Chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer: An update

Single-Cell Fluidic Force Spectroscopy Reveals Dynamic Mechanical Fingerprints of Malignancy in Breast Cancer

The interplay between cancer cell physical characteristics and metastatic potential highlights the significance of cancer cell mechanobiology. Using fluidic-based single-cell force spectroscopy (SCFS), quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D), and a model of cells with a spectrum of metastatic potential, we track the progression of biomechanics across the metastatic states by measuring cell-substrate and cell-to-cell adhesion forces, cell spring constant, cell height, and cell viscoelasticity. Compared to highly metastatic cells, cells in the lower spectrum of metastatic ability are found to be systematically stiffer, less viscoelastic, and larger. These mechanical transformations in cells within a cluster correlate with cells' metastatic potential but are significantly absent in single cells. Additionally, the response to chemotherapy is found to be highly dependent on cell viscoelastic properties in terms of both response time and magnitude. Shifts in cell softness and elasticity might serve as mechanoadaptive mechanisms during cancer cell metastasis, contributing to our understanding of metastasis and the effectiveness of potential therapeutic interventions.

Fabrication of folic acid-conjugated pyrimidine-2(5H)-thione-encapsulated curdlan gum-PEGamine nanoparticles for folate receptor targeting breast cancer cells

In this study 5-((2-((3-methoxy benzylidene)-amino)-phenyl)-diazenyl)-4,6-diphenyl pyrimidine-2(5H)-thione was synthesized. The pharmacological applications of pyrimidine analogs are restricted due to their poor pharmacokinetic properties. As a solution, a microbial exopolysaccharide (curdlan gum) was used to synthesize folic acid-conjugated pyrimidine-2(5H)-thione-encapsulated curdlan gum-PEGamine nanoparticles (FA-Py-CG-PEGamine NPs). The results of physicochemical properties revealed that the fabricated FA-Py-CG-PEGamine NPs were between 100 and 400 nm in size with a majorly spherical shaped, crystalline nature, and the encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity were 79.04 ± 0.79 %, and 8.12 ± 0.39 % respectively. The drug release rate was significantly higher at pH 5.4 (80.14 ± 0.79 %) compared to pH 7.2. The cytotoxic potential of FA-Py-CG-PEGamine NPs against MCF-7 cells potentially reduced the number of cells after 24 h with 42.27 μg × mL-1 as IC50 value. The higher intracellular accumulation of pyrimidine-2(5H)-thione in MCF-7 cells leads to apoptosis, observed by AO/EBr staining and flow cytometry analysis. The highest pyrimidine-2(5H)-thione internalization in MCF-7 cells may be due to folate conjugated on the surface of curdlan gum nanoparticles. Further, internalized pyrimidine-2(5H)-thione increases the intracellular ROS level, leading to apoptosis and inducing the decalin in mitochondrial membrane potential. These outcomes demonstrated that the FA-Py-CG-PEGamine NPs were specificity-targeting folate receptors on the plasma membranes of MCF-7 Cells.

Theranostics Using MCM-41-Based Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles: Integrating Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Novel Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer Treatment

Advanced breast cancer remains a significant oncological challenge, requiring new approaches to improve clinical outcomes. This study investigated an innovative theranostic agent using the MCM-41-NH2-DTPA-Gd3⁺-MIH nanomaterial, which combined MRI imaging for detection and a novel chemotherapy agent (MIH 2.4Bl) for treatment. The nanomaterial was based on the mesoporous silica type, MCM-41, and was optimized for drug delivery via functionalization with amine groups and conjugation with DTPA and complexation with Gd3+. MRI sensitivity was enhanced by using gadolinium-based contrast agents, which are crucial in identifying early neoplastic lesions. MIH 2.4Bl, with its unique mesoionic structure, allows effective interactions with biomolecules that facilitate its intracellular antitumoral activity. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the nanomaterial synthesis and effective drug incorporation, with 15% of MIH 2.4Bl being adsorbed. Drug release assays indicated that approximately 50% was released within 8 h. MRI phantom studies demonstrated the superior imaging capability of the nanomaterial, with a relaxivity significantly higher than that of the commercial agent Magnevist. In vitro cellular cytotoxicity assays, the effectiveness of the nanomaterial in killing MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells was demonstrated at an EC50 concentration of 12.6 mg/mL compared to an EC50 concentration of 68.9 mg/mL in normal human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). In vivo, MRI evaluation in a 4T1 syngeneic mouse model confirmed its efficacy as a contrast agent. This study highlighted the theranostic capabilities of MCM-41-NH2-DTPA-Gd3⁺-MIH and its potential to enhance breast cancer management.

