, in the backbone. The structure analysis unveils that PS-T80 is a mannoglucan, possessing the repeating unit of [→3)-β-d-Glcp-(1 → 3)-α-d-Manp-(1 → 3)-β-d-Glcp-(1→] _n . Such a configuration could be considered a novel polysaccharide. Impressively, in vitro antioxidant tests revealed that PS-T80 has a promising antioxidant activity. These results demonstrate that the obtained PS is a potential bioactive material for biomedical applications.

Advance research in biomedical applications on marine sulfated polysaccharide

Marine ecosystem associated organisms are an affluent source of bioactive compounds. Polysaccharides with unique structural and practical entities have gained special studies interest inside the current biomedical zone. Polysaccharides are the main components of marine algae, plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms. In recent times research on seaweed is more persistent for extraction of natural bioactive "Sulfated polysaccharides" (SPs). The considerable amount of SP exists in the algae in the form of fucans, fucoidans, carrageenans, ulvan, etc. Major function of SPs is to act as a defensive lattice towards the infective organism. All SPs possess the high potential and possess a broad range of therapeutic applications as antitumor, immunomodulatory, vaccine adjuvant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antiviral, antiprotozoal, antimicrobial, antilipemic, therapy of regenerative medicine, also in drug delivery and tissue engineering application. This review aims to discuss the biomedicine applications of sulfated polysaccharides from marine seaweeds.

Green Husk of Walnuts (Juglans regia L.) from Southern Italy as a Valuable Source for the Recovery of Glucans and Pectins

Walnut green husk is an agricultural waste produced during the walnut (Juglans regia L.) harvest, that could be valued as a source of high-value compounds. In this respect, walnut green husks from two areas of Southern Italy (Montalto Uffugo and Zumpano), with different soil conditions, were investigated. Glucans and pectins were isolated from dry walnut husks by carrying out alkaline and acidic extractions, respectively, and then they were characterized by FT-IR, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The colorimetric method for the enzymatic measurement of α- and β-glucans was performed. The maximum total glucan yield was recovered from Montalto walnut husks (4.6 ± 0.2 g/100 g DM) with a β-glucan percentage (6.3 ± 0.4) higher than that calculated for Zumpano walnut husks (3.6 ± 0.5). Thermal analysis (DSC) confirmed the higher degree of crystallinity of glucans from Zumpano. The pectin content for Montalto husks was found to be 2.6 times that of Zumpano husks, and the esterification degree was more than 65%. The results suggested that J. regia L. green husks could be a source of glucans and pectins, whose content and morphological and thermal characteristics were influenced by different soil and climate conditions.

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extracts of Cordyceps sinensis: Chromatography-based Metabolite Profiling and Protective Efficacy Against Hypobaric Hypoxia

The toxicity and disposal concerns of organic solvents used in conventional extraction purposes has entailed the need for greener alternatives. Among such techniques, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) has gained popularity by yielding extracts of high purity in a much faster manner. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is generally preferred as a supercritical solvent because of its lower temperature requirements, better diffusivity and easy removal. The present study describes the characterization of supercritical CO₂ extracts of Indian variety of Cordyceps sinensis (CS)- a high-altitude medicinal mushroom widely revered in traditional medicine for its extensive anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative and energy-enhancing properties. Experimental parameters viz. 300 and 350 bar of extraction pressure, 60°C of temperature, 0.4°L/h CO₂ of flow rate and use of 1% (v/v) of ethanol as entrainer were optimized to prepare three different extracts namely, CSF1, CSF2 and CSF3. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) was used for assessing the quality of all the extracts in terms of cordycepin, the pivot biomarker compound in CS. Characterization by HPTLC and GC-MS confirmed the presence of flavonoids and nucleobases and, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), respectively. The chromatographic data acquired from metabolite profiling were subjected to chemometric analysis in an open source R studio which illustrated interrelatedness between CSF1 and CSF2 in terms of two major principal components. i.e. Dim 1 and Dim 2 whose values were 40.33 and 30.52% in variables factor map plotted using the HPTLC-generated retardation factor values. The factor maps based on retention times of the VOCs exhibited a variance of Dim 1 = 43.95% and Dim 2 = 24.85%. Furthermore, the extracts demonstrated appreciable antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi by generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), protein leakage and efflux pump inhibition within bacterial pathogens. CSFs were elucidated to be significantly cytoprotective (p < 0.05) in a simulated hypobaric hypoxia milieu (0.5% oxygen). CSF2 showed the best results by effectively improving the viability of human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells to 82.36 ± 1.76% at an optimum dose of 100 µg/ml. Levels of hypoxia inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) were modulated four-fold upon supplementation with CSF2. The results collectively evinced that the CSF extracts are substantially bioactive and could be effectively utilized as mycotherapeutics for multiple bioeffects.

