β-Amyrin, the cannabinoid receptors agonist, abrogates mice brain microglial cells inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide/interferon-γ and regulates Mφ1/Mφ2 balances

Dietary anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial medicinal plants and its compounds in bovine mastitis associated impact on human life

Bovine mastitis (BM) is the most common bacterial mediated inflammatory disease in the dairy cattle that causes huge economic loss to the dairy industry due to decreased milk quality and quantity. Milk is the essential food in the human diet, and rich in crucial nutrients that helps in lowering the risk of diseases like hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. The main causative agents of the disease include various gram negative, and positive bacteria, along with other risk factors such as udder shape, age, genetic, and environmental factors also contributes much for the disease. Currently, antibiotics, immunotherapy, probiotics, dry cow, and lactation therapy are commonly recommended for BM. However, these treatments can only decrease the rise of new cases but can't eliminate the causative agents, and they also exhibit several limitations. Hence, there is an urgent need of a potential source that can generate a typical and ideal treatment to overcome the limitations and eliminate the pathogens. Among the various sources, medicinal plants and its derived products always play a significant role in drug discovery against several diseases. In addition, they are also known for its low toxicity and minimum resistance features. Therefore, plants and its compounds that possess anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties can serve better in bovine mastitis. In addition, the plants that are serving as a food source and possessing pharmacological properties can act even better in bovine mastitis. Hence, in this evidence-based study, we particularly review the dietary medicinal plants and derived products that are proven for anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial effects. Moreover, the role of each dietary plant and its compounds along with possible role in the management of bovine mastitis are delineated. In this way, this article serves as a standalone source for the researchers working in this area to help in the management of BM.

Phytol from Scoparia dulcis prevents NF-κB-mediated inflammatory responses during macrophage polarization

Macrophages are primary immune cells that mediate a wide range of inflammatory diseases through their polarization potential. In this study, phytol isolated from Scoparia dulcis has been explored against 7-ketocholesterol and bacterial lipopolysaccharide-induced macrophage polarization in IC-21 cells. Isolated phytol has been characterized using GC-MS, TLC, HPTLC, FTIR, 1H-NMR, and HPLC analyses. The immunomodulatory effects of viable concentrations of phytol were tested on oxidative stress, arginase activity, nuclear and mitochondrial membrane potentials in IC-21 cells in addition to the modulation of calcium and lipids. Further, gene and protein expression of atherogenic markers were studied. Results showed that the isolated phytol at a viable concentration of 400 µg/ml effectively reduced the production of nitric oxide, superoxide anion (ROS generation), calcium and lipid accumulation, stabilized nuclear and mitochondrial membranes, and increased arginase activity. The atherogenic markers including iNOS, COX-2, IL-6, IL-1β, MMP-9, CD36, and NF-κB were significantly downregulated at the levels of gene and protein expression, while macrophage surface and nuclear receptor markers (CD206, CD163, and PPAR-γ) were significantly upregulated by phytol pre-treatment in macrophages. Therefore, the present pharmacognostic study supports the role of phytol isolated from Scoparia dulcis in preventing M2-M1 macrophage polarization under inflammatory conditions, making it a promising compound.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-024-03924-9.

Cytotoxic Activity of Wild Plant and Callus Extracts of Ageratina pichinchensis and 2,3-Dihydrobenzofuran Isolated from a Callus Culture

Ageratina pichinchensis (Kunth) R.M. King & H. Rob. belongs to the Asteraceae family and is a plant native to Mexico to which several biological properties are attributed. In this study, the cytotoxic effect of four extracts from the wild plants and two extracts from A. pichinchensis callus culture were evaluated against carcinogenic cell lines including prostate carcinoma, cervical cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatoma human, lung cancer, and cellular keratinocytes. The extracts were obtained with ethyl acetate and methanol using both leaves and stems or the callus. Only the ethyl acetate extract of the callus culture influenced the cervical cancer cell line (HeLa) with an IC50 of 94.79 ± 2.0 µg/mL. From the ethyl acetate callus extract, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran was isolated and purified and also evaluated against cancer cells. The cytotoxic evaluation of this compound showed a significant effect against the HeLa cell line with an IC50 of 23.86 ± 2.5 µg/mL. Our results contribute to the development of biotechnological alternatives and extraction processes to produce compounds with possible potential against certain types of human cancer.

Mining and modification of Oryza sativa-derived squalene epoxidase for improved β-amyrin production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

β-Amyrin is a pentacyclic triterpenoid and has anti-viral, anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. The synthetic pathway of β-amyrin has been analyzed and its heterogeneous synthesis has been achieved in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Squalene epoxidase (SQE) catalyzes the oxygenation of squalene to form 2,3-oxidosqualene and is rate-limiting in the synthetic pathways of β-amyrin. The endogenous SQE in S. cerevisiae is insufficient for high production of β-amyrin. Herein, eight squalene epoxidases derived from different plants were selected and characterized in S. cerevisiae for improved biosynthesis of β-amyrin. Among them, the squalene epoxidase from Oryza sativa (OsSQE52) showed the best performance compared to other plant-derived sources. Through protein remodeling, the mutant OsSQE52L256R, obtained based on modeling analysis, increased the titer of β-amyrin by 2.43-fold compared to that in the control strain with ERG1 overexpressed under the same conditions. Moreover, the expression of OsSQE52L256R was optimized with the improvement of precursor supply to further increase the production of β-amyrin. Finally, the constructed strains produced 66.97 mg/L β-amyrin in the shake flask, which was 6.45-fold higher than the original strain. Our study provides alternative SQEs for efficient production of β-amyrin as well as other triterpenoids derived from 2,3-oxidosqualene.

Cuticular Waxes and Cutin in Terminalia catappa Leaves from the Equatorial São Tomé and Príncipe Islands

This study presents for the first time an analysis of the content and chemical composition of the cuticular waxes and cutin in the leaves of the widespread and important tropical species Terminalia catappa. The leaves were collected in the equatorial Atlantic islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, in the Gulf of Guinea. The epicuticular and intracuticular waxes were determined via dichloromethane extraction and their chemical composition via GC-MS analysis, and the content and monomeric composition of cutin were determined after depolymerization via methanolysis. The leaves contained an epidermal cuticular coverage of 52.8 μg cm-2 of the cuticular waxes (1.4% of mass) and 63.3 μg cm-2 (1.5% of mass) of cutin. Cuticular waxes include mainly n-alkanols and fatty acids, with a substantial proportion of terpenes in the more easily solubilized fraction, and sterols in the more embedded waxes. Cutin is mostly constituted by C16 fatty acids and dihydroxyacids, also including aromatic monomers, suggesting a largely linear macromolecular arrangement. The high proportion of triacontanol, α-amyrin, β-amyrin, germanicol, and lupeol in the easily solubilized cuticular fraction may explain the bioactive properties attributed to the T. catappa leaves via the popular medicine, which allows us to consider them as a potential source for the extraction of these compounds.