An insight into the therapeutic effects of isoliquiritigenin in breast cancer

Breast cancer ranks as the most widespread malignant condition in women, emerging as a primary contributor to mortality. The primary challenges in cancer treatments involve undesirable side effects. Therefore, exploring natural compounds as additional therapy could provide valuable insights. Isoliquiritigenin (ILN), an isoflavonoid featuring a chalcone moiety primarily sourced from Glycyrrhiza species, has garnered increasing interest in breast cancer research. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of ILN's mechanisms of action in breast cancer, drawing from a range of in vitro and in vivo studies. ILN primarily acts by inhibiting angiogenesis, aromatase, inflammation, and cell proliferation, and preventing invasion and metastasis. Mechanistically, it downregulates miR-374a, phosphoinositide-3-kinase-protein kinase B/Akt, maternal embryonic leucine zipper kinase, vascular endothelial growth factor, and estrogen receptor protein levels, and causes enhancement of Wnt inhibitory factor-1, and Unc-51-like kinase 1 expression to treat breast cancer. ILN emerges as a promising natural option, offering therapeutic advantages with minimal side effects. However, it is important to note that current research on ILN is primarily limited to preclinical models, underscoring the need for further investigation to validate its potential efficacy.

Dietary interventions and tumor response to chemotherapy in breast cancer: A comprehensive review of preclinical and clinical data

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Optimizing treatment efficacy is still a critical part in advancing the treatment of breast cancer. Dietary interventions have drawn significant attention for their potential to increase tumor sensitivity, with a plethora of strategies evaluated both preclinically and clinically. The aim of this paper is to explore these strategies, ranging from entire dietary programs to specific supplements, for their potential to directly enhance tumor sensitivity and chemotherapy adherence.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, Embase and Web of Science databases were searched up to September 2023. In this comprehensive review, preclinical and clinical research on dietary interventions used in conjunction with chemotherapy for breast cancer was examined and synthesized, to identify potential causal mechanisms.

RESULTS

42 studies in total were identified and synthesized, 32 pre-clinical and 8 clinical studies.

CONCLUSION

Although a topic of intense interest, the heterogeneity in approaches has resulted in a large but minimally impactful evidence base, further complicated by a limited understanding of the mechanisms at play. This review highlights the areas for further research to increase opportunities for nutritional-based interventions as adjuvant to chemotherapy for breast cancer.

Diterpenoids from the Aerial Parts of Isodon serra with Selective Cytotoxic Activity

Four new diterpenoids, isodosins A-D (1-4), together with nine known compounds (5-13) were isolated and identified from the aerial parts of Isodon serra (Maxim.) Hara. The structures of the new diterpenoids were elucidated based on the analysis of HR-ESI-MS data, 1D/2D-NMR-spectroscopic data, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. Cytotoxicities of compounds 2, 3, 5, 6, and 9 against the HepG2 and H1975 cell lines were evaluated with the MTT assay. As a result, compounds 2, 3, and 6 revealed higher levels of cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells than against H1975 cells. Moreover, compund 6 demonstrated the most efficacy in inhibiting the proliferation of HepG2 cells, with an IC50 value of 41.13 ± 3.49 μM. This effect was achieved by inducing apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the relationships between the structures and activities of these compounds are briefly discussed.

A review of synthetic strategy, SAR, docking, simulation studies, and mechanism of action of isoxazole derivatives as anticancer agents

Breast cancer (BC) is a global health concern and the leading cause of cancerous death among women across the world, BC has been characterized by fresh lump in the breast or underarm (armpit), thickened or swollen. Worldwide estimated 9.6 million deaths in 2018-2019. Numerous drugs have been approved by FDA for BC treatment but showed numerous adverse effects like bioavailability issues, selectivity issues, and toxicity issues. Therefore, there is an immediate need to develop new molecules that are non-toxic and more efficient for treating cancer. Isoxazole derivatives have gained popularity over the few years due to their effective antitumor potential. These derivatives work against cancer by inhibiting the thymidylate enzyme, inducing apoptosis, inhibiting tubulin polymerization, protein kinase inhibition, and aromatase inhibition. In this study, we have concentrated on the isoxazole derivative with structure-activity relationship study, various synthesis techniques, mechanism of action, docking, and simulation studies pertaining to BC receptors. Hence the development of isoxazole derivatives with improved therapeutic efficacy will inspire further progress in improving human health.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Unveiling Alterations of Epigenetic Modifications and Chromatin Architecture Leading to Lipid Metabolic Reprogramming during the Evolutionary Trastuzumab Adaptation of HER2-Positive Breast Cancer

Secondary trastuzumab resistance represents an evolutionary adaptation of HER2-positive breast cancer during anti-HER2 treatment. Most current studies have tended to prioritize HER2 and its associated signaling pathways, often overlooking broader but seemingly less relevant cellular processes, along with their associated genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Here, transcriptome data is not only characterized but also examined epigenomic and 3D genome architecture information in both trastuzumab-sensitive and secondary-resistant breast cancer cells. The findings reveal that the global metabolic reprogramming associated with trastuzumab resistance may stem from genome-wide alterations in both histone modifications and chromatin structure. Specifically, the transcriptional activities of key genes involved in lipid metabolism appear to be regulated by variant promoter H3K27me3 and H3K4me3 modifications, as well as promoter-enhancer interactions. These discoveries offer valuable insights into how cancer cells adapt to anti-tumor drugs and have the potential to impact future diagnostic and treatment strategies.