Immunostimulatory effects of the intracellular polysaccharides isolated from liquid culture of Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ascomycetes) on RAW264.7 cells via the MAPK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Chinese Cordyceps (DongChong XiaCao), a parasitic complex of a fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis and a caterpillar, is a traditional Chinese medicine. Polysaccharides extracted from O. sinensis have immunomodulatory effects on macrophages. However, the mechanism of polysaccharides on macrophage and the composition of polysaccharides are not known.

AIM OF STUDY

We aimed to investigate composition and structure of the intracellular polysaccharides from O. sinensis mycelia (designed as OSP), and evaluate its the immunomodulatory effect on macrophages and its underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a liquid-state fermentation of O. sinensis to produce mycelia. The DEAE-Sephadex-A25 cellulose column and Sephadex-G100 gel column chromatography were employed to purify and character the intracellular OSP. Macrophages RAW264.7 cells were employed to evaluate OSP's immunomodulatory activity and the possible mechanism responsible for the activation of macrophages in vitro.

RESULTS

The average molecular weight of OSP was distributed at 27,972 Da, OSP was composed of xylose, mannose, glucose, and galactose with the ratio of 2.9 : 6.6 : 166 : 2.6, with a trace amount of fucose, arabinose and rhamnose. The phagocytosis of RAW264.7 cells was improved significantly and remarkable changes were observed in the morphology with OSP-treated cells. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis demonstrated that OSP had an ability to regulate the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and to induce the mRNA expression level of iNOS in a concentration dependent manner in RAW264.7 cells. Western blotting analysis showed that the regulation of NO and cytokines was mediated through mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that OSP was with a capacity to activate macrophage cells RAW264.7 for an improvement of immunomodulation activities, which was through regulation of inflammatory mediators via MAPK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways.

Isolation and Assessment of a Highly-Active Anti-Inflammatory Exopolysaccharide from Mycelial Fermentation of a Medicinal Fungus Cs-HK1

The purpose of this work was to fractionate the complex exopolysaccharide (EPS) from a medicinal fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis Cs-HK1 based on the molecular weight (MW) range and to assess the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of different EPS fractions in THP-1 cell culture. The lower MW fraction (EPS-LM-1) showed a much higher anti-inflammatory activity. EPS-LM-1 was identified as a heteropolysaccharide consisting of mannose, glucose, and galactose residues with an average MW of 360 kDa. EPS-LM-1 significantly inhibited the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses with the effective concentrations for 50% inhibition below 5 µg/mL on a few major proinflammatory markers. With such a notable in vitro anti-inflammatory activity, EPS-LM-1 is a promising candidate for the development of a new anti-inflammation therapy.

Antioxidant Activity and Hepatoprotective Effect of Exopolysaccharides From Cultivated Ophiocordyceps Sinensis Against CCl4-Induced Liver Damages

Cordyceps is a well-known and valuable fungal Chinese medicine and health food. The polysaccharides from C. sinensis have been reported as the main bioactive components, which possess antioxidant, anti-aging, and liver protective activities. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro antioxidative and protective effects of exopolysaccharides (EPS) from cultivated Ophiocordyceps sinensis (O. sinensis) on rats with liver damage induced by CCl4. The results indicated that cultivated O. sinensis EPS possess moderate ABTS and hydroxyl radical scavenging abilities with IC50 values of 2.00 and 3.78 mg/mL, respectively. EPS and the positive control (silymarin) could also protect rat liver from the oxidative effect induced by CCl4 via increasing GSH levels, reducing MAD levels and decreasing serum AST and ALT activities. Moreover, the changes in histopathological liver tissue showed that EPS significantly reduced the damage induced by CCl4 in the liver. The findings suggest that EPS possesses a significant hepatoprotective effect against hepatotoxicity induced by CCl4 in rats.