Phytochemical Profiling and Compound Isolation of Cissus rhombifolia Vahl. Leaves Aqueous Methanolic Extract with the Evaluation of Its Anti-Inflammatory Effect Using Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in RAW 264.7 Cells

The inflammatory disorders represent a serious health issue. Certain Cissus species possess anti-inflammatory effect. Cissus rhombifolia Vahl. leaves' anti-inflammatory activities and phytoconstituents are poorly characterized. In this study, 38 constituents were tentatively characterized in Cissus rhombifolia Vahl. leaves' aqueous methanolic extract (CRLE) using high-performance liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS) and Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1 H-NMR). Myricetin, β-amyrin, and alliospiroside A, were isolated from CRLE using column chromatography. The anti-inflammatory effect of CRLE and its isolated compounds were studied in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT assay) was used to assess how CRLE and its isolated compounds affected cell viability. Further, its effects on the production of intracellular NO, and inflammatory cytokines cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were assessed by the Griess test, and cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, respectively. CRLE and its isolated compounds, myricetin, β-amyrin, and alliospiroside A decreased the NO production. Western blotting was performed to assess the protein expression levels of the inflammatory cytokines inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Alliospiroside A downregulated IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2 and inhibited the expression of iNOS. CRLE and its compounds represent effective alternative candidate to treat inflammatory diseases.

Formulated chitosan-sodium tripolyphosphate nanoparticles for co-encapsulation of ellagic acid and anti-inflammatory peptide: characterization, stability and anti-inflammatory activity

BACKGROUND

Chitosan (CS) and tripolyphosphate (TPP) can be combined in the development of a material with synergistic properties and promising potential for the conservation of food products. In this study, ellagic acid (EA) and anti-inflammatory peptide (FPL)-loaded CS nanoparticles (FPL/EA NPs) were prepared using the ionic gelation method and optimal preparation conditions were obtained through a single factor design.

RESULTS

The synthesized nanoparticles (NPs) were characterized using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Nanoparticles were spherical, with an average size of 308.33 ± 4.61 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.254, a zeta potential of +31.7 ± 0.08 mV, and a high encapsulation capacity (22.16 ± 0.79%). An in vitro release study showed that EA/FPL had a sustainable release from FPL/EA NPs. The stability of the FPL/EA NPs was evaluated for 90 days at 0, 25, and 37 °C. Significant anti-inflammatory activity of FPL/EA NPs was verified by nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) reduction.

CONCLUSION

These characteristics support the use of CS nanoparticles to encapsulate EA and FPL and improve their bioactivity in food products. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Boswellia serrata inhibits LPS-induced cardiotoxicity in H9c2 cells: Investigating role of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects

Sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction is the main reason for mortality and morbidity. Recent investigations have shown that inflammation and oxidative stress play a central role in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cardiac injury pathophysiology. Gum-resin extracts of Boswellia serrata have been traditionally used in folk medicine for centuries to treat various chronic inflammatory diseases. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of B. serrata pretreatment on LPS-induced cardiac damage in H9c2 cells. The cells were pretreated with various concentrations of B. serrata (5-45 μg/ml) for 24 h and then stimulated with LPS (10 μg/ml) for another 24 h. Afterward, the levels of cell viability, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, prostaglandin (PGE)-2, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, nitric oxide (NO) and glutathione (GSH) were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), real time-PCR or appropriated biochemical methods. Our results demonstrated that LPS treatment caused a remarkable decrease in cell viability and GSH, and on the contrary, it led to a significant increase in the levels of gene and protein expression of inflammatory markers and NO. However, pretreatment of B. serrata (5, 15, and 45 μg/ml) decreased the levels of TNF-α, PGE2, IL-1β, COX-2, iNOS, IL-6, and NO production, while cell viability and GSH levels were increased. Taken together, our results demonstrated that B. serrata might be a potential therapeutic agent against LPS and endotoxemia-induced cardiac injury, through its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Peritoneal lavage with Glycyrrhiza glabra is effective in preventing peritoneal adhesion in a rat model

BACKGROUND

Intraperitoneal adhesion formation is a significant problem following surgeries, resulting in substantial clinical and economic consequences. Glycyrrhiza glabra has several pharmacological properties consisting of anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, and immunomodulatory activities.

AIM

Therefore, we aimed to investigate the impacts of G. glabra on the development of post-operative abdominal adhesion in a rat model.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats weighing 200-250 g were divided into six groups (n = 8): Group 1: normal group (non-surgical), and the surgical groups including Group 2: control group received the vehicle, Group 3: G. glabra 0.5% w/v, Group 4: G. glabra 1% w/v, Group 5: G. glabra 2% w/v, and Group 6: dexamethasone, 0.4% w/v. The intra-abdominal adhesion was performed utilizing soft sterilized sandpaper on one side of the cecum, and the peritoneum was slightly washed with 2 ml of the extract or vehicle. In addition, macroscopic examination of adhesion scoring and the levels of inflammatory mediators [interferon (IFN)-γ, prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂)], fibrosis markers [interleukin (IL)-4, transforming growth factor (TGF)-ꞵ], and oxidative factors [malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide metabolites (NO), and reduced glutathione (GSH)] were evaluated. In vitro toxicities were also done on mouse fibroblast L929 and NIH/3T3 cell lines.

RESULTS

We found higher levels of adhesion (P < 0.001), IFN-γ(P < 0.001), PGE₂(P < 0.001), IL-4(P < 0.001), TGF-β(P < 0.001), MDA(P < 0.001), and NO(P < 0.001), and lower levels of GSH(P < 0.001) in the control group. In contrast, G. glabra concentration dependent and dexamethasone alleviated the levels of adhesion (P < 0.05), inflammatory mediators (P < 0.001-0.05), fibrosis (P < 0.001-0.05), and oxidative (P < 0.001-0.05) factors, while propagating the anti-oxidant marker (P < 0.001-0.05) in comparison to the control group. Results also showed that the extract did not significantly reduce cell viability up to 300 µg/ml (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

G. glabra could concentration-dependently mitigate peritoneal adhesion formation through its anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrosis, and anti-oxidant properties. However, further clinical investigations are required to approve that G. glabra may be a promising candidate against post-surgical adhesive complications.