Multifunctional metal-coordinated Co-assembled carrier-free nanoplatform based on dual-drugs for ferroptosis-mediated cocktail therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma growth and metastasis

The heterogeneity of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) pose challenges to efficient drug delivery and the antitumor efficacy of combined or synergistic therapies. Herein, a metal-coordinated carrier-free nanodrug (named as USFe3+ LA NPs) was developed for ferroptosis-mediated multimodal synergistic anti-HCC. Natural product ursolic acid (UA) was incorporated to enhance the sensitivity of tumor cells to sorafenib (SRF). Surface decoration of cell penetration peptide and epithelial cell adhesion molecule aptamer facilitated the uptake of USFe3+ LA NPs by HepG2 cells. Meanwhile, Fe3+ ions could react with intracellular hydrogen peroxide, generating toxic hydroxyl radical (·OH) for chemodynamical therapy (CDT) and amplified ferroptosis by cystine/glutamate antiporter system (System Xc-), which promoted the consumption of glutathione (GSH) and inhibited the expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4). Notably, these all-in-one nanodrugs could inhibit tumor metastasis and induced immunogenic cell death (ICD). Last but not least, the nanodrugs demonstrated favorable biocompatibility, augmenting the immune response against the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) by increasing cytotoxic T cell infiltration. In vivo studies revealed significant suppression of tumor growth and distant metastasis. Overall, our work introduced a novel strategy for applications of metal-coordinated co-assembled carrier-free nano-delivery system in HCC combination therapy, especially in the realms of cancer metastasis prevention and immunotherapy.

Tuning of the Anti-Breast Cancer Activity of Betulinic Acid via Its Conversion to Ionic Liquids

Betulinic acid (BA) is a natural pentacyclic triterpene with diverse biological activities. However, its low water solubility limits its pharmaceutical application. The conversion of pharmaceutically active molecules into ionic liquids (ILs) is a promising strategy to improve their physicochemical properties, stability, and/or potency. Here, we report the synthesis and characterization of 15 novel ILs containing a cation ethyl ester of a polar, non-polar, or charged amino acid [AAOEt] and an anion BA. Except for [ValOEt][BA], we observed preserved or up to 2-fold enhanced cytotoxicity toward hormone-dependent breast cancer cells MCF-7. The estimated IC50 (72 h) values within the series varied between 4.8 and 25.7 µM. We found that the most cytotoxic IL, [LysOEt][BA]2, reduced clonogenic efficiency to 20% compared to that of BA. In addition, we evaluated the effect of a 72 h treatment with BA or [LysOEt][BA]2, the most cytotoxic compound, on the thermodynamic behavior of MCF-7 cells. Based on our data, we suggest that the charged amino acid lysine included in the novel ILs provokes cytotoxicity by a mechanism involving alteration in membrane lipid organization, which could be accompanied by modulation of the visco-elastic properties of the cytoplasm.

An integrated approach to understand the regulatory role of miR-27 family in breast cancer metastasis

One of the prime reasons of increasing breast cancer mortality is metastasizing cancer cells. Owing to the side effects of clinically available drugs to treat breast cancer metastasis, it is of utmost importance to understand the underlying biogenesis of breast cancer tumorigenesis. In-silico identification of potential RNAs might help in utilizing the miR-27 family as a therapeutic target in breast cancer. The experimentally verified common interacting mRNAs for miR27 family are retrieved from three publicly available databases- TargetScan, miRDB and miRTarBase. Finally on comparing the common genes with HCMDB and GEPIA data, four breast cancer-associated differentially expressed metastatic mRNAs (GATA3, ENAH, ITGA2 and SEMA4D) are obtained. Corresponding to the miR27 family and associated mRNAs, interacting drugs are retrieved from Sm2mir and CTDbase, respectively. The interaction network-based approach was utilized to obtain the hub RNAs and triad modules by employing the 'Cytohubba' and 'MClique' plugins, respectively in Cytoscape. Further, sample-, subclass- and promoter methylation-based expression analyses reveals GATA3 and ENAH to be the most significant mRNAs in breast cancer metastasis having >10% genetic alteration in both METABRIC Vs TCGA datasets as per their oncoprint analysis via cBioPortal. Additionally, survival analysis in Oncolnc reveals SEMA4D as survival biomarker. Interactions among the miR27 family, their target mRNAs and drugs interacting with miRNAs and mRNAs can be extensively explored in both in-vivo and in-vitro setups to assess their therapeutic potential in the diminution of breast cancer.

Engineered triphenylphosphonium-based, mitochondrial-targeted liposomal drug delivery system facilitates cancer cell killing actions of chemotherapeutics

In addition to their classical role in ATP generation, mitochondria also contribute to Ca2+ buffering, free radical production, and initiation of programmed cell death. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked to several leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide including neurodegenerative, metabolic, and cardiovascular diseases as well as several cancer subtypes. Thus, there is growing interest in developing drug-delivery vehicles capable of shuttling therapeutics directly to the mitochondria. Here, we functionalized the conventional 10,12-pentacosadiynoic acid/1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PCDA/DMPC)-based liposome with a mitochondria-targeting triphenylphosphonium (TPP) cationic group. A fluorescent dansyl dye (DAN) group was also included for tracking mitochondrial drug uptake. The resultant PCDA-TPP and PCDA-DAN conjugates were incorporated into a 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC)-based lipid bilayer, and these modified liposomes (Lip-DT) were studied for their cellular toxicity, mitochondrial targeting ability, and efficacy in delivering the drug Doxorubicin (Dox) to human colorectal carcinoma (HCT116) and human breast (MCF7) cancer cells in vitro. This Lip-DT-Dox exhibited the ability to shuttle the encapsulated drug to the mitochondria of cancer cells and triggered oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis. The ability of Lip-DT-Dox to trigger cellular toxicity in both HCT116 and MCF7 cancer cells was comparable to the known cell-killing actions of the unencapsulated drug (Dox). The findings in this study reveal a promising approach where conventional liposome-based drug delivery systems can be rendered mitochondria-specific by incorporating well-known mitochondriotropic moieties onto the surface of the liposome.

