Dual drug delivery and sequential release by amphiphilic Janus nanoparticles for liver cancer theranostics

Facile fabrications of poly (acrylic acid)-mesoporous zinc phosphate/polydopamine Janus nanoparticles as a biosafe photothermal therapy agent and a pH/NIR-responsive drug carrier

Balancing biocompatibility and drug-loading efficiency in nanoparticles presents a significant challenge. In this study, we describe the facile fabrication of poly (acrylic acid)-mesoporous zinc phosphate/polydopamine (PAA-mZnP/PDA) Janus nanoparticles (JNPs). The PDA half-shell itself can serve as a photothermal agent for photothermal therapy (PTT), as well as to offers sites for polyethylene glycol (PEG) to enhance biocompatibility. Concurrently, the mesoporous ZnP core allows high loading of doxorubicin (DOX) for chemotherapy and the Cy5.5 dye for fluorescence imaging. The resultant PAA-mZnP/PDA-PEG JNPs exhibit exceptional biocompatibility, efficient drug loading (0.5 mg DOX/1 mg JNPs), and dual pH/NIR-responsive drug release properties. We demonstrate the JNPs' satisfactory anti-cancer efficacy, highlighting the synergistic effects of chemotherapy and PTT. Furthermore, the potential for synergistic fluorescence imaging-guided chemo-phototherapy in cancer treatment is illustrated. Thus, this work exemplifies the development of biosafe, multifunctional JNPs for advanced applications in cancer theranostics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Facile fabrication of monodispersed nanomedicine with multi-cancer killing modalities organically integrated is nontrivial and becomes more challenging under the biocompatibility requirement that is necessary for the practical applications of nanomedicines. In this study, we creatively designed PAA-mZnP/PDA JNPs and fabricated them under mild conditions. Our method reliably yields uniform JNPs with excellent monodispersity. To maximize functionalities, we achieve fourfold advantages including efficient drug/fluorescent dye loading, PTT, pH/NIR dual-responsive properties, and optimal biocompatibility. The as-fabricated JNPs exhibit satisfactory anti-cancer performance both in vitro and in vivo, and demonstrate the potential of JNPs in fluorescence imaging-guided synergistic cancer chemo-phototherapy. Overall, our research establishes a pathway in versatile inorganic/polymer JNPs for enhanced cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Co-delivery of camptothecin and MiR-145 by lipid nanoparticles for MRI-visible targeted therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Camptothecin (CPT) is one of the frequently used small chemotherapy drugs for treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but its clinical application is limited due to severe toxicities and acquired resistance. Combined chemo-gene therapy has been reported to be an effective strategy for counteracting drug resistance while sensitizing cancer cells to cytotoxic agents. Thus, we hypothesized that combining CPT with miR-145 could synergistically suppress tumor proliferation and enhance anti-tumor activity.

METHODS

Lactobionic acid (LA) modified lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) were developed to co-deliver CPT and miR-145 into asialoglycoprotein receptors-expressing HCC in vitro and in vivo. We evaluated the synergetic antitumor effect of miR-145 and CPT using CCK8, Western blotting, apoptosis and wound scratch assay in vitro, and the mechanisms underlying the synergetic antitumor effects were further investigated. Tumor inhibitory efficacy, safety evaluation and MRI-visible ability were assessed using diethylnitrosamine (DEN) + CCl4-induced HCC mouse model.

RESULTS

The LA modification improved the targeting delivery of cargos to HCC cells and tissues. The LA-CMGL-mediated co-delivery of miR-145 and CPT is more effective on tumor inhibitory than LA-CPT-L or LA-miR-145-L treatment alone, both in vitro and in vivo, with almost no side effects during the treatment period. Mechanistically, miR-145 likely induces apoptosis by targeting SUMO-specific peptidase 1 (SENP1)-mediated hexokinase (HK2) SUMOylation and glycolysis pathways and, in turn, sensitizing the cancer cells to CPT. In vitro and in vivo tests confirmed that the loaded Gd-DOTA served as an effective T1-weighted contrast agent for noninvasive tumor detection as well as real-time monitoring of drug delivery and biodistribution.

CONCLUSIONS

The LA-CMGL-mediated co-delivery of miR-145 and CPT displays a synergistic therapy against HCC. The novel MRI-visible, actively targeted chemo-gene co-delivery system for HCC therapy provides a scientific basis and a useful idea for the development of HCC treatment strategies in the future.

Current advance of nanotechnology in diagnosis and treatment for malignant tumors

Cancer remains a significant risk to human health. Nanomedicine is a new multidisciplinary field that is garnering a lot of interest and investigation. Nanomedicine shows great potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Specifically engineered nanoparticles can be employed as contrast agents in cancer diagnostics to enable high sensitivity and high-resolution tumor detection by imaging examinations. Novel approaches for tumor labeling and detection are also made possible by the use of nanoprobes and nanobiosensors. The achievement of targeted medication delivery in cancer therapy can be accomplished through the rational design and manufacture of nanodrug carriers. Nanoparticles have the capability to effectively transport medications or gene fragments to tumor tissues via passive or active targeting processes, thus enhancing treatment outcomes while minimizing harm to healthy tissues. Simultaneously, nanoparticles can be employed in the context of radiation sensitization and photothermal therapy to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of malignant tumors. This review presents a literature overview and summary of how nanotechnology is used in the diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors. According to oncological diseases originating from different systems of the body and combining the pathophysiological features of cancers at different sites, we review the most recent developments in nanotechnology applications. Finally, we briefly discuss the prospects and challenges of nanotechnology in cancer.

PAA-PU Janus Hydrogels Stabilized by Janus Particles and its Interfacial Performance During Hemostatic Processing

Hydrogel is a very promising dressing for hemostasis and wound healing due to its good adhesion and long-term moist environment. However, secondary injury caused by tissue adhesion due to homogeneous hydrogel cannot be ignored. The obvious interface existing in Janus hydrogel will weaken its asymmetric function. Here, a hierarchical adhesive polyacrylic acid-polyurushiol water-oil Janus hydrogel (JPs@PAA-PU) without adhesive layer is fabricated by one-pot method in the stabilization of polystyrene@silica-siliver Janus particles (JPs). The morphological structure, mechanical properties, anisotropic chemical composition, and adhesion performance, in vivo, and in vitro hemostatic properties of Janus hydrogel are investigated. Result shows that the obtained Janus hydrogel possesses obvious compartmentalization in microstructure, functional groups, and chemical elements. Janus hydrogel is provided with asymmetric interfacial toughness with top 52.45 ± 2.29 Kpa and bottom 7.04 ± 0.88 Kpa on porcine liver. The adhesion properties of PAA side to tissue, red blood cells and platelets, promoting effect of PU side on coagulation cascade reaction and its physical battier endow Janus hydrogel with shorter hemostatic time and less blood loss than control group. It also exhibits excellent antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (>90%). Janus hydrogel possesses biosafety, providing safety guarantee for clinical applications in the future.