Guaiazulene and related compounds: A review of current perspective on biomedical applications

BACKGROUND

Thousands of people worldwide pass away yearly due to neurological disorders, cardiovascular illnesses, cancer, metabolic disorders, and microbial infections. Additionally, a sizable population has also been impacted by hepatotoxicity, ulcers, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and breast fissure. These ailments are likewise steadily increasing along with the increase in life expectancy. Finding innovative therapies to cure and consequently lessen the impact of these ailments is, therefore, a global concern.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

All provided literature on Guaiazulene (GA) and its related compounds were searched using various electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Elsevier, Springer, ACS, CNKI, and books via the keywords Guaiazulene, Matricaria chamomilla, GA-related compounds, and Guaiazulene analogous.

RESULTS

The FDA has approved the bicyclic sesquiterpene GA, commonly referred to as azulon or 1,4-dimethyl-7-isopropylazulene, as a component in cosmetic colorants. The pleiotropic health advantages of GA and related substances, especially their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, attracted a lot of research. Numerous studies have found that GA can help to manage various conditions, including bacterial infections, tumors, immunomodulation, expectorants, diuretics, diaphoresis, ulcers, dermatitis, proliferation, and gastritis. These conditions all involve lipid peroxidation and inflammatory response. In this review, we have covered the biomedical applications of GA. Moreover, we also emphasize the therapeutic potential of guaiazulene derivatives in pre-clinical and clinical settings, along with their underlying mechanism(s).

CONCLUSION

GA and its related compounds exhibit therapeutic potential in several diseases. Still, it is necessary to investigate their potential in animal models for various other ailments and establish their safety profile. They might be a good candidate to advance to clinical trials.

Comparative study on the impacts of visnagin and its methoxy derivative khellin on human lymphocyte proliferation and Th1/Th2 balance

BACKGROUND

Visnagin is a phenolic and natural compound in turmeric and fenugreek, and its anti-inflammatory effect has been indicated. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate and compare the anti-inflammatory properties of visnagin and its methoxy derivative khellin on human lymphocytes.

METHODS

Human lymphocytes were treated with khellin, visnagin (10, 30, and 100 µM), and dexamethasone (0.1 mM) in the presence of phytohemagglutinin (PHA). The levels of cell proliferation, nitric oxide (NO), glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and MDA/GSH ratio were measured using biochemistry methods. Furthermore, the mRNA levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-4, and IL-10 were assessed using real-time PCR, while IFN-γ/IL-4(Th₁/Th₂), IFN-γ/IL-10(Th₁/T_reg), and IL-4/IL-10(Th₂/T_reg) ratios were made by dividing their exact values.

RESULTS

In the PHA-stimulated group, GSH and IFN-γ/IL-4 levels were markedly diminished, but other variables were significantly elevated compared to the control group. Khellin and visnagin significantly declined the levels of cell proliferation, MDA, MDA/GSH ratio, and NO production. Khellin and visnagin concentration-dependently diminished IFN-γ and IL-4 levels and increased IL-10 levels compared to the PHA-stimulated group. Two higher concentrations of khellin and visnagin (30 and 100 μM) considerably diminished the IFN-γ, IFN-γ/IL-10, and IL-4/IL-10 values compared to the PHA-stimulated group. However, 100 µM of khellin and visnagin significantly increased GSH level compared to the PHA-stimulated group.

CONCLUSIONS

In PHA-stimulated lymphocytes, representing Th₂ dominant allergic diseases, khellin and visnagin provides more specific anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory functions than dexamethasone. In addition, the effects of khellin were more prominent than visnagin.

A comprehensive and mechanistic review on protective effects of kaempferol against natural and chemical toxins: Role of NF-κB inhibition and Nrf2 activation

Different toxins, including chemicals and natural, can be entered from various routes and influence human health. Herbal medicines and their active components can attenuate the toxicity of agents via multiple mechanisms. For example, kaempferol, as a flavonoid, can be found in fruits and vegetables, and has an essential role in improving disorders such as cardiovascular disorders, neurological diseases, cancer, pain, and inflammation situations. The beneficial effects of kaempferol may be related to the inhibition of oxidative stress, attenuation of inflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and nuclear factor ĸB (NF-ĸB) as well as the modulation of apoptosis and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. This flavonoid boasts a wide spectrum of toxin targeting effects in tissue fibrosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress thus shows promising protective effects against natural and chemical toxin induced hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, lung, and intestinal in the in vitro and in vivo setting. The most remarkable aspect of kaempferol is that it does not focus its efforts on just one organ or one molecular pathway. Although its significance as a treatment option remains questionable and requires more clinical studies, it seems to be a low-risk therapeutic option. It is crucial to emphasize that kaempferol's poor bioavailability is a significant barrier to its use as a therapeutic option. Nanotechnology can be a promising way to overcome this challenge, reviving optimism in using kaempferol as a viable treatment agent against toxin-induced disorders.

Enhanced production of amyrin in Yarrowia lipolytica using a combinatorial protein and metabolic engineering approach

BACKGROUND

Amyrin is an important triterpenoid and precursor to a wide range of cosmetic, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical products. In this study, we metabolically engineered the oleaginous yeast, Yarrowia lipolytica to produce α- and β-amyrin on simple sugar and waste cooking oil.

RESULTS

We first validated the in vivo enzymatic activity of a multi-functional amyrin synthase (CrMAS) from Catharanthus roseus, by expressing its codon-optimized gene in Y. lipolytica and assayed for amyrins. To increase yield, prevailing genes in the mevalonate pathway, namely HMG1, ERG20, ERG9 and ERG1, were overexpressed singly and in combination to direct flux towards amyrin biosynthesis. By means of a semi-rational protein engineering approach, we augmented the catalytic activity of CrMAS and attained ~ 10-folds higher production level on glucose. When applied together, protein engineering with enhanced precursor supplies resulted in more than 20-folds increase in total amyrins. We also investigated the effects of different fermentation conditions in flask cultures, including temperature, volumetric oxygen mass transfer coefficient and carbon source types. The optimized fermentation condition attained titers of at least 100 mg/L α-amyrin and 20 mg/L β-amyrin.

CONCLUSIONS

The design workflow demonstrated herein is simple and remarkably effective in amplifying triterpenoid biosynthesis in the yeast Y. lipolytica.