Novel Strategies Using Sagacious Targeting for Site-Specific Drug Delivery in Breast Cancer Treatment: Clinical Potential and Applications

For more than a decade, researchers have been working to achieve new strategies and smart targeting drug delivery techniques and technologies to treat breast cancer (BC). Nanotechnology presents a hopeful strategy for targeted drug delivery into the building of new therapeutics using the properties of nanomaterials. Nanoparticles are of high regard in the field of diagnosis and the treatment of cancer. The use of these nanoparticles as an encouraging approach in the treatment of various cancers has drawn the interest of researchers in recent years. In order to achieve the maximum therapeutic effectiveness in the treatment of BC, combination therapy has also been adopted, leading to minimal side effects and thus an enhancement in the quality of life for patients. This review article compares, discusses and criticizes the approaches to treat BC using novel design strategies and smart targeting of site-specific drug delivery systems.

Human Serum Albumin-Oxaliplatin (Pt(IV)) prodrug nanoparticles with dual reduction sensitivity as effective nanomedicine for triple-negative breast cancer

Nanomedicines have emerged as a potential strategy to reduce the toxic effect of drugs administered via conventional approaches. Nanomedicines undergo passive and active targeting of the tumor tissues, thereby causing localized drug delivery and reducing drug demand and side effects. Here, we prepared reduction-sensitive oxaliplatin-conjugated human serum albumin nanoparticles with a small size, uniform surfaces, and a satisfactory encapsulation coefficient. The findings of cellular studies demonstrate that utilizing human serum albumin is effective for active tumor targeting. The presence of glutathione-sensitive disulfide linkers in the crosslinking agent and between Pt(IV) and HSA provided dual reduction sensitivity. Cytotoxicity and cell death were enhanced compared to free Oxaliplatin. The outcomes demonstrate that the approach maximized Oxaliplatin's ability to control tumor growth, induced apoptosis, and reduced drug resistance. Therefore, for the first time, our results imply that OXA-SS-HSA NPs were biocompatible, smart, and effective anticancer nanomedicine for triple-negative breast cancer therapy.

Recent Advances of Halloysite Nanotubes in Biomedical Applications

Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) have emerged as a highly regarded choice in biomedical research due to their exceptional attributes, including superior loading capacity, customizable surface characteristics, and excellent biocompatibility. HNTs feature tubular structures comprising alumina and silica layers, endowing them with a large surface area and versatile surface chemistries that facilitate selective modifications. Moreover, their substantial pore volume and wide range of pore sizes enable efficient entrapment of diverse functional molecules. This comprehensive review highlights the broad biomedical application spectrum of HNTs, shedding light on their potential as innovative and effective therapeutic agents across various diseases. It emphasizes the necessity of optimizing drug delivery techniques, developing targeted delivery systems, rigorously evaluating biocompatibility and safety through preclinical and clinical investigations, exploring combination therapies, and advancing scientific understanding. With further advancements, HNTs hold the promise to revolutionize the pharmaceutical industry, opening new avenues for the development of transformative treatments.

Thermo- and pH-responsive targeted lipid-coated mesoporous nano silica platform for dual delivery of paclitaxel and gemcitabine to overcome HER2-positive breast cancer