Dual-drug delivery by thermo-responsive Janus nanogel for improved cellular uptake, sustained release, and combination chemo-thermal therapy

The goal of this work was to examine the heat-sensitizing effects of Janus-coated magnetic nanoparticles (JMNPs) as a vehicle for 5-fluorouracil (5-Fu) and Quercetin (Qu) in C6 and OLN-93 cell lines. The cellular uptake of nanoparticles was evaluated using Prussian blue staining and ICP-OES after monolayer culturing of C6 (rat brain cancer cell) and OLN-93 (normal rat brain cell) cells. The cells were treated with free 5-Fu, Qu, and MJNPs loaded with Qu/5-Fu for 24 h, followed by magnetic hyperthermia under an alternating magnetic field (AMF) at a temperature of 43 °C. Using the MTT test and Flow cytometry, the C6 and OLN-93 cells were investigated after being subjected to hyperthermia with and without magnetic nanoparticles. The results of Prussian blue staining confirmed the potential of MJNPs as carriers that facilitate the uptake of drugs by cancer cells. The results showed that the combined application of Qu/5-Fu/MJNPs with hyperthermia significantly increased the amount of ROS production compared to interventions without MJNPs. The therapeutic results demonstrated that the combination of Qu/5-Fu/MJNPs with hyperthermia considerably enhanced the rate of apoptotic and necrotic cell death compared to that of interventions without MJNPs. Furthermore, MTT findings indicated that controlled exposure of Qu/5-Fu/MJNPs to AMF caused a synergistic effect. The advanced Janus magnetic nanoparticles in this study can be proposed as a promising dual drug carrier (Qu/5-Fu) and thermosensitizer platform for dual-modal synergistic cancer therapy.

On-Demand Sequential Release of Dual Drug from pH-Responsive Electrospun Janus Nanofiber Membranes toward Wound Healing and Infection Control

Drugs against bacteria and abnormal cells, such as antibiotics and anticancer drugs, may save human lives. However, drug resistance is becoming more common in the clinical world. Nowadays, a synergistic action of multiple bioactive compounds and their combination with smart nanoplatforms has been considered an alternative therapeutic strategy to fight drug resistance in multidrug-resistant cancers and microorganisms. The present study reports a one-step fabrication of innovative pH-responsive Janus nanofibers loaded with two active compounds, each in separate polymer compartments for synergistic combination therapy. By dissolving one of the compartments from the nanofibers, we could clearly demonstrate a highly yielded anisotropic Janus structure with two faces by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. To better understand the distinctive attributes of Janus nanofibers, several analytical methods, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), FTIR spectroscopy, and contact angle goniometry, were utilized to examine and compare them to those of monolithic nanofibers. Furthermore, a drug release test was conducted in pH 7.4 and 6.0 media since the properties of Janus nanofibers correlate significantly with different environmental pH levels. This resulted in the on-demand sequential codelivery of octenidine (OCT) and curcumin (CUR) to the corresponding pH stimulus. Accordingly, the antibacterial properties of Janus fibers against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, tested in a suspension test, were pH-dependent, i.e., greater in pH 6 due to the synergistic action of two active compounds, and Eudragit E100 (EE), and highly satisfactory. The biocompatibility of the Janus fibers was confirmed in selected tests.

Extracellular Matrix Cues Regulate Mechanosensing and Mechanotransduction of Cancer Cells

Extracellular biophysical properties have particular implications for a wide spectrum of cellular behaviors and functions, including growth, motility, differentiation, apoptosis, gene expression, cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesion, and signal transduction including mechanotransduction. Cells not only react to unambiguously mechanical cues from the extracellular matrix (ECM), but can occasionally manipulate the mechanical features of the matrix in parallel with biological characteristics, thus interfering with downstream matrix-based cues in both physiological and pathological processes. Bidirectional interactions between cells and (bio)materials in vitro can alter cell phenotype and mechanotransduction, as well as ECM structure, intentionally or unintentionally. Interactions between cell and matrix mechanics in vivo are of particular importance in a variety of diseases, including primarily cancer. Stiffness values between normal and cancerous tissue can range between 500 Pa (soft) and 48 kPa (stiff), respectively. Even the shear flow can increase from 0.1-1 dyn/cm2 (normal tissue) to 1-10 dyn/cm2 (cancerous tissue). There are currently many new areas of activity in tumor research on various biological length scales, which are highlighted in this review. Moreover, the complexity of interactions between ECM and cancer cells is reduced to common features of different tumors and the characteristics are highlighted to identify the main pathways of interaction. This all contributes to the standardization of mechanotransduction models and approaches, which, ultimately, increases the understanding of the complex interaction. Finally, both the in vitro and in vivo effects of this mechanics-biology pairing have key insights and implications for clinical practice in tumor treatment and, consequently, clinical translation.

Active Targeted Janus Theranostic Nanoplatforms Enable Chemo-Photothermal Therapy to Inhibit the Growth of Breast Cancer

Nanoscale structures have been developed to serve various functions in cancer therapy, encompassing areas such as diagnosis, biomedical visualization, tissue regeneration, and drug delivery. Based on biocompatible chitosan oligosaccharides (COS) and gold nanorods (GNRs), we designed the drug delivery systems (GNR@polyacrylic acid-Mn@COS Janus nanoparticles (JNPs)), which achieved paclitaxel (PTX) loaded on the side of GNRs, and the PAA-Mn domain served as magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents. This system was found to be effectively delivered to tumor sites through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and the active target of the COS. The uniform JNPs selectively targeted cancer cells instead of normal cells through interacting with the COS on the surface of tumor cells, and the pH/NIR-responsive drug release behavior further enhanced their therapeutic effects. The in vivo effects of JNPs against tumors were evaluated using subcutaneous and orthotopic lung metastasis models, yielding promising outcomes for both tumor diagnosis and cancer treatment. In conclusion, the obtained JNPs hold great promise as a theranostic nanoplatform with synergistic chemotherapeutic and photothermal effects.

Modular Drug-Loaded Nanocapsules with Metal Dome Layers as a Platform for Obtaining Synergistic Therapeutic Biological Activities

Multifunctional drug-loaded polymer-metal nanocapsules have attracted increasing attention in drug delivery due to their multifunctional potential endowed by drug activity and response to physicochemical stimuli. Current chemical synthesis methods of polymer/metal capsules require specific optimization of the different components to produce particles with precise properties, being particularly complex for Janus structures combining polymers and ferromagnetic and highly reactive metals. With the aim to generate tunable synergistic nanotherapeutic actuation with enhanced drug effects, here we demonstrate a versatile hybrid chemical/physical fabrication strategy to incorporate different functional metals with tailored magnetic, optical, or chemical properties on solid drug-loaded polymer nanoparticles. As archetypical examples, we present poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (diameters 100-150 nm) loaded with paclitaxel, indocyanine green, or erythromycin that are half-capped by either Fe, Au, or Cu layers, respectively, with application in three biomedical models. The Fe coating on paclitaxel-loaded nanocapsules permitted efficient magnetic enhancement of the cancer spheroid assembly, with 40% reduction of the cross-section area after 24 h, as well as a higher paclitaxel effect. In addition, the Fe-PLGA nanocapsules enabled external contactless manipulation of multicellular cancer spheroids with a speed of 150 μm/s. The Au-coated and indocyanine green-loaded nanocapsules demonstrated theranostic potential and enhanced anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo due to noninvasive fluorescence imaging with long penetration near-infrared (NIR) light and simultaneous photothermal-photodynamic actuation, showing a 3.5-fold reduction in the tumor volume growth with only 5 min of NIR illumination. Finally, the Cu-coated erythromycin-loaded nanocapsules exhibited enhanced antibacterial activity with a 2.5-fold reduction in the MIC50 concentration with respect to the free or encapsulated drug. Altogether, this technology can extend a nearly unlimited combination of metals, polymers, and drugs, thus enabling the integration of magnetic, optical, and electrochemical properties in drug-loaded nanoparticles to externally control and improve a wide range of biomedical applications.