Nigella sativa Oil Reduces LPS-Induced Microglial Inflammation: An Evaluation on M1/M2 Balance

Objectives

The immune system plays a critical defence role against infections, injuries, and carcinogenic stimuli. As the macrophages of the brain resides in the innate immune system, microglia and their polarisation (M₁/M₂) play regulatory roles in inflammation in CNS, such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, dementia complex, and multiple sclerosis. Nigella sativa belongs to the Ranunculaceae family and has different anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. We conducted this study to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and protective properties of N. sativa oil (NSO) on the microglial cells and their polarisation (M₁/M₂) in the presence of LPS as a model of neuroinflammation.

Methods

The protective effects of NSO (10–40 µg/ml) were studied on the LPS-induced microglial cells, and the levels of tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and IL-10 were evaluated using both ELISA and gene expression methods. The levels of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible NOS (iNOS), and arginase-1 (Arg1) were also evaluated using the real-time PCR method. In addition, nitrite oxide (NO) and urea were measured using biochemical methods.

Results

NSO decreased LPS-induced toxicity at all doses (P < 0.001). NSO (10–40 μg/ml) also significantly reduced the levels of TNF-α, PGE2, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the presence of LPS (P < 0.01 to 0.001). Pretreatment with NSO attenuated the levels of iNOS but increased Arg1 (P < 0.001). The ratio of iNOS/Arg1 was also decreased in the presence of NSO (P < 0.001) than that of the LPS group (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

NSO attenuated LPS-induced inflammation and increased microglia's anti-inflammatory status. These results may prove that NSO is potentially an immunomodulator for various neurodegenerative diseases by M1 phenotype dominancy, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

Natural Products as Novel Neuroprotective Agents; Computational Predictions of the Molecular Targets, ADME Properties, and Safety Profile

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are one of the most challenging public health issues. Despite tremendous advances in our understanding of NDs, little progress has been made in establishing effective treatments. Natural products may have enormous potential in preventing and treating NDs by targeting microglia; yet, there have been several clinical concerns about their usage, primarily due to a lack of scientific evidence for their efficacy, molecular targets, physicochemical properties, and safety. To solve this problem, the secondary bioactive metabolites derived from neuroprotective medicinal plants were identified and selected for computational predictions for anti-inflammatory activity, possible molecular targets, physicochemical properties, and safety evaluation using PASS online, Molinspiration, SwissADME, and ProTox-II, respectively. Most of the phytochemicals were active as anti-inflammatory agents as predicted using the PASS online webserver. Moreover, the molecular target predictions for some phytochemicals were similar to the reported experimental targets. Moreover, the phytochemicals that did not violate important physicochemical properties, including blood-brain barrier penetration, GI absorption, molecular weight, and lipophilicity, were selected for further safety evaluation. After screening 54 neuroprotective phytochemicals, our findings suggest that Aromatic-turmerone, Apocynin, and Matrine are the most promising compounds that could be considered when designing novel neuroprotective agents to treat neurodegenerative diseases via modulating microglial polarization.

On the Biomedical Properties of Endocannabinoid Degradation and Reuptake Inhibitors: Pre-clinical and Clinical Evidence

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is composed of endogenous cannabinoids; components involved in their synthesis, transport, and degradation; and an expansive variety of cannabinoid receptors. Hypofunction or deregulation of the ECS is related to pathological conditions. Consequently, endogenous enhancement of endocannabinoid levels and/or regulation of their metabolism represent promising therapeutic approaches. Several major strategies have been suggested for the modulation of the ECS: (1) blocking endocannabinoids degradation, (2) inhibition of endocannabinoid cellular uptake, and (3) pharmacological modulation of cannabinoid receptors as potential therapeutic targets. Here, we focused in this review on degradation/reuptake inhibitors over cannabinoid receptor modulators in order to provide an updated synopsis of contemporary evidence advancing mechanisms of endocannabinoids as pharmacological tools with therapeutic properties for the treatment of several disorders. For this purpose, we revisited the available literature and reported the latest advances regarding the biomedical properties of fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitors in pre-clinical and clinical studies. We also highlighted anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol reuptake inhibitors with promising results in pre-clinical studies using in vitro and animal models as an outlook for future research in clinical trials.

Chemical Constituents of Eupatorium japonicum and Anti-Inflammatory, Cytotoxic, and Apoptotic Activities of Eupatoriopicrin on Cancer Stem Cells

Eupatorium japonicum Thunb. of the plant family Asteraceae is a popular traditional herb in Vietnam. However, its chemical constituents as well as bioactive principles have not been investigated yet. We investigated the phytochemistry of E. japonicum in Vietnam and isolated seventeen compounds (1–17) including phytosterols, terpenoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, fatty alcohols, and fatty acids. They were structurally determined by MS and NMR analysis. Except for compounds 6 and 12, all the other compounds were identified for the first time from E. japonicum. Since many sesquiterpene lactones with α-methylene γ-lactone ring are reported as anti-inflammatory and anticancer agents, eupatoriopicrin (10), 1-hydroxy-8-(4,5-dihydroxytigloyloxy)eudesma-4(15),11(13)-dien-6,12-olide (11) were selected among the isolates for biological assays. Compound 10 was identified as the main bioactive sesquiterpene lactone of E. japonicum showing its potent anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity through inhibiting NO production and the growth of HepG2 and MCF-7 human cancer cell lines. For the first time, eupatoriopicrin (10) was demonstrated to strongly inhibit NTERA-2 human cancer stem cell (CSC) line in vitro. It is noticeable that the cytotoxicity of eupatoriopicrin against NTERA-2 cells is mediated by its apoptosis-inducing capability of 10 as demonstrated by the results of Hoechst 33342 staining, flow cytometry apoptosis analysis, and caspase-3 activity assays. The biological activities of the main bioactive constituents 1–7, 10, 12, and 15 supported the reported anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties of extracts from E. japonicum.

Immuno-modulatory effects of methanolic extract of Ferula szowitsiana on isolated human Th1/Th2/Treg cytokines levels, and their genes expression and nitric oxide production

BACKGROUND

Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidants activities of Ferula szowitsiana L. (F. szowitsiana) were shown in ancient texts and assayed by modern studies. However, immunomodulatory properties of the plant are poorly understood.

METHODS

The effects of F. szowitsiana extract (10, 40 and 160 µg/ml), dexamethasone and vehicle were investigated on nitric oxide (NO) level, cell proliferation, and cytokines (IL-4, IL10 and IFN-γ) expression at gene and protein levels in non-stimulated and phytohaemagglutinin-stimulated human lymphocytes (n = 15 in each group).