In the current study, a new monoclonal antibody conjugated dual stimuli lipid-coated mesoporous silica nanoparticles (L-MSNs) platform was developed and investigated for specific co-delivery of the paclitaxel (PTX) and gemcitabine (Gem) to cancer cells and preventing their side effects during the treatment process. First, MSNs were synthesized and then coated with as-prepared pH-, and thermo-sensitive niosomes to produce L-MSNs. For this aim, Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) was used to create thermo-sensitivity, and 1, 2-Distearoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphoethanolamine -Citraconic Anhydride-Polyethylene Glycol (DSPE-CA-PEG) polymers were prepared and incorporated to the lipid layer for creation of pH-sensitivity. In the next step, trastuzumab as a monoclonal antibody (mAb) was conjugated to the maleimide groups of the 1, 2-Distearoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphoethanolamine DSPE-polyethylene glycol (PEG)-maleimide agents in the lipid bilayer via a disulfide bond. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and zeta potential measurements, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were utilized to characterize the synthesized particles before and after surface modification. The encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and loading efficiency (LE%) of the particles were also evaluated. Additionally, the drug release study and MTT assay were done to evaluate the bioactivity potential of the fabricated platforms. The results of DLS and zeta potential measurements revealed an average size of 200 nm and a neutral zeta potential of about -1 mV for mAb-L-MSNs. Also, the FTIR spectra confirmed the formation of mAb-L-MSNs. Moreover, SEM analysis showed spherical-shaped MSNs with amorphous structure confirmed by XRD analysis, and BET test revealed ∼ 820 m2/g specific surface area and pore about 5 nm in size. The values of EE% and LE% of PTX were 90.3 % and 26.7 %, while these values for GEM were 89.5 % and 38.8 % in the co-loaded form, respectively. The thermo-pH-sensitivity examination showed approximately 500 nm of size increase after the change of pH and temperature from 7.4 and 37˚C to 5 and 42˚C. The release profile showed a pH-, and thermo-dependence manner, which led to about 89 % and 95 % of PTX and GEM released from the co-loaded platform at a pH of 5 and 42 °C while these values were 31.1 % and 32.2 % at pH of 7.4 and 37˚C, respectively. MTT assay data presented that when the mAb-L-co-loaded-MSNs platform containing 250 µg/mL drug was used, about 92 % of cells died in human epidermal receptors (HER2)-positive breast cancer cells (SKBR3), while just about 4 % of HER2-negative normal cells were killed. However, the growth inhibition rate of SKBR3 cells was caused by empty-mAb-L-MSNs, pure PTX and GEM combination were 9 % and 87 %, respectively. Moreover, the half inhibitory concentration (IC50) of the pure PTX, pure GEM, and mAb-coloaded-L-MSNs were 33, 17.6, and 6.5 µg/mL. The synergic effect of co-encapsulation of PTX and GEM in addition to trastuzumab conjugated L-MSNs was confirmed by a combinational index (CI) of 0.34. Therefore, this strategy leads to specific targeted drug delivery to cancer cells using a key-lock interaction between the trastuzumab and HER-2 receptors on the cancer cell membrane which stimuli the endocytosis of the particles to the cells followed by the destruction of the lipid layer in the acidic pH and the temperature of the lysosome, leading to enhanced release of PTX and GEM (pH of 5 and 42˚C). So, this platform can be considered a suitable carrier for cancer treatment.

Bibliometric analysis and visualization of endocrine therapy for breast cancer research in the last two decade

Background

Breast cancer endocrine therapy research has become a crucial domain in oncology since hormone receptor-positive breast cancers have been increasingly recognized, and targeted therapeutic interventions have been advancing over the past few years. This bibliometric analysis attempts to shed light on the trends, dynamics, and knowledge hotspots that have shaped the landscape of breast cancer endocrine therapy research between 2003 and 2022.

Methods

In this study, we comprehensively reviewed the scientific literature spanning the above-mentioned period, which included publications accessible through the database of the Web of Science (WOS) and the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Next, a systematic and data-driven analysis supported by sophisticated software tools was conducted, such that the core themes, prolific authors, influential journals, prominent countries, and critical citation patterns in the relevant research field can be clarified.

Results

A continuous and substantial expansion of breast cancer endocrine therapy research was revealed over the evaluated period. A total of 1,317 scholarly articles were examined. The results of the analysis suggested that research on endocrine therapy for breast cancer has laid a solid basis for the treatment of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. From a geographical perspective, the US, the UK, and China emerged as the most active contributors, illustrating the global impact of this study. Furthermore, our analysis delineated prominent research topics that have dominated the discourse in the past two decades, including drug therapy, therapeutic efficacy, molecular biomarkers, and hormonal receptor interactions.

Conclusion

This comprehensive bibliometric analysis provides a panoramic view of the ever-evolving landscape of breast cancer endocrine therapy research. The findings highlight the trajectory of past developments while signifying an avenue of vast opportunities for future investigations and therapeutic advancements. As the field continues to burgeon, this analysis will provide valuable guidance for to researchers toward pertinent knowledge hotspots and emerging trends, which can expedite the discoveries in the realm of breast cancer endocrine therapy.

Targeted delivery of epirubicin to cancerous cell using copper sulphide nanoparticle coated with polyarginine and 5TR1 aptamer

Chemotherapy has been widely acknowledged as a primary approach for cancer treatment. However, the administration of chemotherapy agents is often limited by their adverse effects that result from an inability to distinguish between healthy and malignant cells. As such, utilising nanocarriers in targeted drug delivery can significantly reduce these side effects while enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Herein, we developed copper sulphide nanoparticles (CuSNPs) loaded with epirubicin (Epi) coated by polyarginine and 5TR1 aptamer (CEPA) to target mucin-1 which is overexpressed on various types of cancer cells. MTT results revealed that CEPA significantly induced cytotoxicity of the drug in desired cell lines (C26 and MCF-7, mucin+) compared to CEPA-treated CHO cells (non-target, mucin-), verifying the targeting ability of CEPA complex. The obtained results from both flow cytometry analysis and cell imaging demonstrated that CEPA complex had successful internalisation in both target cell lines but no internalisation in CHO cell line. The result of in vivo assay showed more tumour inhibition and more accumulation in tumour tissue for CEPA complex in comparison to free Epi. To conclude, the CEPA complex has demonstrated superior efficacy and fewer adverse reactions compared to Epi. This indicates a promising and effective strategy for treating cancer.