Review of the Application of Dual Drug Delivery Nanotheranostic Agents in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Liver Cancer

Liver cancer has high incidence and mortality rates and its treatment generally requires the use of a combination treatment strategy. Therefore, the early detection and diagnosis of liver cancer is crucial to achieving the best treatment effect. In addition, it is imperative to explore multimodal combination therapy for liver cancer treatment and the synergistic effect of two liver cancer treatment drugs while preventing drug resistance and drug side effects to maximize the achievable therapeutic effect. Gold nanoparticles are used widely in applications related to optical imaging, CT imaging, MRI imaging, biomarkers, targeted drug therapy, etc., and serve as an advanced platform for integrated application in the nano-diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Dual-drug-delivery nano-diagnostic and therapeutic agents have drawn great interest in current times. Therefore, the present report aims to review the effectiveness of dual-drug-delivery nano-diagnostic and therapeutic agents in the field of anti-tumor therapy from the particular perspective of liver cancer diagnosis and treatment.

The Application of Nano-drug Delivery System With Sequential Drug Release Strategies in Cancer Therapy

Currently, multidrug combinations are often used clinically to improve the efficacy of oncology chemotherapy, but multidrug combinations often lead to multidrug resistance and decreased performance, resulting in more severe side effects than monotherapy. Therefore, sequential drug release strategies in time and space as well as nano-carriers that respond to the tumor microenvironment have been developed. First, the advantage of the sequential release strategy is that they can load multiple drugs simultaneously to meet their spatiotemporal requirements and stability, thus exerting synergistic effects of two or more drugs. Second, in some cases, sequential drug delivery of different molecular targets can improve the sensitivity of cancer cells to drugs. Control the metabolism of cancer cells, and remodel tumor vasculature. Finally, some drug combinations with built-in release control are used for sequential administration. This paper focuses on the use of nanotechnology and built-in control device to construct drug delivery carriers with different stimulation responses, thus achieving the sequential release of drugs. Therefore, the nano-sequential delivery carrier provides a new idea and platform for the therapeutic effect of various drugs and the synergistic effect among drugs.

Janus Silica Nanoparticle-Based Tumor Microenvironment Modulator for Restoring Tumor Sensitivity to Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 Immune Checkpoint Blockade Therapy

An immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) with inadequate and exhausted tumor-infiltrating cytotoxic lymphocytes and abundant cellular immunosuppressors is the major obstacle responsible for the poor efficacy of PD-1/PD-L1 (programmed cell death 1 and its ligand 1) immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. Herein, a Janus silica nanoparticle (JSNP)-based immunomodulator is explored to reshape the TME for boosting the therapeutic outcomes of αPD-L1 therapy. The designed JSNP has two distinct domains, namely, an ultra pH-responsive side (UPS), which could encapsulate PI3Kγ inhibitor IPI549 in the pore structure, and a polycation-grafted intra-glutathione (GSH)-sensitive side (IGS), which could absorb CXCL9 cDNA on the surface. The final IPI549@UPS-IGS-PDMAEMA@CXCL9 cDNA (IUIPC) could release IPI549 in weak acid TME to target myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) to reverse negative immunoregulation and then release CXCL9 cDNA in tumor cells with abundant GSH for sustained CXCL9 chemokine expression and secretion to improve cytotoxic lymphocyte recruitment signals, thereby jointly restoring tumor sensitivity to PD-1/PD-L1 ICB therapy. As expected, the IUIPC-mediated TME remodeling during αPD-L1 therapy significantly ameliorated TME immunosuppression, as well as induced potent systemic antitumor immune responses, which ultimately achieved a robustly boosted antitumor efficacy proven by remarkable suppression of primary tumor growth, obvious prevention of tumor recurrence, and significant regression of abscopal tumors. Hence, the IUIPC-mediated TME-regulating strategy provides an enormous perspective for the improvement of PD-1/PD-L1 ICB therapy.

Nanocarriers with Multiple Cargo Load-A Comprehensive Preparation Guideline Using Orthogonal Strategies

Multifunctional nanocarriers enhance the treatment efficacy for modern therapeutics and have gained increasing importance in biomedical research. Codelivery of multiple bioactive molecules enables synergistic therapies. Coencapsulation of cargo molecules into one nanocarrier system is challenging due to different physicochemical properties of the cargo molecules. Additionally, coencapsulation of multiple molecules simultaneously shall proceed with high control and efficiency. Orthogonal approaches for the preparation of nanocarriers are essential to encapsulate sensitive bioactive molecules while preserving their bioactivity. Preparation of nanocarriers by physical processes (i.e., self-assembly or coacervation) and chemical reactions (i.e., click reactions, polymerizations, etc.) are considered as orthogonal methods to most cargo molecules. This review shall act as a guideline to allow the reader to select a suitable preparation protocol for a desired nanocarrier system. This article helps to select for combinations of cargo molecules (hydrophilic-hydrophobic, small-macro, organic-inorganic) with nanocarrier material and synthesis protocols. The focus of this article lies on the coencapsulation of multiple cargo molecules into biocompatible and biodegradable nanocarriers prepared by orthogonal strategies. With this toolbox, the selection of a preparation method for a known set of cargo molecules to prepare the desired biodegradable and loaded nanocarrier shall be provided.