RESULTS

Cell proliferation, cytokines secretion, NO production and levels of genes expression were significantly inhibited but IFN-γ/IL-4 and IL-10/IL-4 ratios (T helper 1/Th2 and Treg/Th2 balances respectively) were increased by dexamethasone and all three concentrations of the extract compared to control group in stimulated lymphocytes (P < 0.001 for all cases). The effect of three concentrations of the extract in all experiments was significantly lower than dexamethasone (P < 0.001 for all cases).

CONCLUSION

The extract of F. szowitsiana concentration-dependently decreased NO level but increased Th₁/Th₂ and T_reg/Th₂ ratios toward Th₁ and T_reg. These results suggest the therapeutic potential of the plant's extract in inflammatory diseases with dominant Th2 polarization such as asthma or cancers.

Cytotoxicity and Pro-Apoptotic, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Geopropolis Produced by the Stingless Bee Melipona fasciculata Smith

Geopropolis is produced by some stingless bee species, such as Melipona fasciculata Smith, a native species from Brazil. This study aims to investigate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities and cytotoxicity effects of geopropolis hydroethanolic extracts against lung (H460 and A549) and ovarian (A2780 and ES2) cancer cell lines and non-tumor (HUVEC) cell lines using chemical identification by LC/MS/MS analysis and in silico assays to determine which compounds are associated with bioactivity. The antioxidant activity of extracts and inhibitory activity against COX enzymes were assessed by in vitro assays; cytotoxicity effect was evaluated by the MTT assay; cell cycle was assessed by flow cytometry and apoptosis by Western blotting. The geopropolis extracts showed great radical scavenging potential, preferential inhibition of COX-2, decreased cancer cell viability, non-cytotoxic effects against the non-tumoral cell line, besides modulating the cell cycle and inducing cancer cell apoptosis through the activation of caspase-3 and PARP protein cleavage. The in silico study suggests that corilagin, typhaneoside, taraxerone and marsformosanone, identified by LC/MS/MS, can be associated with anti-inflammatory activity and cytotoxic effects. Thus, the current study suggests the potential of geopropolis concerning the research field of new pharmacological alternatives regarding cancer therapy.

Ethnopharmacology of Fruit Plants: A Literature Review on the Toxicological, Phytochemical, Cultural Aspects, and a Mechanistic Approach to the Pharmacological Effects of Four Widely Used Species

Fruit plants have been widely used by the population as a source of food, income and in the treatment of various diseases due to their nutritional and pharmacological properties. The aim of this study was to review information from the most current research about the phytochemical composition, biological and toxicological properties of four fruit species widely used by the world population in order to support the safe medicinal use of these species and encourage further studies on their therapeutic properties. The reviewed species are: Talisia esculenta, Brosimum gaudichaudii, Genipa americana, and Bromelia antiacantha. The review presents the botanical description of these species, their geographical distribution, forms of use in popular medicine, phytochemical studies and molecules isolated from different plant organs. The description of the pharmacological mechanism of action of secondary metabolites isolated from these species was detailed and toxicity studies related to them were reviewed. The present study demonstrates the significant concentration of phenolic compounds in these species and their anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, photosensitizing properties, among others. Such species provide important molecules with pharmacological activity that serve as raw materials for the development of new drugs, making further studies necessary to elucidate mechanisms of action not yet understood and prove the safety for use in humans.

A Systematic Review on the Role of Arachidonic Acid Pathway in Multiple Sclerosis

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory neurodegenerative disease characterized by destruction of oligodendrocytes, immune cell infiltration and demyelination. Inflammation plays a significant role in MS, and the inflammatory mediators such as eicosanoids, leukotrienes, superoxide radicals are involved in pro-inflammatory responses in MS. In this systematic review we tried to define and discuss all the findings of in vivo animal studies and human clinical trials on the potential association between arachidonic acid (AA) pathway and multiple sclerosis.

METHODS

A systematic literature search across Pubmed, Scopus, Embase and Cochrane database was conducted. This systematic review was performed according to PRISMA guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of 146 studies were included, of which 34 were conducted in animals, 58 in humans, and 60 studies reported the role of different compounds that target AA mediators or their corresponding enzymes/ receptors, and can have a therapeutic effect in MS. These results suggest that eicosanoids have significant roles in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and MS. The data from animal and human studies elucidated that PGI2, PGF2α, PGD2, isoprostanes, PGE2, PLA2, LTs are increased in MS. PLA2 inhibition modulates the progression of the disease. PGE1 analogues can be a useful option in the treatment of MS.

CONCLUSIONS

All studies reported the beneficial effects of COX and LOX inhibitors in MS. The hybrid compounds, such as COX-2 inhibitors/TP antagonists and 5-LOX inhibitors can be an innovative approach for multiple sclerosis treatment. Future work in MS should shed light in synthesizing new compounds targeting arachidonic acid pathway.

The effects of hydro-ethanolic extract of Capparis spinosa (C. spinosa) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation and cognitive impairment: Evidence from in vivo and in vitro studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Capparis spinose (C. spinosa) belonging to Capparaeae, originates from dry areas in the west or central Asia and Mediterranean basin. For thousands of years, C. spinosa has been reported to be used as a therapeutic traditional medicine to relieve various ailments including rheumatism, pain and inflammatory diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

There are several studies mentioning that systemic inflammation results in learning and memory impairments through the activation of microglia. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of C. spinosa on both in vivo and in vitro models of neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment using lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vivo: 40 male rats were used in the present study. Cognitive impairment was induced using LPS (1 mg/kg/d; i.p.) for 4 weeks. Treatment with C. spinosa (100 and 300 mg/kg/d; p.o.) was performed 1 h before LPS administration. At the end of the experiment, rats were undergone for behavioral and biochemical analysis. In vitro: Primary microglia isolated from mouse was used in the present study. The cells were pretreated with C. spinosa extract (10-300 μg/ml) and then stimulated with LPS (1 μg/ml). The expression levels of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines were elucidated using Real-Time PCR and ELISA methods.

RESULTS

The escape latency in the Morris water maze test in the LPS group was significantly greater than the control group (p < 0.001), while, in extract-treated groups, it was less than the LPS group (p < 0.001). Additionally, we found that the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and iNOS/Arg-1 ratio was also significantly lower in extract-treated groups than the LPS group (p < 0.001). The results revealed that C. spinosa extract significantly reduced the levels of TNF-α, iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, NO and PGE2, and the ratios of iNOS/Arg-1 and NO/urea, following the LPS-induced inflammation in microglia (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our finding provides evidence that C. spinosa has a neuroprotective effect, and might be considered as an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases that are accompanied by microglial activation, such as AD.