In vitro gastrointestinal digestion and fermentation models and their applications in food carbohydrates

Food nutrients plays a crucial role in human health, especially in gastrointestinal (GI) health. The effect of food nutrients on human health mainly depends on the digestion and fermentation process in the GI tract. In vitro GI digestion and fermentation models had the advantages of reproducibility, simplicity, universality, and could integrally simulate the in vivo conditions to mimic oral, gastric, small intestinal and large intestinal digestive processes. They could not only predict the relationship among material composition, structure and digestive characteristics, but also evaluate the bioavailability of material components and the impact of digestive metabolites on GI health. This review systematicly summarized the current state of the in vitro simulation models, and made detailed descriptions for their applications, advantages and disadvantages, and specially their applications in food carbohydrates. In addition, it also provided the suggestions for the improvement of in vitro models and firstly proposed to establish a set of standardized methods of in vitro dynamic digestion and fermentation conditions for food carbohydrates, which were in order to further evaluate more effects of the nutrients on human health in future.

A Nutritional Supplement (DìLshTM) Improves the Inflammatory Cytokines Response, Oxidative Stress Markers and Clinical Signs in Dogs Naturally Infected by Leishmania infantum

The possibility to associate nutraceuticals, as immune-modulating tools, to the treatment of visceral leishmaniosis is a matter of great interest. In this study, we investigated whether the administration of a nutritional supplement (DìLshTM, Dynamopet SRL, Verona, Italy) was able to exert beneficial effects on the inflammatory state and oxidative stress of the dogs naturally infected by Leishmania infantum. To this purpose, specific parameters, namely Tumor Necrosis Factor -alpha (TNF), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Inteleukin-10 (IL-10), leptin, derivates of Reactive Oxigen Metabolites (d-Roms) and Biological Antioxidant Potential (BAP), as well as the haematological and biochemical profiles of the infected dogs, were investigated upon the treatment with the nutritional supplement and compared with the conventional pharmacological anti-Leishmania therapy. The animals underwent complete clinical examination and blood sample collection before (T0) and 3 months after (T90) the onset of the two treatments. The two treatments showed similar results: significant clinical improvement, ELISA positivity and IgG decrease, an increase in IL-10, and a decrease in IL-6 were observed in animals treated with the nutritional supplement. A decrease in d-Roms and an increase in BAP were also detected in both groups. On the whole, the nutritional supplement possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, suggesting that it may support animals' health and be useful to extend the time a drug therapy is needed.

The Effects of Fungal Feed Additives in Animals: A Review

As probiotics, fungi enhance animal health and are suitable animal feed additives. In addition to brewing fungi, there are also edible and medicinal fungi. Common fungi utilized in feeding programs include Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus oryzae, Pleurotus spp., Antrodia cinnamomea, and Cordyceps militaris. These fungi are rich in glucans, polysaccharides, polyphenols, triterpenes, ergosterol, adenosine, and laccases. These functional components play important roles in antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and immune system regulation. As such, fungal feed additives could be of potential use when breeding livestock. In previous studies, fungal feed additives enhanced body weight and egg production in poultry and improved the feed conversion rate. Several mycotoxins can be produced by hazardous fungi but fortunately, the cell walls constituents and enzymes of fungal probiotics can also act to decrease the toxicity of mycotoxins. Overall, fungal feed additives are of value, but their safety and usage must be studied further, including cost-benefit economic analyses.

Physicochemical properties and bioactivities of Lentinula edodes polysaccharides at different development stages