A Ratiometric Fluorescent Probe for Hypochlorite and Lipid Droplets to Monitor Oxidative Stress

Mitochondria are valuable subcellular organelles and play crucial roles in redox signaling in living cells. Substantial evidence proved that mitochondria are one of the critical sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and overproduction of ROS accompanies redox imbalance and cell immunity. Among ROS, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is the foremost redox regulator, which reacts with chloride ions in the presence of myeloperoxidase (MPO) to generate another biogenic redox molecule, hypochlorous acid (HOCl). These highly reactive ROS are the primary cause of damage to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), and proteins, leading to various neuronal diseases and cell death. Cellular damage, related cell death, and oxidative stress are also associated with lysosomes which act as recycling units in the cytoplasm. Hence, simultaneous monitoring of multiple organelles using simple molecular probes is an exciting area of research that is yet to be explored. Significant evidence also suggests that oxidative stress induces the accumulation of lipid droplets in cells. Hence, monitoring redox biomolecules in mitochondria and lipid droplets in cells may give a new insight into cell damage, leading to cell death and related disease progressions. Herein, we developed simple hemicyanine-based small molecular probes with a boronic acid trigger. A fluorescent probe AB that could efficiently detect mitochondrial ROS, especially HOCl, and viscosity simultaneously. When the AB probe released phenylboronic acid after reacting with ROS, the product AB-OH exhibited ratiometric emissions depending on excitation. This AB-OH nicely translocates to lysosomes and efficiently monitors the lysosomal lipid droplets. Photoluminescence and confocal fluorescence imaging analysis suggest that AB and corresponding AB-OH molecules are potential chemical probes for studying oxidative stress.

Multifunctional nanostructures: Intelligent design to overcome biological barriers

Over the past three decades, nanoscience has offered a unique solution for reducing the systemic toxicity of chemotherapy drugs and for increasing drug therapeutic efficiency. However, the poor accumulation and pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles are some of the key reasons for their slow translation into the clinic. The is intimately linked to the non-biological nature of nanoparticles and the aberrant features of solid cancer, which together significantly compromise nanoparticle delivery. New findings on the unique properties of tumors and their interactions with nanoparticles and the human body suggest that, contrary to what was long-believed, tumor features may be more mirage than miracle, as the enhanced permeability and retention based efficacy is estimated to be as low as 1%. In this review, we highlight the current barriers and available solutions to pave the way for approved nanoformulations. Furthermore, we aim to discuss the main solutions to solve inefficient drug delivery with the use of nanobioengineering of nanocarriers and the tumor environment. Finally, we will discuss the suggested strategies to overcome two or more biological barriers with one nanocarrier. The variety of design formats, applications and implications of each of these methods will also be evaluated.

Multifunctional Janus Nanoplatform for Efficiently Synergistic Theranostics of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Progress has been made in the application of nanomedicine in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) treatment. However, the whole process of monitoring and treatment of RA remains a formidable challenge due to the complexity of the chronic autoimmune disease. In this study, we develop a Janus nanoplatform (denoted as Janus-CPS) composed of CeO₂-Pt nanozyme subunit on one side and periodic mesoporous organosilica (PMO) subunit on another side for simultaneous early diagnosis and synergistic therapy of RA. The Janus nanostructure, which enables more active sites to be exposed, enhances the reactive oxygen species scavenging capability of CeO₂-Pt nanozyme subunit as compared to their core-shell counterpart. Furthermore, micheliolide (MCL), an extracted compound from natural plants with anti-osteoclastogenesis effects, is loaded into the mesopores of PMO subunit to synergize with the anti-inflammation effect of nanozymes for efficient RA treatment, which has been demonstrated by in vitro cellular experiments and in vivo collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model. In addition, by taking advantage of the second near-infrared window (NIR-II) fluorescent imaging, indocyanine green (ICG)-loaded Janus-CPS exhibits desirable effectiveness in detecting RA lesions at a very early stage. It is anticipated that such a Janus nanoplatform may offer an alternative strategy of functional integration for versatile theranostics.

Dual-Drug Delivery by Anisotropic and Uniform Hybrid Nanostructures: A Comparative Study of the Function and Substrate-Drug Interaction Properties

By utilizing nanoparticles to upload and interact with several pharmaceuticals in varying methods, the primary obstacles associated with loading two or more medications or cargos with different characteristics may be addressed. Therefore, it is feasible to evaluate the benefits provided by co-delivery systems utilizing nanoparticles by investigating the properties and functions of the commonly used structures, such as multi- or simultaneous-stage controlled release, synergic effect, enhanced targetability, and internalization. However, due to the unique surface or core features of each hybrid design, the eventual drug-carrier interactions, release, and penetration processes may vary. Our review article focused on the drug's loading, binding interactions, release, physiochemical, and surface functionalization features, as well as the varying internalization and cytotoxicity of each structure that may aid in the selection of an appropriate design. This was achieved by comparing the actions of uniform-surfaced hybrid particles (such as core-shell particles) to those of anisotropic, asymmetrical hybrid particles (such as Janus, multicompartment, or patchy particles). Information is provided on the use of homogeneous or heterogeneous particles with specified characteristics for the simultaneous delivery of various cargos, possibly enhancing the efficacy of treatment techniques for illnesses such as cancer.

Reaching new lights: a review on photo-controlled nanomedicines and their in vivo evaluation

The selective and efficient delivery of bioactive molecules to sites of interest remains a formidable challenge in medicine. In recent years, it has been shown that stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems display several advantages over traditional drug administration such as an improved pharmacokinetic profile and the desirable ability to gain control over release. Light emerged as one of the most powerful stimuli due to its high biocompatibility, spatio-temporal control, and non-invasiveness. On the road to clinical translation, various chemical systems of high complexity have been reported with the aim to improve efficacy, safety, and versatility of drug delivery under complex biological conditions. For future research on the chemical design of such photo-controlled nanomedicines, it is essential to gain an understanding of their in vivo translation and efficiency. Here, we discuss photo-controlled nanomedicines that have been evaluated in vivo and provide an overview of the state-of-the-art that should guide future research design.

Enzyme and Reactive Oxygen Species-Responsive Dual-Drug Delivery Nanocomplex for Tumor Chemo-Photodynamic Therapy

Introduction

Combination therapy is a promising approach to promote the efficacy and reduce the systemic toxicity of cancer therapy. Herein, we examined the potency of a combined chemo-phototherapy approach by constructing a hyaluronidase- and reactive oxygen species-responsive hyaluronic acid nanoparticle carrying a chemotherapy drug and a photosensitizer in a tumor-bearing mouse model. We hypothesized that following decomposition, the drugs inside the nanocomplex will be released in the tumors to provide effective tumor treatment. We aimed to design a smart drug delivery system that can improve traditional chemotherapy drug delivery and enhance the therapeutic efficacy in combination with photodynamic therapy.

Methods

Hydrophilic hyaluronic acid (HA) was covalently modified with a hydrophobic 5β-cholanic acid (CA) via an ROS-cleavable thioketal (tk) linker for a targeted co-deliver of 10-Hydroxy camptothecin (HCPT) and Chlorin e6 (Ce6) into tumors to improve the efficiency of combined chemo-photodynamic therapy.

Results

The obtained HA-tk-CA nanoparticle carrying HCPT and Ce6, named HTCC, accumulated in the tumor through the enhanced permeable response (EPR) effect and HA-mediated CD44 targeting after intravenous administration. Upon laser irradiation and hyaluronidase degradation, HTCC was disrupted to release HCPT and Ce6 into the tumors. Compared to the monotherapy approach, HTCC demonstrated enhanced tumor growth inhibition and minimized systemic toxicity in a tumor-bearing mouse model.