Machaerium hirtum (Vell.) Stellfeld Alleviates Acute Pain and Inflammation: Potential Mechanisms of Action

Machaerium hirtum (Vell.) Stellfeld (Fabaceae) known in Brazil as “jacaranda de espinho” or “espinheira santa nativa” is a medicinal plant commonly used in folk medicine to treat ulcers, cough and diarrhea. This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of hydroalcoholic extracts from M. hirtum twig (HEMh) using in vivo experimental models of nociception through the involvement of transient receptor potential channels, acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC), nitrergic, opioidergic, glutamatergic, and supraspinal pathways. Our results revealed an antinociceptive effect of HEMh mediated by the opioidergic, l-arginine-nitric oxide and glutamate systems, as well as by interactions with TRPA1/ASIC channels. The anti-inflammatory effect of HEMh evaluated with a xylene-induced ear edema and by the involvement of arachidonic acid and prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂) showed involvement of the COX pathway, based on observed decreases in PGE₂ levels. A phytochemical investigation of the HEMh led to the isolation of α-amyrin, β-amyrin, allantoin, apigenin-7-methoxy-6-C-β-d-glucopyranoside, and apigenin-6-C-β-d-glucopyranosyl-8-C-β-d-xylopyranoside. In conclusion, the acute oral administration of HEMh inhibits the nociceptive behavioral response in animals through the nitrergic, opioid, glutamatergic pathways, and by inhibition of the TRPA1 and ASIC channels, without causing locomotor dysfunction. In addition, its anti-inflammatory effect is associated with the COX pathway and decreased PGE₂ levels.

Structural elucidation and in vivo anti-arthritic activity of β-amyrin and polpunonic acid isolated from the root bark of Ziziphus abyssinica HochstEx. A Rich (Rhamnaceae)

Two natural products, compounds 1 and 2 were isolated from the root bark of Ziziphus abyssinica for the first time and were structurally elucidated as β-amyrin and polpunonic acid, respectively. Both compounds were further subjected to an in vivo study in rats to evaluate their anti-arthritic potency. Compared to the arthritic control group, rats treated with different doses of 1 or 2 (3, 10, and 30 mg/kg) exhibited significantly higher total change in body weight as well as lower arthritic scores and total change in paw edema and erythema. Histopathological examinations of the hind paws of the rats further demonstrated the beneficial effects of both compounds as they significantly reversed cartilage erosion, subchondral cyst, and Weichselbaum's lacunae formation. Evidence of bone remodeling was also observed in all groups of rats treated with 1 or 2. Hematological and serum biochemical parameters were not significantly affected by treatment of 1 or 2. Taken together, the results from the present study suggest potential therapeutic benefit of β-amyrin and polpunonic acid in rheumatoid arthritis and related inflammatory disorders.

[In vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of chaya extracts (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst)]

Introduction

Introduction: noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are the main cause of death worldwide. Secondary metabolites from plant sources such as Cnidoscolus aconitifolius may be used as adjuvants in the prevention of diseases related to oxidative stress and inflammation such as NCDs. Objective: the in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities associated with biologically active compounds in C. aconitifolius extracts were evaluated. Method: the contents of phenols, flavonoids, flavonones and hydroflavonoles were determined. The potential antioxidant activity was determined with 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assays, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity. For anti-inflammatory activity quantitative PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests were used in macrophages derived from THP-1 monocytes and stimulated with LPS. Results: the aqueous extract recorded the highest phenolic content (70.61  0.07 g/100 g of extract), and the ethanolic extract registered the highest content in flavonoids (47.76  4.84 g/100 g of extract), flavonones and dihydroflavonoles (70.10  7.29 g/100 g of extract). The acetone extract obtained the highest DPPH inhibition (49.85 ± 5.30%), while the ethanolic extract showed the highest ABTS inhibition (41.01 ± 3.81%). The etanolic and aqueous extracts had the highest ACE inhibition. The ethanolic extract had the highest anti-inflammatory activity, decreasing gene expression for TNF- by 39.78% and for IL-6 by 97.81%, and their production by 46% and 48.38%, respectively, in macrophages stimulated with LPS. Conclusion: these extracts demonstrated in vitro their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential due to their content of bioactive compounds.

Crocin protects cardiomyocytes against LPS-Induced inflammation

BACKGROUND

Sepsis causes organ dysfunctions via elevation of oxidative stress and inflammation. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the major surface molecule of most gram-negative bacteria and routinely used as a sepsis model in investigation studies. Crocin is an active compound of saffron which has different pharmacological properties such as anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory. In this research, the protective effect of crocin was evaluated against LPS-induced toxicity in the embryonic cardiomyocyte cell line (H9c2).

METHODS

The cells were pre-treated with different concentration of crocin (10, 20 and 40 μM) for 24 h, and then LPS was added (10 μg/ml) for another 24 h. Afterward, the percentage of cell viability and the levels of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, PGE2, IL-1β, and IL-6), gene expression levels (TNF-α, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, and iNOS), and the level of nitric oxide (NO) and thiol were measured.

RESULTS

Our results showed that LPS reduced cell viability, increased the levels of cytokines, gene-expression, nitric oxide, and thiol. Crocin attenuated the LPS-induced toxicity in H9c2 cells via reducing the levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, PGE2, IL-1β, and IL-6, p < 0.001), gene expression (TNF-α, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, and iNOS, p < 0.001), and NO (p < 0.001), whereas increased the level of thiol content (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The observed results revealed that crocin has preventive effects on the LPS induced sepsis and its cardiac toxicity in-vitro model. Probably, these findings are related to anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of crocin. However, performing further animal studies are necessary to support the therapeutic effects of crocin in septic shock cardiac dysfunction.

Promising effects of purslane cream on the breast fissure in lactating women: A clinical trial

OBJECTIVES

The traditional uses of Portulaca oleracea L. (purslane) with anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activity as well as anti-oxidants properties were expressed previously. This is a double-blind randomized clinical trial to evaluate the protective effects of purslane cream on the nipple fissure.

METHODS

After expressing the goals and methods of the study and obtaining written consent from 86 lactating women with nipple fissure, they were randomly divided into two groups: 43 in purslane cream group and 43 in lanolin ointment group. The score of nipple fissure before the intervention and on the third and eighth day after the study was measured using the Stour scale.

RESULTS

The mean score of left and right breast fissures in the group of treatment with lanolin group similar to the group of treatment with purslane cream showed a significant decrease at the third day and eighth day (P=0.001). Mann-Whitney test comparing mean score of the fissure between two groups showed that two groups were homogeneous before the intervention, but there was a significant difference between two groups on the third and eighth days (p < 0.001). The recovery process occurred faster in the group of treatment with purslane cream.