Lentinula edodes polysaccharides from at four different development stages (referred to L1, L2, L3 and L4, respectively) were extracted by hot water method, and graded ethanol precipitation to final concentration of 20%, 50% and 70%, then12 crude polysaccharide fractions (referred to L1P20, L2P20, L3P20; L4P20, L1P50, L2P50, L3P50, L4P50 and L1P70, L2P70, L3P70, L4P70, respectively) were obtained. Physicochemical properties and exoteric bioactivities of the crude polysaccharide fractions were measured. The results of physicochemical properties revealed that extraction yields of P20 fractions were significantly higher than those of P50 and P70 fractions, and the contents of polysaccharide and β-glucan in L3P50 fractions were higher, and the viscosity-average molecular weight reached a maximum at L2, and high molecular weight polysaccharides could be obtained at a low alcohol concentration in P20 fractions, and the glycosidic bonds were found to exist in all crude polysaccharide fractions. These crude polysaccharide fractions showed different bioactivities, wherein the polysaccharides of higher molecular weight in P20 fractions had greater bioactivity. These results showed that immature stage of Lentinula edodes was the optimal harvest time for obtaining higher bioactivity of crude polysaccharides.

Cultured Cordyceps sinensis polysaccharides modulate intestinal mucosal immunity and gut microbiota in cyclophosphamide-treated mice

The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of cultured Cordyceps sinensis polysaccharides (CSP) on cyclophosphamide (Cy)-induced intestinal mucosal immunosuppression and microbial dysbiosis in mice. Results showed that CSP stimulated cytokines secretion (IL-12, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-13, IL-6, IL-17, IL-10, TGF-β3, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-21) and transcription factors production (T-bet, GATA-3, RORγt, Foxp3). TLRs (TLR-2, TLR-4, TLR-6) and NF-κB pathway key proteins (p-IκB-α, NF-κB p65) were also upregulated after CSP administration. Moreover, CSP recovered SCFAs levels which decreased by Cy treatment. Furthermore, 16S rRNA sequencing of fecal samples was performed. α-diversity and β-diversity analysis revealed CSP improved microbial community diversity and modulated the overall structure of gut microbiota. Taxonomic composition analysis found that CSP increased the abundance of probiotics (Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides) and decreased pathogenic bacteria (Clostridium, Flexispira). These findings suggested the potential of CSP as a prebiotics to reduce side effects of Cy on intestinal mucosal immunity and gut microbiota.

Anti-inflammation activity of exopolysaccharides produced by a medicinal fungus Cordyceps sinensis Cs-HK1 in cell and animal models

This study was to assess the anti-inflammatory potential of exopolysaccharide (EPS) produced by a medicinal fungus Cordyceps sinensis Cs-HK1. The EPS was isolated from the Cs-HK1 mycelial fermentation broth by ethanol precipitation and purified by deproteinization and dialysis. The EPS had a total sugar content of 74.8% and a maximum average molecular weight (MW) over 10⁷ Da, and consisted mainly of glucose and mannose, and a small amount of galactose and ribose. In THP-1 and RAW264.7 cell cultures, EPS significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory responses of the cells including the release of NF-κB and several pro-inflammatory factors such as NO, TNF-α and IL-1β. In the murine model of LPS-induced acute intestinal injury, the oral administration of EPS to the animals effectively suppressed the expression of major inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-10 and iNOS and alleviated the intestinal injury. The results suggest that the Cs-HK1 EPS has notable anti-inflammatory activity and can be a potential candidate for further development of new anti-septic therapeutics. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the anti-inflammation of an EPS from C. sinensis fungal fermentation.

Structural Characterization and Chain Conformation of Water-Soluble β-Glucan from Wild Cordyceps sinensis

Water-soluble β-d-glucan was obtained from wild Cordyceps sinensis by alkali solution and ethanol precipitation. The structure characteristics were determined using high-performance anion-exchange chromatography coupled with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD), methylation combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and one-/two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Results showed that β-d-glucan had a structure of every seven (1→3)-β-d-Glcp backbone residues with two (1→6)-β-d-Glcp branches. Additionally, conformation properties in different solvents were investigated by static light scattering, dynamic light scattering, and HPSEC with multiple detectors. It was found that β-d-glucan in 0.5 M NaOH had a narrow unimodal distribution of hydrodynamic radius displaying a spherical coil conformation, whereas it formed severe aggregation in dimethyl sulfoxide. In 0.1 M NaNO₃, β-d-glucan mainly existed as a rod-like conformation corresponding to a helical structure together with small aggregates (10%). This work added more information to the understanding of C. sinensis polysaccharides.