MiR-138-5p improves the chemosensitivity of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line to paclitaxel

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapy is a predominant strategy for breast cancer (BC) treatment and paclitaxel (PTX) has been known as a conventional chemotherapeutic drug. However, insensitivity of BC cells to PTX limits the anti-tumor effects of this agent. MicroRNAs are closely related to BC which are suggested as therapeutic factors in the combination therapy of BC. We examined the possible efficacy of miR-138-5p restoration in combination with PTX to impove BC treatment.

METHODS

The human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 was transfected with miR-138-5p mimics and treated with PTX, in a combined or separate manner. The MTT assay was accomplished to determine inhibitory doses of PTX. Annexin V/PI assay and DAPI staining were applied to evaluate apoptosis. Flow cytometry was applied to determine cells arrested in different phases of the cell-cycle. Expression levels of molecular factors involved in cell migration, proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle were determined via western blotting and qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

MiR-138-5p combined with PTX suppressed cell migration via modulating MMP2, E-cadherin, and vimentin and sustained colony formation and proliferation by downregulation of the PI3K/AKT pathway. qRT-PCR showed that miR-138-5p increases BC chemosensitivity to PTX by regulating the apoptosis factors, including Bcl-2, Bax, Caspase 3, and Caspase 9. Moreover, miR-138-5p restoration and paclitaxel therapy combined arrest the cells in the sub-G1 and G1 phases of cell cycle by regulating p21, CCND1, and CDK4.

CONCLUSIONS

Restored miR-138-5p intensified the chemosensitivity of MDA-MB-231 cell line to PTX, and the combination of miR-138-5p with PTX might represent a novel approach in BC treatment.

New SDS-Based Polyelectrolyte Multicore Nanocarriers for Paclitaxel Delivery-Synthesis, Characterization, and Activity against Breast Cancer Cells

The low distribution of hydrophobic anticancer drugs in patients is one of the biggest limitations during conventional chemotherapy. SDS-based polyelectrolyte multicore nanocarriers (NCs) prepared according to the layer by layer (LbL) procedure can release paclitaxel (PTX), and selectively kill cancer cells. Our main objective was to verify the antitumor properties of PTX-loaded NCs and to examine whether the drug encapsulated in these NCs retained its cytotoxic properties. The cytotoxicity of the prepared nanosystems was tested on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 tumour cells and the non-cancerous HMEC-1 cell line in vitro. Confocal microscopy, spectrophotometry, spectrofluorimetry, flow cytometry, and RT PCR techniques were used to define the typical hallmarks of apoptosis. It was demonstrated that PTX encapsulated in the tested NCs exhibited similar cytotoxicity to the free drug, especially in the triple negative breast cancer model. Moreover, SDS/PLL/PTX and SDS/PLL/PGA/PTX significantly reduced DNA synthesis. In addition, PTX-loaded NCs triggered apoptosis and upregulated the transcription of Bax, AIF, cytochrome-c, and caspase-3 mRNA. Our data demonstrate that these novel polyelectrolyte multicore NCs coated with PLL or PLL/PGA are good candidates for delivering PTX. Our discoveries have prominent implications for the possible choice of newly synthesized, SDS-based polyelectrolyte multicore NCs in different anticancer therapeutic applications.

A Comprehensive Pan-Cancer Analysis Identifies CEP55 as a Potential Oncogene and Novel Therapeutic Target

Emerging research findings have shown that a centrosomal protein (CEP55) is a potential oncogene in numerous human malignancies. Nevertheless, no pan-cancer analysis has been conducted to investigate the various aspects and behavior of this oncogene in different human cancerous tissues. Numerous databases were investigated to conduct a detailed analysis of CEP55. Initially, we evaluated the expression of CEP55 in several types of cancers and attempted to find the correlation between that and the stage of the examined malignancies. Then, we conducted a survival analysis to determine the relationship between CEP55 overexpression in malignancies and the patient's survival. Furthermore, we examined the genetic alteration forms and the methylation status of this oncogene. Additionally, the interference of CEP55 expression with immune cell infiltration, the response to various chemotherapeutic agents, and the putative molecular mechanism of CEP55 in tumorigenesis were investigated. The current study found that CEP55 was upregulated in cancerous tissues versus normal controls where this upregulation was correlated with a poor prognosis in multiple forms of human cancers. Additionally, it influenced the level of different immune cell infiltration and several chemokines levels in the tumor microenvironment in addition to the response to several antitumor drugs. Herein, we provide an in-depth understanding of the oncogenic activities of CEP55, identifying it as a possible predictive marker as well as a specific target for developing anticancer therapies.