Conclusion

Our results suggested that controlled dual-drug release not only improved tumor drug delivery efficacy, but also reduced systemic side effects. In addition to HCPT and Ce6 delivery, the HA-tk-CA nanocomplex can be used to deliver other drugs in synergistic cancer therapy. Since most current combined therapy uses free drugs with distinct spatiotemporal distributions, the simultaneous co-delivery of dual drugs with a remote on-demand drug delivery nanosystem provides an alternative strategy for drug delivery design.

Image-guided drug delivery in nanosystem-based cancer therapies

The past decades have shown significant advancements in the development of solid tumor treatment. For instance, implementation of nanosystems for drug delivery has led to a reduction in side effects and improved delivery to the tumor region. However, clinical translation has faced challenges, as tumor drug levels are still considered to be inadequate. Interdisciplinary research has resulted in the development of more advanced drug delivery systems. These are coined "smart" due to the ability to be followed and actively manipulated in order to have better control over local drug release. Therefore, image-guided drug delivery can be a powerful strategy to improve drug activity at the target site. Being able to visualize the inflow of the administered smart nanosystem within the tumor gives the potential to determine the right moment to apply the facilitator to initiate drug release. Here we provide an overview of available nanosystems, imaging moieties, and imaging techniques. We discuss preclinical application of these smart drug delivery systems, the strength of image-guided drug delivery, and the future of personalized treatment.

A technical note on emerging combination approach involved in the onconanotherapeutics

Cancer is the second cause of mortality worldwide, and the currently available conventional treatment approach is associated with serious side effects and poor clinical outcomes. Based on the outcome of the exploratory preclinical and clinical studies, it was found that therapeutic response increases multiple folds when anticancer drugs are used in combination. However, the conventional combination of anticancer drugs was associated with various limitations such as increased cost of treatment, systemic toxicity, drug resistance, and reduced pharmacokinetic attributes. Hence, attempts were made to formulate nanocarrier fabricated combinatorial drugs (NFCDs) to effectively manage and treat cancer. This approach offers several advantages, such as improved stability, lower drug exposure, targeted drug delivery, low side effects, and improved clinical outcome. Hence, in this review, first time, we have discussed the recent advancement and various types of nano carrier-based combinatorial drug delivery systems in a different type of cancer and highlighted the personalized combinatorial theranostic medicine as a futuristic anticancer treatment approach.

Biodegradable disulfide crosslinked chitosan/stearic acid nanoparticles for dual drug delivery for colorectal cancer

Herein, redox responsive chitosan/stearic acid nanoparticles (CSSA NPs) (≈200 nm) are developed for dual drug delivery. These degradable nanoparticles are prepared based on disulfide (SS) crosslinking chemistry avoiding the use of any external crosslinking agent. CSSA NPs are further loaded with both DOX (hydrophilic) and curcumin (hydrophobic) drugs with ≈86 % and ≈82 % encapsulation efficiency respectively. This approach of combining anticancer therapeutics having different mode of anticancer action allows to develop systems for cancer therapy with enhanced efficacy. In vitro drug release experiments clearly exhibit the low leakage of drug under physiological conditions while ≈98 % DOX and ≈96 % curcumin is released after 136 h under GSH reducing conditions. The cytotoxicity experiments against HCT116 cells demonstrate higher cytotoxicity of dual drug loaded CSSA NPs. In vivo biodistribution experiments with c57bl/6j mice confirms the retention of CSSA NPs in the colon area up to 24 h exhibiting their potential for colorectal cancer therapy.

Emerging nanobiotechnology for precise theranostics of hepatocellular carcinoma

Primary liver cancer has become the second most fatal cancer in the world, and its five-year survival rate is only 10%. Most patients are in the middle and advanced stages at the time of diagnosis, losing the opportunity for radical treatment. Liver cancer is not sensitive to chemotherapy or radiotherapy. At present, conventional molecularly targeted drugs for liver cancer show some problems, such as short residence time, poor drug enrichment, and drug resistance. Therefore, developing new diagnosis and treatment methods to effectively improve the diagnosis, treatment, and long-term prognosis of liver cancer is urgent. As an emerging discipline, nanobiotechnology, based on safe, stable, and efficient nanomaterials, constructs highly targeted nanocarriers according to the unique characteristics of tumors and further derives a variety of efficient diagnosis and treatment methods based on this transport system, providing a new method for the accurate diagnosis and treatment of liver cancer. This paper aims to summarize the latest progress in this field according to existing research and the latest clinical diagnosis and treatment guidelines in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), as well as clarify the role, application limitations, and prospects of research on nanomaterials and the development and application of nanotechnology in the diagnosis and treatment of HCC.

Recent progress on bioimaging strategies based on Janus nanoparticles

Janus nanoparticles refer to a kind of asymmetric-structured nanoparticles composed of two or more distinct sides with differences in chemical nature and/or polarity on each side and thus can integrate two or more properties in one single particle. Due to their unique structure and surface properties, Janus nanoparticles have shown broad application potentials in optics, nuclear magnetic resonance, multi-mode imaging, and other fields. Unlike traditional contrast agents used in biological imaging, Janus nanoparticles are asymmetrically and directionally oriented to ensure stable partitioning of individual nanoparticles while integrating more functions. Much advancement have been carried out in the past few years, with some studies partially covering bioimaging applications. However, to our best knowledge, there are still no review papers specifically dedicated to the bioimaging applications with Janus nanoparticles. Bearing this in mind and taking the current challenges in this field into consideration, herein, we discuss representative approaches orchestrated for bioimaging applications, with the focus on the improvement of imaging quality brought by Janus nanoparticles and the development of multifunctional nanoplatforms in biological imaging fields, such as theranostics and therapies. Finally, based on the research experience of our group in this field, prospects for future research trends are put forward to provide new ideas for designing new Janus nanoparticles for clinical bioimaging.

Co-delivery of Interleukin-12 and Doxorubicin Loaded Nano-delivery System for Enhanced Immunotherapy with Polarization toward M1-type Macrophages

Chemo-immunotherapy has gained increasing attention as one of the most promising combination therapy strategies to battle cancer. In this study, the therapeutic nanoparticles (TNPs) co-delivering doxorubicin (DOX) and IL-12 (IL-12) were developed for chemo-immunotherapy combination therapy on liver cancer. TNPs were synthesized based on the ionic interactions between cationic chitosan (Ch) and anionic poly-(glutamic acid) (PGA). DOX and IL-12 loaded in TNPs presented prolonged circulation in blood, efficient accumulation in tumors, and internalization in tumor cells. After that, DOX and IL-12 were co-released in the tumor microenvironment. The locally responsive property of TNPs could subsequently re-educate macrophages. More significantly, TNPs with no obvious side effects can remarkably inhibit the H22 tumor growth in vivo. A low dosage of loaded IL-12 in TNPs can effectively polarize macrophages toward the M1 phenotype to reduce tumor burden, further enhancing the antitumor efficacy. Our results suggest that the self-stabilized TNPs could be a secure and effective drug carrier for intravenous administration when deprived of protective agents.