Sources, Extraction and Biomedical Properties of Polysaccharides

In the recent era, bioactive compounds from plants have received great attention because of their vital health-related activities, such as antimicrobial activity, antioxidant activity, anticoagulant activity, anti-diabetic activity, UV protection, antiviral activity, hypoglycemia, etc. Previous studies have already shown that polysaccharides found in plants are not likely to be toxic. Based on these inspirational comments, most research focused on the isolation, identification, and bioactivities of polysaccharides. A large number of biologically active polysaccharides have been isolated with varying structural and biological activities. In this review, a comprehensive summary is provided of the recent developments in the physical and chemical properties as well as biological activities of polysaccharides from a number of important natural sources, such as wheat bran, orange peel, barely, fungi, algae, lichen, etc. This review also focused on biomedical applications of polysaccharides. The contents presented in this review will be useful as a reference for future research as well as for the extraction and application of these bioactive polysaccharides as a therapeutic agent.

Finding solutions for agricultural wastes: antioxidant and antitumor properties of pomegranate Akko peel extracts and β-glucan recovery

Pomegranate peels are the major by-products of the processing of pomegranate juice. Scientific research studies have shown that pomegranate peels are an extraordinary source of bioactive compounds, most of which can be converted into value added products. From this point of view, the present study was carried out with the aim of providing a solid basis for the use of whole pomegranate peels (Akko variety) as a source of nutraceutical compounds, such as β-glucans. Moreover, acetone (S1) and methanolic (S2) extracts, obtained in the preliminary stage of the β-glucan isolation procedure, have been tested for their antioxidant and antitumor activities. The total phenolic content and phenolic profile of S1 and S2 were determined. S1 and S2 exhibited a significant DPPH scavenging activity, with an IC50 value for S1 1.5-fold lower than that for the standard Trolox. Both S1 and S2 extracts possess in vitro ROS scavenging activity toward 3T3-L1 murine fibroblasts and Hek-293 human embryonic kidney epithelial cells and antiproliferative activity towards human breast MCF-7 and uterine HeLa cancer cells.

The structures and biological functions of polysaccharides from traditional Chinese herbs

Most of traditional Chinese medicine substances come from herbal plants. The medicinal quality of herbal plants varies with the locations of cultivation, the parts of the herb collected, the season of the herb collected, and the herb processing method. Polysaccharides are major components of the herb plants and their biosynthesis is partly controlled by the genes but mostly influenced by the availability of the nutrition and determined by the various environmental factors. In recent decades, polysaccharides isolated from different kinds of Chinese herbs have received much attention due to their important biological activities, such as anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, radiation protecting, antiviral, hypolipidemic, and immunomodulatory activities. Interestingly, different batches of the same herb can obtain different polysaccharide fractions with subtle differences in molecular weight, monosaccharide compositions, glycosidic linkages, and biological functions. Even with these variations, a large number of bioactive polysaccharides from different kinds of traditional Chinese herbs have been purified, characterized, and reported. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the latest polysaccharide extraction methods and the strategies used for monosaccharide compositional analysis plus polysaccharide structural characterization. Most importantly, the reported chemical characteristics and biological activities of the polysaccharides from the famous traditional Chinese herbs including Astragalus membranaceus, Ginseng, Lycium barbarum, Angelica sinensis, Cordyceps sinensis, and Ophiopogon japonicus will be reviewed and discussed. The published studies provide evidence that polysaccharides from traditional Chinese herbs play an important role in their medical applications, which forms the basis for future research, development, and application of these polysaccharides as functional foods and therapeutics in modern medicine.

Characterization and anti-tumor activity of a polysaccharide isolated from Dendrobium officinale grown in the Huoshan County

Background

Polysaccharides are carbohydrate chains composed of linked monosaccharide units. Accumulating studies report that polysaccharides isolated from Dendrobium officinale have a variety of functions. However, the composition and anti-tumor activity of D. officinale grown in the Huoshan area are largely unknown.

Methods

A polysaccharide (DOPA-1) was isolated from D. officinale by hot water extraction and ethanol precipitation, followed by purification via DEAE-cellulose and Sephadex G-100 chromatography. DOPA-1 was analyzed by infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance and then characterized by periodate oxidation and Smith degradation. The anti-tumor activity of DOPA-1 was then tested in HepG-2 cells.