In Vitro and In Vivo Effects of Ulvan Polysaccharides from Ulva rigida

One of the main bioactive compounds of interest from the Ulva species is the sulfated polysaccharide ulvan, which has recently attracted attention for its anticancer properties. This study investigated the cytotoxic activity of ulvan polysaccharides obtained from Ulva rigida in the following scenarios: (i) in vitro against healthy and carcinogenic cell lines (1064sk (human fibroblasts), HACAT (immortalized human keratinocytes), U-937 (a human leukemia cell line), G-361 (a human malignant melanoma), and HCT-116 (a colon cancer cell line)) and (ii) in vivo against zebrafish embryos. Ulvan exhibited cytotoxic effects on the three human cancer cell lines tested. However, only HCT-116 demonstrated sufficient sensitivity to this ulvan to make it relevant as a potential anticancer treatment, presenting an LC₅₀ of 0.1 mg mL^-1. The in vivo assay on the zebrafish embryos showed a linear relationship between the polysaccharide concentration and growth retardation at 7.8 hpf mL mg^-1, with an LC₅₀ of about 5.2 mg mL^-1 at 48 hpf. At concentrations near the LC₅₀, toxic effects, such as pericardial edema or chorion lysis, could be found in the experimental larvae. Our in vitro study supports the potential use of polysaccharides extracted from U. rigida as candidates for treating human colon cancer. However, the in vivo assay on zebrafish indicated that the potential use of ulvan as a promising, safe compound should be limited to specific concentrations below 0.001 mg mL^-1 since it revealed side effects on the embryonic growth rate and osmolar balance.

Identification of Flavone Derivative Displaying a 4'-Aminophenoxy Moiety as Potential Selective Anticancer Agent in NSCLC Tumor Cells

Five heterocyclic derivatives were synthesized by functionalization of a flavone nucleus with an aminophenoxy moiety. Their cytotoxicity was investigated in vitro in two models of human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells (A549 and NCI-H1975) by using MTT assay and the results compared to those obtained in healthy fibroblasts as a non-malignant cell model. One of the aminophenoxy flavone derivatives (APF-1) was found to be effective at low micromolar concentrations in both lung cancer cell lines with a higher selective index (SI). Flow cytometric analyses showed that APF-1 induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase through the up-regulation of p21 expression. Therefore, the aminophenoxy flavone-based compounds may be promising cancer-selective agents and could serve as a base for further research into the design of flavone-based anticancer drugs.

The role of Th-17 cells and IL-17 in the metastatic spread of breast cancer: As a means of prognosis and therapeutic target

Metastatic breast cancer is one of the most common and well-known causes of death for women worldwide. The inflammatory tumor cell and other cancer hallmarks dictate the metastatic form and dissemination of breast cancer. Taking these into account, from various components of the tumor microenvironment, a pro-inflammatory infiltrative cell known as Th-17 plays an immense role in breast cancer proliferation, invasiveness, and metastasis. It has been demonstrated that IL-17, a pleiotropic pro-inflammatory cytokine generated by Th-17, is upregulated in a metastatic form of breast cancer. Recent research updates stated that chronic inflammation and mediators like cytokines and chemokines are causative hallmarks in many human cancers, including breast cancer. Therefore, IL-17 and its multiple downward signaling molecules are the centers of research attention to develop potent treatment options for cancer. They provide information on the role of IL-17-activated MAPK, which results in tumor cell proliferation and metastasis via NF-kB-mediated expression of MMP signaling. Overall, this review article emphasizes IL-17A and its intermediate signaling molecules, such as ERK1/2, NF-kB, MMPs, and VEGF, as potential molecular targets for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer.

Conversion of ER and HER2 status after neoadjuvant therapy in Chinese breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Few studies have focused on converting ER-low-positive and HER2-low status following neoadjuvant therapy (NAT). We aimed to assess the evolution in ER and HER2 status after NAT in breast cancer patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Our study included 481 patients with residual invasive breast cancer after NAT. ER and HER2 status were assessed in the primary tumor and residual disease, and associations between ER and HER2 conversion and clinicopathological factors were explored.

RESULTS

In primary tumors, 305 (63.4%) cases were ER-positive (including 36 cases of ER-low-positive), 176 (36.6%) were ER-negative. In residual disease, ER status changed in 76 (15.8%) cases, of which 69 cases switched from positive to negative. ER-low-positive tumors (31/36) were the most likely to change. In primary tumors, 140 (29.1%) tumors were HER2-positive, and 341 (70.9%) were HER2-negative (including 209 cases of HER2-low and 132 cases of HER2-zero). In residual disease, 25 (5.2%) cases had HER2 conversion between positive and negative. Considering HER2-low status, 113 (23.5%) cases had HER2 conversion, mostly driven by cases switching either to or from HER2-low. ER conversion had a positive correlation with pretreatment ER status (r = 0.25; P = .00). There was a positive correlation between HER2 conversion and HER2-targeted therapy (r = 0.18; P = .00).

CONCLUSION

Conversion of ER and HER2 status was observed in some breast cancer patients after NAT. Both ER-low-positive and HER2-low tumors showed high instability from the primary tumor to residual disease. ER and HER2 status should be retested in residual disease for further treatment decisions, especially in ER-low-positive and HER2-low breast cancer.

Estradiol Levels and Chemotherapy in Breast Cancer Patients: A Prospective Clinical Study

Background

Breast cancer remains a global health issue, including in Indonesia, which has a relatively high incidence of breast cancer. Several theories have proved the role of estrogen in breast cancer carcinogenesis, but there is yet to be a preventive measure against breast cancer. Chemotherapy is one of the therapeutic modalities for breast cancer that disturbs ovarian function in producing estrogen due to damaged ovarian granulosa cells. Chemotherapy becomes an alternative option to decreasing circulating estradiol levels through interventions in ovarian functions, either by surgery, such as oophorectomy, or medications that disturb the ovarian functions. This study aimed to observe the estradiol levels in breast cancer patients before and after chemotherapy.