Multifunction in One Nanoparticle for Anticancer Therapy: Bowl-Shaped Au@PDA Yolk-Shell NPs

Multifunctional nanoparticles (NPs) with simultaneous multimodal therapeutic and imaging capabilities are very necessary for biomedical applications. We successfully prepared bowl-shaped gold@polydopamine yolk-shell NPs (bowl-shaped Au@PDA YNPs) by a novel and facile method. The unique bowl-like structure enables a drug loading rate of 92% (920 μg mg^-1). The bowl-shaped Au@PDA YNPs are biocompatible, have good photothermal conversion and strong near-infrared (NIR) absorption, and can control drug release under pH/NIR dual response. Bowl-shaped Au@PDA YNPs can also be employed as contrast agents for computed tomography/photoacoustic imaging for dual-modal imaging-guided chemotherapy and photothermal therapy due to the presence of Au NPs.

Stimuli-Responsive Gold Nanocages for Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

With advances in nanotechnology, various new drug delivery systems (DDSs) have emerged and played a key role in the diagnosis and treatment of cancers. Over the last two decades, gold nanocages (AuNCs) have been attracting considerable attention because of their outstanding properties. This review summarizes current advancements in endogenous, exogenous, and dual/multi-stimuli responsive AuNCs in drug delivery. This review focuses on the properties, clinical translation potential, and limitations of stimuli-responsive AuNCs for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Targeting co-delivery of doxorubicin and gefitinib by biotinylated Au NCs for overcoming multidrug resistance in imaging-guided anticancer therapy

Drug resistance and potential cardiotoxicity severely limit the DOX-mediated chemotherapy in clinical. Multi-drug combination is conducive to the realization of multi-modal synergy at the molecular level, which is crucial in drug dose optimization and improvement of therapeutic effect. In this work, fluorescent biotinylated Au Nanoclusters as an active targeting carrier was developed to realize real-time biological imaging and dual-drug delivery simultaneously. DNA toxin doxorubicin (DOX) and tyrosinase inhibitor gefitinib (GEF) were selected as dual-drug models for the treatment of human non-small cell lung cancer. The in vitro and in vivo results showed that dual-drug combination suppressed cancer cell growth more efficiently than any single formula at the same concentrations. GEF can block signaling in target cancer cells with mutated and overactive EGFR, thereby inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis and promoting tumor cell apoptosis. Combined with DOX chemotherapy, it will effectively overcome the problem of DOX resistance. In addition, the dual-drug delivery system produced excellent synergistic therapeutic effects without extra adverse toxicities. It provides a reference for the design and clinical application of the dual-drug delivery system.

Near-infrared laser-controlled nitric oxide-releasing gold nanostar/hollow polydopamine Janus nanoparticles for synergistic elimination of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and wound healing

Recently, nitric oxide (NO) has received increasing interest in combat against bacteria-induced infections because of its ability to sensitize and enhance the antibacterial effectiveness of many therapeutic approaches such as antibiotics. However, high-efficient loading and controlled release of NO remain a big challenge. In the present work, a type of gold nanostar/hollow polydopamine Janus nanostructure (GNS/HPDA JNPs) with precise near infrared (NIR)-controlled NO release property was fabricated using a facile seed-mediated method. Upon NIR laser irradiation, the NO-releasing GNS/HPDA JNPs (GNS/HPDA-BNN6) exhibited a synergistic photothermal and NO antibacterial effect by significantly inhibiting the growth and biofilm formation of both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial strains, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). An in-depth mechanism study revealed that two pathways were mainly involved in the synergistic photothermal and NO antibacterial effect. In one pathway, the synergistic effect severely destroyed the bacterial membrane by causing leakage of intracellular components such as DNA. In another pathway, the synergistic effect largely disturbed bacterial metabolism by regulating relative metabolic genes, followed by enhancing ROS generation to cause intracellular GSH depletion and DNA damage. More importantly, the synergistic effect significantly diminished the drug resistance of MRSA by downregulating the expression of the drug-resistant gene mecA and some relative multidrug efflux pumps (e.g., SepA and Tet38). An in vivo evaluation using a rat model with MRSA-infected wounds indicated that the synergistic photothermal and NO effect of GNS/HPDA-BNN6 can effectively eliminate MRSA from wounds, thereby alleviating inflammation and promoting wound healing. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria have become a big threat to mankind, and therefore, the development of innovative antibacterial agents with high antibacterial efficiency is urgently required. Nanomaterial-mediated nitric oxide (NO) therapy is a promising strategy to effectively combat MDR bacteria through a synergistic antibacterial effect. Here, a gold nanostar/hollow polydopamine Janus nanostructure with precise near infrared (NIR) light-controlled NO release property (GNS/HPDA-BNN6) was developed. Both in vitro and in vivo evaluations demonstrated that GNS/HPDA-BNN6 could effectively eliminate methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from infected wounds and promote wound healing through a synergistic photothermal and NO therapeutic effect. Remarkably, the synergistic effect significantly diminished the drug resistance of MRSA by downregulating the expression of some drug-resistant genes and multidrug efflux pumps.

Biodegradable Microparticles for Regenerative Medicine: A State of the Art and Trends to Clinical Application

Tissue engineering and cell therapy are very attractive in terms of potential applications but remain quite challenging regarding the clinical aspects. Amongst the different strategies proposed to facilitate their implementation in clinical practices, biodegradable microparticles have shown promising outcomes with several advantages and potentialities. This critical review aims to establish a survey of the most relevant materials and processing techniques to prepare these micro vehicles. Special attention will be paid to their main potential applications, considering the regulatory constraints and the relative easiness to implement their production at an industrial level to better evaluate their application in clinical practices.

Site-Specific Functionalization of Recombinant Spider Silk Janus Fibers

Biotechnological production is a powerful tool to design materials with customized properties. The aim of this work was to apply designed spider silk proteins to produce Janus fibers with two different functional sides. First, functionalization was established through a cysteine-modified silk protein, ntagCys eADF4(κ16). After fiber spinning, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were coupled via thiol-ene click chemistry. Significantly reduced electrical resistivity indicated sufficient loading density of AuNPs on such fiber surfaces. Then, Janus fibers were electrospun in a side-by-side arrangement, with "non-functional" eADF4(C16) on the one and "functional" ntagCys eADF4(κ16) on the other side. Post-treatment was established to render silk fibers insoluble in water. Subsequent AuNP binding was highly selective on the ntagCys eADF4(κ16) side demonstrating the potential of such silk-based systems to realize complex bifunctional structures with spatial resolutions in the nano scale.