Results

Our results show that DOPA-1 is mainly comprised of mannose, glucose, and galactose at a molar ratio of 1:0.42:0.27 and has an average molecular weight of 2.29 × 10⁵ Da. Additionally, DOPA-1 inhibited HepG-2 cell growth in a dose-dependent manner. DOPA-1-treated HepG-2 cells also had increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, apoptosis was observed in DOPA-1-treated HepG-2 cells along with Bcl-2 downregulation and Bax upregulation at the protein level.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that DOPA-1 induces apoptosis in tumor cells via altered mitochondrial function, ROS production, and altered apoptosis-related protein expression. This bioactive polysaccharide could, therefore, potentially be further developed as an anti-tumor adjuvant drug.

Biological activities and pharmaceutical applications of polysaccharide from natural resources: A review

Pharmacotherapy using natural substances can be currently regarded as a very promising future alternative to conventional therapy. As biological macromolecules, polysaccharide together with protein and polynucleotide, are extremely important biomacromoleules which play important roles in the growth and development of living organism. Polysaccharide is important component of higher plants, membrane of the animal cell and the cell wall of microbes. It is also closely related to the physiological functions. Recently, increasing attention has been paid on polysaccharides as an important class of bioactive natural products. Numerous researches have demonstrated the bioactivities of natural polysaccharides, which lead to the application of polysaccharides in the treatment of disease. In this paper, the various aspects of the investigation results of the bioactivities of polysaccharides were summarized, including its diversity pharmacological applications, such as immunoregulatory, anti-tumor, anti-virus, antioxidation, and hypoglycemic activity, and their application of polysaccharides in the treatment of disease are also discussed. We hope this review can offer some theoretical basis and inspiration for the mechanism study of the bioactivity of polysaccharides.

Comparison of structural features and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides from natural and cultured Cordyceps sinensis

Four polysaccharides (named as P1, P2, and P3 from three natural Cordyceps sinensis and P4 from cultured C. sinensis) were obtained by hot-water extraction and ethanol precipitation and their structural characteristics as well as antioxidant potentials were compared. Results revealed that the backbone of P1, P2, and P3 comprised α-1,4-glucose, with a branching point mainly at position 6 and terminating at glucose. On the other hand, the structure of P4 was highly complex, mainly comprising glucose, galactose, and mannose, with 1,4-glucose and 1,4-galactose as the main chain. For in vitro antioxidant assays, all the four polysaccharides showed similar scavenging capacity against DPPH and hydroxyl radicals, whereas P1 had a relatively low ferric reducing ability, possibly related to a combination of factors such as the phenolic compounds and amino acids that conjugated in polysaccharides.

The Mechanisms of Pharmacological Activities of Ophiocordyceps sinensis Fungi

The entomopathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, formerly known as Cordyceps sinensis, has long been used as a traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of many illnesses. In recent years its usage has increased dramatically because of the improvement of people's living standard and the emphasis on health. Such demands have resulted in over-harvesting of this fungus in the wild. Fortunately, scientists have demonstrated that artificially cultured and fermented mycelial products of O. sinensis have similar pharmacological activities to wild O. sinensis. The availability of laboratory cultures will likely to further expand its usage for the treatment of various illnesses. In this review, we summarize recent results on the pharmacological activities of the components of O. sinensis and their putative mechanisms of actions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Structural analysis and immunostimulatory activity of glycopeptides from Paecilomyces sinensis

The parasitic fungus, Paecilomyces sinensis, is used to produce Cordyceps materials as a succedaneum of natural Cordyceps sinensis (C. sinensis) in China.

MALDI-TOF to compare polysaccharide profiles from commercial health supplements of different mushroom species

In this work MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy was investigated to characterise the β-glucan profiles of several commercial health supplements, without any derivatisation or purification pre-treatment. The effect of two solvents (water and dimethyl sulfoxide) and two MALDI matrices (2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid and 2',4',6'-trihydroxyacetophenone) was first evaluated on dextran standards. MALDI-TOF was found as a useful and quick technique to obtain structural information of diverse food supplements based on mushroom extracts. The MALDI polysaccharide profiles of 5 supplements from different mushroom species were qualitatively similar showing [Glucan+Na](+) cations with a peak-to-peak mass difference of 16 Da consistent with the repeating unit of the β-(1→3)-glucan. The profiles strongly depended on the sample solvent used, with m/z values around 5000-8000 for water and 2000 for dimethyl sulfoxide; differences between samples were revealed in the molecular weight of the aqueous preparation, with the highest values for Maitake and Cordyceps species.