CONCLUSION

We showed that the use of purslane cream without any complications could accelerate the repairing of nipple fissure. Based on this clinical trial, purslane cream (2% w/w) can be used as an accelerator for improving the nipple fissure in lactating women.

Cytotoxicity and apoptogenic properties of the standardized extract of Portulaca oleracea on glioblastoma multiforme cancer cell line (U-87): a mechanistic study

The traditional uses of Portulaca oleracea L. (PO) with anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activity as well as antioxidants properties were expressed previously. Glioma is considered the most common primary brain tumor and its malignant form is the most lethal adult brain tumor, that glioblastoma covers about 50 % of glioma tumors. The present study was aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity and apoptogenic effects of the hydro-ethanolic extract of PO on human glioblastoma cancer cell line (U-87) and the role of NF-κB. Cytotoxicity of the extract in the presence or absence of Vitamin C was evaluated using MTT assay, and the following hypotonic PI and SubG1 peak were performed. Moreover, the reactive oxygen species (ROS), the level of NF-κB protein and nitric oxide (NO) production were investigated. The extract had cytotoxicity and apoptogenic effects on U-87 cells in both the concentration and time-dependent manners. The mechanism of cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction of the extract at the first hours of incubation and low concentrations were dependent on ROS. However, the toxicity was replaced with NO pathway with time-lapse and higher concentrations. Results also indicated that the extract acts as an NF-κB inhibitor with concentration and time-dependent manners. The present study may suggest the anti-NF-κB activity of PO along with two upstream ROS and NO mechanisms. Furthermore, the extract as ethnobotanical may be used as adjunctive anti-cancer therapy against glioblastoma multiforme.

The Beneficial and Debilitating Effects of Environmental and Microbial Toxins, Drugs, Organic Solvents and Heavy Metals on the Onset and Progression of Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system is common amongst young adults, leading to major personal and socioeconomic burdens. However, it is still considered complex and challenging to understand and treat, in spite of the efforts made to explain its etiopathology. Despite the discovery of many genetic and environmental factors that might be related to its etiology, no clear answer was found about the causes of the illness and neither about the detailed mechanism of these environmental triggers that make individuals susceptible to MS. In this review, we will attempt to explore the major contributors to MS autoimmunity including genetic, epigenetic and ecological factors with a particular focus on toxins, chemicals or drugs that may trigger, modify or prevent MS disease.

Evaluation of the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of the methanolic extract of Ferula szowitsiana root on PHA-induced inflammation in human lymphocytes

Inflammation is defined as a defensive response of the body against either the endogenous or exogenous triggers, while this process becomes chronic leading to various disorders such as asthma, cancers, and multiple sclerosis. Recently, pharmacological properties of different constituents of F. szowitsiana have been reported. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of the methanolic extract of F. szowitsiana root on human isolated lymphocytes. The effects of either F. szowitsiana (10, 40 and 160 μg/ml) or dexamethasone (0.1 mM) were evaluated on the levels of cell proliferation, reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO) production, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities, and total glutathione content (GSH) as well as the secretion of inflammatory cytokines [interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α] in the presence or absence of phytohemagglutinin (PHA) stimulation (n = 8 for each group). PHA stimulation notably elevated ROS, NO, MDA, IL-6, and TNF-α levels as well as diminished GSH, CAT and SOD levels. In PHA-stimulated, the results also revealed that F. szowitsiana (10-160 µg/ml) significantly decreased MDA, ROS, NO, IL-6 and TNF-α levels as well as increased CAT, SOD and GSH levels. Collectively, F. szowitsiana is able to attenuate the overproduction of inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in the presence of PHA-stimulated T lymphocytes, while to propagate the anti-oxidative defense. Contextually, the plant has promising healing effects in the different inflammatory disorders associated with the interference of the acquired immune system such as multiple sclerosis and asthma.

Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Oxidant Activity of Portulaca oleracea Extract on LPS-Induced Rat Lung Injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are classified as two lung complications arising from various conditions such as sepsis, trauma, and lung inflammation. Previous studies have shown that the extract of the leaves of Portulaca oleracea (PO) possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities. In the present study, the effects of PO (50–200 mg/kg) and dexamethasone (Dexa; 1.5 mg/kg) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI were investigated. Subsequentially, the lung wet/dry ratio; white blood cells (WBC); levels of nitric oxide (NO); myeloperoxidase (MPO); malondialdehyde (MDA); thiol groups formation; super oxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities; and levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, IL-10, prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂), and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β in the broncho alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were evaluated in order to demonstrate the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of PO. Our results show that PO suppresses lung inflammation by the reduction of IL-β, IL-6, TNF-α, PGE₂, and TGF-β, as well as by the increase of IL-10 levels. We also found that PO improves the level of WBC, MPO, and MDA, as well as thiol group formation and SOD and CAT activities, compared with the LPS group. The results of our investigation also show that PO significantly decreased the lung wet/dry ratio as an index of interstitial edema. Taken together, our findings reveal that PO extract dose-dependently displays anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity against LPS-induced rat ALI, paving the way for rational use of PO as a protective agent against lung-related inflammatory disease.

Promising neuroprotective effects of β-caryophyllene against LPS-induced oligodendrocyte toxicity: A mechanistic study

Myelin loss subsequent to oligodendrocyte death has been reported in a variety of myelin-associated disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been shown to elicit cellular responses in the central nervous system (CNS) and trigger immune infiltrates and glial cells to release a variety of inflammatory cytokines and mediators. LPS-induced oligodendrocytes toxicity may be chosen as an efficient model to evaluate the role of oligodendrocytes in neuroprotective activities of compounds. β-Caryophyllene (BCP) is a selective type 2 cannabinoid (CB₂) receptor agonist. However, the mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of BCP are not completely understood. On this basis, we aimed to investigate the protective effects of a wide range of BCP concentrations against LPS-induced toxicity in a proliferative oligodendrocyte cell line (OLN-93) and evaluate the possible correlation between BCP concentration and selective modulation of CB₂, Nrf2, sphingomyelinase (SMase) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR)-γ signaling pathways. We found that LPS significantly increases the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO) metabolite and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production while decreases the level of GSH. BCP could prevent LPS-induced cytotoxicity and excessive production of NO, ROS, and TNF-α. Also, we demonstrated that BCP's protective effects against LPS-induced oligodendrocytes toxicity were mediated via the CB₂ receptor through different pathways including Nrf2/HO-1/anti-oxidant axis, and PPAR-γ, at low (0.2 and 1 µM), and high (10-50 µM) concentrations, respectively. Additionally, we observed that the addition of SMase inhibitors imipramine (IMP) and fluoxetine (FLX) synergistically increased the protective effects of BCP. Finally, BCP at low concentrations exerted promising protective effects that could be considered for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as MS. However, more studies using other models of neurodegenerative diseases should be undertaken to assess different parameters such as the activity or expression of SMase.