A metabolic acidity-activatable calcium phosphate probe with fluorescence signal amplification capabilities for non-invasive imaging of tumor malignancy

Dysregulated energy metabolism has recently been recognized as an emerging hallmark of cancer. Tumor cells, which are characterized by abnormal glycolysis, exhibit a lower extracellular pH (6.5-7.0) than normal tissues (7.2-7.4), providing a promising target for tumor-specific imaging and therapy. However, most pH-sensitive materials are unable to distinguish such a subtle pH difference owing to their wide and continuous pH-responsive range. In this study, we developed an efficient strategy for the fabrication of a tumor metabolic acidity-activatable calcium phosphate (CaP) fluorescent probe (termed MACaP9). Unlike traditional CaP-based biomedical nanomaterials, which only work within more acidic organelles, such as endosomes and lysosomes (pH 4.0-6.0), MACaP9 could not only specifically respond to the tumor extra-cellular pH but also rapidly convert pH variations into a distinct fluorescence signal to visually distinguish tumor from normal tissues. The superior sensitivity and specificity of MACaP9 enabled high-contrast visualization of a broad range of tumors, as well as small tumor lesions.

Recent Progress on Asymmetric Carbon- and Silica-Based Nanomaterials: From Synthetic Strategies to Their Applications

HIGHLIGHTS

The synthetic strategies and fundamental mechanisms of various asymmetric carbon- and silica-based nanomaterials were systematically summarized. The advantages of asymmetric structure on their related applications were clarified by some representative applications of asymmetric carbon- and silica-based nanomaterials. The future development prospects and challenges of asymmetric carbon- and silica-based nanomaterials were proposed.

ABSTRACT

Carbon- and silica-based nanomaterials possess a set of merits including large surface area, good structural stability, diversified morphology, adjustable structure, and biocompatibility. These outstanding features make them widely applied in different fields. However, limited by the surface free energy effect, the current studies mainly focus on the symmetric structures, such as nanospheres, nanoflowers, nanowires, nanosheets, and core–shell structured composites. By comparison, the asymmetric structure with ingenious adjustability not only exhibits a larger effective surface area accompanied with more active sites, but also enables each component to work independently or corporately to harness their own merits, thus showing the unusual performances in some specific applications. The current review mainly focuses on the recent progress of design principles and synthesis methods of asymmetric carbon- and silica-based nanomaterials, and their applications in energy storage, catalysis, and biomedicine. Particularly, we provide some deep insights into their unique advantages in related fields from the perspective of materials’ structure–performance relationship. Furthermore, the challenges and development prospects on the synthesis and applications of asymmetric carbon- and silica-based nanomaterials are also presented and highlighted. [Image: see text]

Designing amphiphilic Janus nanoparticles with tunable lipid raft affinity via molecular dynamics simulation

Due to the differential interactions among lipids and proteins, the plasma membrane can segregate into a series of functional nanoscale membrane domains ("lipid rafts"), which are essential in multiple biological processes such as signaling transduction, protein trafficking and endocytosis. On the other hand, Janus nanoparticles (NPs) have shown great promise in various biomedical applications due to their asymmetric characteristics and can integrate different surface properties and thus synergetic functions. Hence, in this work, we aim to design an amphiphilic Janus NP to target and regulate lipid rafts via tuning its surface ligand amphiphilicity using coarse-grained molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Our μs-scale free coarse-grained MD simulations as well as umbrella sampling free energy calculations indicated that the hydrophobicity of the hydrophobic surface ligands not only determined the lateral membrane partitioning thermodynamics of Janus NPs in phase-separated lipid membranes, but also the difficulty in their insertion into different membrane domains of the lipid membrane. These two factors jointly regulated the lipid raft affinity of Janus NPs. Meanwhile, the hydrophilicity of the hydrophilic surface ligands could affect the insertion ability of Janus NPs. Besides, the ultra-small size could ensure the membrane-bound behavior of Janus NPs without disrupting the overall structure and phase separation kinetics of the lipid membrane. These results may provide valuable insights into the design of functional NPs targeting and controllably regulating lipid rafts.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle-Based Imaging Agents for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Detection

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is characterized by poor prognosis and high mortality. The treatment of HCC is closely related to the stage, and the early-stage of HCC patients usually accompanies a more long-term survival rate after clinical treatment. Hence, there are critical needs to develop effective imaging agents with superior diagnostic precision for HCC detection at an early stage. Recently, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) based imaging agents have gained extensive attentions in HCC detection, which can serve as a multifunctional nanoplatform with controllable size and facile surface functionalization. This perspective summarizes recent advances in MSNs based imaging agents for HCC detection by the incorporation of several clinical imaging modalities. Multi-modal imaging system has been developed for higher spatial resolution and sensitivity. Even though some limitations and challenges need to be overcome, we envision the development of novel MSNs based imaging agents will offer great potential applications in clinical HCC detection.

Recent advances in hepatocellular carcinoma therapeutic strategies and imaging-guided treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignant cancer in the world, which greatly threatens human health. However, the routine treatment strategies for HCC have failed to specifically eradicate the tumorigenic cells, leading to the occurrence of metastasis and recurrence. To improve treatment efficacies, the development of novel effective technologies is urgently required. Recently, nanotechnologies have gained the extensive attention in cancer targeted therapy, which could provide a promising way for HCC clinical practice. However, a successful cancer management depends on accurate diagnosis of the tumour along with precise therapeutic protocol, thereby predicting the tumour response to existing therapies. The synergistic effect of targeted therapeutic systems and imaging approaches (also called 'imaging-guided cancer treatment') may establish a more effective platform for individual cancer care. This review outlines the recent advanced nano-targeted and -traceable therapeutic strategies for HCC management. The multifunctional nano agents that have both diagnosis and therapy abilities are highlighted. Finally, we conclude with our perspectives on the future development and challenges of HCC nanotheranostics.

Apoptotic Tumor DNA Activated Nanomotor Chemotaxis

Inspired by the tactic organisms in Nature that can self-direct their movement following environmental stimulus gradient, we proposed a DNase functionalized Janus nanoparticle (JNP) nanomotor system for the first time, which can be powered by ultralow nM to μM levels of DNA. The system exhibited interesting chemotactic behavior toward a DNA richer area, which is physiologically related with many diseases including tumors. In the presence of the subtle DNA gradient generated by apoptotic tumor cells, the cargo loaded nanomotors were able to sense the DNA signal released by the cells and demonstrate directional motion toward tumor cells. For our system, the subtle DNA gradient by a small amount (10 μL) of tumor cells is sufficient to induce the chemotaxis behavior of self-navigating and self-targeting ability of our nanomotor system, which promises to shed new light for tumor diagnosis and therapy.

The use of nanotechnology to combat liver cancer: Progress and perspectives

Liver cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide and is also one of the most difficult cancers to treat, resulting in almost one million deaths per year, and the danger of this cancer is compounded when the tumor is nonresectable. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer and has the third highest mortality rate worldwide. Considering the morbid statistics surrounding this cancer it is a popular research topic to target for better therapy practices. This review summarizes the role of nanotechnology in these endeavors. Nanoparticles (NPs) are a very broad class of material and many different kinds have been used to potentially combat liver cancer. Gold, silver, platinum, metal oxide, calcium, and selenium NPs as well as less common materials are all inorganic NPs that have been used as a therapeutic, carrier, or imaging agent in drug delivery systems (DDS) and these efforts are described. Carbon-based NPs, including polymeric, polysaccharide, and lipid NPs as well as carbon dots, have also been widely studied for this purpose and the role they play in DDS for the treatment of liver cancer is illustrated in this review. The multifunctional nature of many NPs described herein, allows these systems to display high anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo and highlights the advantage of and need for combinatorial therapy in treating this difficult cancer. These works are summarized, and future directions are presented for this promising field.