Reviews on Mechanisms of In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides

It is widely acknowledged that the excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) induced oxidative stress will cause significant damage to cell structure and biomolecular function, directly or indirectly leading to a number of diseases. The overproduction of ROS/RNS will be balanced by nonenzymatic antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes. Polysaccharide or glycoconjugates derived from natural products are of considerable interest from the viewpoint of potent in vivo and in vitro antioxidant activities recently. Particularly, with regard to the in vitro antioxidant systems, polysaccharides are considered as effective free radical scavenger, reducing agent, and ferrous chelator in most of the reports. However, the underlying mechanisms of these antioxidant actions have not been illustrated systematically and sometimes controversial results appeared among various literatures. To address this issue, we summarized the latest discoveries and advancements in the study of antioxidative polysaccharides and gave a detailed description of the possible mechanisms.

Extraction, characterization and antioxidant activity of mycelial polysaccharides from Paecilomyces hepiali HN1

Optimization of extraction, characterization and antioxidant activity of mycelial polysaccharides from Paecilomyces hepiali HN1 (PHMPs) were investigated. As results, the optimal parameters for extraction of PHMPs were obtained by a Box-Behnken design as follows: extraction temperature 92 °C, extracting time 190 min and ratio of water to material 43 mL/g. The analysis of monosaccharide composition by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) revealed that PHMPs was composed of mannose, ribose, rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, xylose and arabinose in molar ratio of 46.07:0.59:2.25:1.29:1.42:18.82:26.17:1.13:2.26, respectively. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that PHMPs had a significant protective effect against oxidative stress induced by d-galactose in mice, as evident by higher activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and level of total antioxidant capacity, as well as lower levels of malondialdehyde in serums and livers compared to the d-galactose-treated group. These results suggested that PHMPs could be explored as promising natural antioxidant.

Transcriptome sequencing and analysis of the entomopathogenic fungus Hirsutella sinensis isolated from Ophiocordyceps sinensis

BACKGROUND

Ophiocordyceps sinensis, a worm and fungus combined mixture which Hirsutella sinensis is parasitic on the caterpillar body, has been used as a traditional medicine or healthy food in China for thousands of years. H. sinensis is reported as the only correct anamorph of O. sinensis and its main active ingredients are similar to the natural O. sinensis.

RESULTS

H. sinensis L0106, asexual strain of O. sinensis, was isolated and identified in this study. Three transcriptomes of H. sinensis at different cultivation periods (growth period 3d, pre-stable period 6d and stable period 9d) were sequenced for the first time by RNA-Seq method, and 25,511 unigenes (3d), 25,214 unigenes (6d) and 16,245 unigenes (9d) were assembled and obtained, respectively. These unigenes of the three samples were further assembled into 20,822 unigenes (All), and 62.3 percent of unigenes (All) could be annotated based on protein databases. Subsequently, the genes and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of the active ingredients according to the sequencing and annotation results were predicted. Based on the predictions, we further investigated the interaction of different pathway networks and the corresponding enzymes. Furthermore, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of H. sinensis grown during different developmental stages (3d-VS-6d, 3d-VS-9d and 6d-VS-9d) were globally detected and analyzed based on the data from RNA-Seq, and 764 DEGs between 3d and 6d, 1,869 DEGs between 3d and 9d, and 770 DEGs between 6d and 9d were found, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This work presented here would aid in understanding and carrying out future studies on the genetic basis of H. sinensis and contribute to the further artificial production and application of this organism. This study provided a substantial contribution and basis to further characterize the gene expression profiles of H. sinensis in the metabolic pathways of active ingredients.

Functional polysaccharides from medicinal mushroom Cordyceps sinensis as a potent food supplement: extraction, characterization and therapeutic potentials – a systematic review

As a rich source of novel polysaccharides, Cordyceps sinensis (CS), one of the valued traditional Chinese medicinal fungi, is a major focus of many natural products research efforts.