Immunomodulatory properties of captopril, an ACE inhibitor, on LPS-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis as well as oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

The role of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors on the inflammation process has been demonstrated previously. In the present study, the effects of captopril on lung injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were investigated.

METHODS

Control, LPS, 12.5, 25 and 50 mg/kg captopril-treated before LPS administration and captopril 50 mg/kg before saline administration groups of rats were studied. Total and percentage of differential WBC, the levels of MDA, total thiol groups, the activities of SOD and CAT, the levels of IFN-γ, PGE2, TGF-β1 and IL-4 in the BALF were evaluated.

RESULTS

MDA concentration in LPS groups treated with all captopril concentrations, total WBC in LPS + Cap50, percent of neutrophils in LPS + Cap25 and LPS + Cap50, levels of IFN-γ, PGE2, TGF-β1 in LPS + Cap50 and IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio in LPS + Cap25 and LPS + Cap50 were significantly decreased but total thiol groups and activity of SOD in LPS + Cap25 and LPS + Cap50, percent of lymphocyte, CAT activity and concentration of IL-4 only in LPS + Cap50 group were increased in comparison to the LPS group (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Captopril dose dependently improved oxidant-antioxidant biomarkers, the imbalance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines and showed specific immunomodulatory effect on Th1/Th2 balance in the BALF of lung injury induced by LPS.

A Review of the Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Phyllanthus urinaria L

The genus Phyllanthus (L.) is one of the most important groups of plants belonging to the Phyllantaceae family. Phyllanthus urinaria (L.) is an annual perennial herbal species found in tropical Asia, America, China, and the Indian Ocean islands. P. urinaria is used in folk medicine as a cure to treat jaundice, diabetes, malaria, and liver diseases. This review provides traditional knowledge, phytochemistry, and biological activities of P. urinaria. The literature reviewed for this article was obtained from the Web of Science, SciFinder, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar journal papers published prior to December 2017. Phytochemical investigations reveal that the plant is a rich source of lignans, tannins, flavonoids, phenolics, terpenoids, and other secondary metabolites. Pharmacological activities include anticancer, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and cardioprotective effects. Thus, this present review summarizes the phytochemical constituents and their biological activities including biological studies on various crude extracts and fractions both in vitro and in vivo, and on clinical trial information about P. urinaria. This review compiles 93 naturally occurring compounds from P. urinaria along with their structures and pharmacological activities. The review is expected to stimulate further research on P. urinaria, and its pharmacological potential to yield novel therapeutic agents.

A Systematic Review on Prevention and Treatment of Nipple Pain and Fissure: Are They Curable?

Averagely 80% to 90% of breastfeeding women experience the nipple pain and fissures. The important factor for successful breastfeeding is to treat this problem. This study has done as a review with the aim of analysis of the clinical trials in the field of the prevention and treatment of the nipple fissures and pain due to the importance of breastfeeding. For this purpose, the key words of sore, nipples, fissure, trauma, wound, prevention, treatment, therapeutics, therapy, clinical trial, breastfeeding and their Persian synonyms and all of their possible combinations were searched in the national databases: SID and Iran Medex and Magiran, and in the international databases: PubMed, Scopus, Medline, Science direct by May 2017. The Jadad criterion was used to assess the quality of the articles and the articles with a score of 3 or more were included in this study. Finally, 48 clinical trials were reviewed that 17 of them (sample size 1801) scored 3 or more based on the Jadad criterion. Seven articles were also in the non- drug treatment group (sample size 491) and 2 articles in the drug treatment group (sample size 337) and 8 articles in the herbal treatment group (sample size 973).The results show that menthol and warm water compress as well as teaching the correct breastfeeding methods are effective treatments to prevent and treat the nipple pain and fissures. Moreover, applying the herbal medicine for prevention and treatment of the issues raised from breastfeeding may have beneficial such as Aloe vera, Portulaca olearacea. However, more studies with a great methodology are necessary to obtain more accurate evidence.

Evaluation of the Sleep-Prolonging Effect of Lagenaria vulgaris and Cucurbita pepo Extracts on Pentobarbital-Induced Sleep and Possible Mechanisms of Action

Introduction: Sleeplessness is the most common sleep disorder. In this study, the hypnotic effect of macerated (HAME) and soxhlet (HASE) extract of Lagenaria vulgaris (fruit and seed) and Cucurbita pepo (fruit) were studied in mice. Methods: Extracts and fractions were administered intra-peritoneally (i.p.) in mice 30 min before the sodium pentobarbital (30 mg/kg, i.p.). Moreover, the influence of flumazenil or naloxone on the hypnotic effects of the extract and its toxic effects were evaluated. Results: The HAME and HASE of C. pepo prolonged the pentobarbital-induced sleep duration at dose of 200 mg/kg. The HAME of L. vulgaris (fruit) at dose of 200 mg/kg increased the sleeping time. The HAME and HASE of L. vulgaris (seed) increased sleep duration at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg. Besides, flumazenil (2 mg/kg) reversed the effects of both diazepam (P < 0.001 vs. diazepam group), 200 mg/kg of HAME of C. pepo and 50 mg/kg of HAME and HASE of L. vulgaris (seed). All fractions especially ethyl-acetate fraction (EAF) of L. vulgaris (seed) increased the sleep duration. Naloxone reversed the hypnotic effect of HAME and HASE of L. vulgaris (seed). The extracts showed no neurotoxic effects on PC12 and L929 cell lines. Conclusion: The results showed that L. vulgaris (seed and fruit) and C. pepo potentiated pentobarbital hypnosis without toxic influence. The hypnotic effects of L. vulgaris seed was greater than its fruit and C. pepo. The GABA and opioid receptors may play role in the sleep-induction of L. vulgaris seed.

An Improved Scalable Synthesis of α- and β-Amyrin

The synthesis of α- and β-amyrin was accomplished starting from easily accessible starting materials, oleanolic, and ursolic acid. The procedures allow the preparation of β-amyrin in an exceptionally short scalable manner via selective iodation and reduction. For α-amyrin, a different synthetic approach had to be chosen providing access to α-amyrin in medium-to-large scale.