Hollow structures as drug carriers: Recognition, response, and release

Hollow structures have demonstrated great potential in drug delivery owing to their privileged structure, such as high surface-to-volume ratio, low density, large cavities, and hierarchical pores. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of hollow structured materials applied in targeting recognition, smart response, and drug release, and we have addressed the possible chemical factors and reactions in these three processes. The advantages of hollow nanostructures are summarized as follows: hollow cavity contributes to large loading capacity; a tailored structure helps controllable drug release; variable compounds adapt to flexible application; surface modification facilitates smart responsive release. Especially, because the multiple physical barriers and chemical interactions can be induced by multishells, hollow multishelled structure is considered as a promising material with unique loading and releasing properties. Finally, we conclude this review with some perspectives on the future research and development of the hollow structures as drug carriers.

Biomaterials-based approaches to model embryogenesis

Understanding, reproducing, and regulating the cellular and molecular processes underlying human embryogenesis is critical to improve our ability to recapitulate tissues with proper architecture and function, and to address the dysregulation of embryonic programs that underlies birth defects and cancer. The rapid emergence of stem cell technologies is enabling enormous progress in understanding embryogenesis using simple, powerful, and accessible in vitro models. Biomaterials are playing a central role in providing the spatiotemporal organisation of biophysical and biochemical signalling necessary to mimic, regulate and dissect the evolving embryonic niche in vitro. This contribution is rapidly improving our understanding of the mechanisms underlying embryonic patterning, in turn enabling the development of more effective clinical interventions for regenerative medicine and oncology. Here we highlight how key biomaterial approaches contribute to organise signalling in human embryogenesis models, and we summarise the biological insights gained from these contributions. Importantly, we highlight how nanotechnology approaches have remained largely untapped in this space, and we identify their key potential contributions.

Recent Advances in the Use of Iron-Gold Hybrid Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications

Recently, there has been an increased interest in iron-gold-based hybrid nanostructures, due to their combined outstanding optical and magnetic properties resulting from the usage of two separate metals. The synthesis of these nanoparticles involves thermal decomposition and modification of their surfaces using a variety of different methods, which are discussed in this review. In addition, different forms such as core-shell, dumbbell, flower, octahedral, star, rod, and Janus-shaped hybrids are discussed, and their unique properties are highlighted. Studies on combining optical response in the near-infrared window and magnetic properties of iron-gold-based hybrid nanoparticles as multifunctional nanoprobes for drug delivery, magnetic-photothermal heating as well as contrast agents during magnetic and optical imaging and magnetically-assisted optical biosensing to detect traces of targeted analytes inside the body has been reviewed.

Janus Nanoparticles: From Fabrication to (Bio)Applications

Janus nanoparticles (JNPs) refer to the integration of two or more chemically discrepant composites into one structure system. Studies into JNPs have been of significant interest due to their interesting characteristics stemming from their asymmetric structures, which can integrate different functional properties and perform more synergetic functions simultaneously. Herein, we present recent progress of Janus particles, comprehensively detailing fabrication strategies and applications. First, the classification of JNPs is divided into three blocks, consisting of polymeric composites, inorganic composites, and hybrid polymeric/inorganic JNPs composites. Then, the fabrication strategies are alternately summarized, examining self-assembly strategy, phase separation strategy, seed-mediated polymerization, microfluidic preparation strategy, nucleation growth methods, and masking methods. Finally, various intriguing applications of JNPs are presented, including solid surfactants agents, micro/nanomotors, and biomedical applications such as biosensing, controlled drug delivery, bioimaging, cancer therapy, and combined theranostics. Furthermore, challenges and future works in this field are provided.

Recent progress of nanotechnology-based theranostic systems in cancer treatments

Theranostics that integrates therapy and diagnosis in one system to achieve accurate cancer diagnosis and treatment has attracted tremendous interest, and has been recognized as a potential breakthrough in overcoming the challenges of conventional oncotherapy. Nanoparticles are ideal candidates as carriers for theranostic agents, which is attributed to their extraordinary physicochemical properties, including nanoscale sizes, functional properties, prolonged blood circulation, active or passive tumor targeting, specific cellular uptake, and in some cases, excellent optical properties that ideally meet the needs of phototherapy and imaging at the same time. Overall, with the development of nanotechnology, theranostics has become a reality, and is now in the transition stage of "bench to bedside." In this review, we summarize recent progress on nanotechnology-based theranostics, i.e., nanotheranostics, that has greatly assisted traditional therapies, and has provided therapeutic strategies emerging in recent decades, as well as "cocktail" theranostics mixing various treatment modalities.

Electromagnetically Stimuli-Responsive Nanoparticles-Based Systems for Biomedical Applications: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

Nanoparticles (NPs) in the biomedical field are known for many decades as carriers for drugs that are used to overcome biological barriers and reduce drug doses to be administrated. Some types of NPs can interact with external stimuli, such as electromagnetic radiations, promoting interesting effects (e.g., hyperthermia) or even modifying the interactions between electromagnetic field and the biological system (e.g., electroporation). For these reasons, at present these nanomaterial applications are intensively studied, especially for drugs that manifest relevant side effects, for which it is necessary to find alternatives in order to reduce the effective dose. In this review, the main electromagnetic-induced effects are deeply analyzed, with a particular focus on the activation of hyperthermia and electroporation phenomena, showing the enhanced biological performance resulting from an engineered/tailored design of the nanoparticle characteristics. Moreover, the possibility of integrating these nanofillers in polymeric matrices (e.g., electrospun membranes) is described and discussed in light of promising applications resulting from new transdermal drug delivery systems with controllable morphology and release kinetics controlled by a suitable stimulation of the interacting systems (nanofiller and interacting cells).

Stimuli-Responsive Plasmonic Assemblies and Their Biomedical Applications

Among the diverse development of stimuli-responsive assemblies, plasmonic nanoparticle (NP) assemblies functionalized with responsive molecules are of a major interest. In this review, we outline a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of recently reported studies on in vitro and in vivo assembly/disassembly and biomedical applications of plasmonic NPs, wherein stimuli such as enzymes, light, pH, redox potential, temperature, metal ions, magnetic or electric field, and/or multi-stimuli were involved. Stimuli-responsive assemblies have been applied in various biomedical fields including biosensors, surfaced-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), photoacoustic (PA) imaging, multimodal imaging, photo-activated therapy, enhanced X-ray therapy, drug release, stimuli-responsive aggregation-induced cancer therapy, and so on. The perspectives on the use of stimuli-responsive plasmonic assemblies are discussed by addressing future scientific challenges involving assembly/disassembly strategies and applications.