Methods

This was a prospective cohort study. We observed the estradiol levels before and after adjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer patients. Subjects' characteristics are presented in mean ± standard deviation, distribution frequency, and percentage. Subjects' characteristics based on chemotherapy were tested using an independent t-test, Mann-Whitney U, and Chi-square/Fisher exact test. Effects of chemotherapy on estrogen levels were tested using the Wilcoxon rank test and Kruskal-Wallis test.

Results

A total of 194 research subjects were included. There were changes in estradiol levels before and after therapy. The decrease of estradiol levels in patients who did not receive chemotherapy was -6.9% (P > 0.05). Patients who received anthracycline cyclophosphamide (AC) regimen, paclitaxel and anthracycline (TA) regimen, paclitaxel, anthracycline and trastuzumab (TA + H) regimen, and platinum regimen experienced a significant decrease in estradiol levels (-21.4% (P < 0.05), -20.2% (P < 0.001), -31.7% (P < 0.01), and -23.7% (P < 0.05), respectively). Among chemotherapy groups, the estradiol levels before and after chemotherapy did not have significant differences (P = 0.937 and P = 0.730, respectively).

Conclusion

There are no significant differences in estradiol levels between chemotherapy and hormonal therapy groups. Patients in both groups have decreased estradiol levels after therapy, although patients in hormonal therapy do not experience as much decrease as those in chemotherapy.

Will the Interactions of Some Platinum (II)-Based Drugs with B-Vitamins Reduce Their Therapeutic Effect in Cancer Patients? Comparison of Chemotherapeutic Agents such as Cisplatin, Carboplatin and Oxaliplatin-A Review

Pt (II) derivatives show anti-cancer activity by interacting with nucleobases of DNA, thus causing some spontaneous and non-spontaneous reactions. As a result, mono- and diaqua products are formed which further undergo complexation with guanine or adenine. Consequently, many processes are triggered, which lead to the death of the cancer cell. The theoretical and experimental studies confirm that such types of interactions can also occur with other chemical compounds. The vitamins from B group have a similar structure to the nucleobases of DNA and have aromatic rings with single-pair orbitals. Theoretical and experimental studies were performed to describe the interactions of B vitamins with Pt (II) derivatives such as cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin. The obtained results were compared with the values for guanine. Two levels of simulations were implemented at the theoretical level, namely, B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) with LANL2DZ bases set for platinum atoms and MN15/def2-TZVP. The polarizable continuum model (IEF-PCM preparation) and water as a solvent were used. UV-Vis spectroscopy was used to describe the drug-nucleobase and drug-B vitamin interactions. Values of the free energy (ΔG_r) show spontaneous reactions with mono- and diaqua derivatives of cisplatin and oxaliplatin; however, interactions with diaqua derivatives are more preferable. The strength of these interactions was also compared. Carboplatin products have the weakest interaction with the studied structures. The presence of non-covalent interactions was demonstrated in the tested complexes. A good agreement between theory and experiment was also demonstrated.

Targeting Src reactivates pyroptosis to reverse chemoresistance in lung and pancreatic cancer models

Pancreatic and lung cancers frequently develop resistance to chemotherapy-induced cell apoptosis during the treatment, indicating that targeting nonapoptotic-related pathways, such as pyroptosis, can be an alternative cancer treatment strategy. Pyroptosis is a gasdermin-driven lytic programmed cell death triggered by inflammatory caspases when initiated by canonical or noncanonical pathways that has been recently seen as a potential therapeutic target in cancer treatment. However, overcoming chemoresistance in cancers by modulating pyroptosis has not been explored. Here, we demonstrate that β5-integrin represses chemotherapy-induced canonical pyroptosis to confer cancer chemoresistance through ASAH2-driven sphingolipid metabolic reprogramming. Clinically, high β5-integrin expression associates with poor patient prognosis and chemotherapeutic responses in cancers. In addition, chemoresistant cells in vitro fail to undergo chemotherapy-induced pyroptosis, which is controlled by β5-integrin. Mechanistically, proteomic and lipidomic analyses indicate that β5-integrin up-regulates sphingolipid metabolic enzyme ceramidase (ASAH2) expression through Src-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling, which then reduces the metabolite ceramide concentration and subsequent ROS production to prohibit chemotherapy-induced canonical pyroptosis. Using cancer cell lines, patient-derived tumor organoids, and orthotopic lung and pancreatic animal models, we show that administration of a Src or ceramidase inhibitor rescues the response of chemoresistant pancreatic and lung cancer cells to chemotherapy by reactivating pyroptosis in vitro and in vivo. Overall, our results suggest that pyroptosis-based therapy is a means to improve cancer treatment and warrants further investigation.

Prime Editing: An Emerging Tool in Cancer Treatment

Prime Editing is a CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) based genome editing technique having promising potential in terms of reducing off target activity. It introduces fragments of DNA sequences into the target site using a guide RNA (gRNA) molecule, composed of both the sequence that is to be inserted into the target site along with an inactive Cas9 nickase and a reverse transcriptase. Prime Editing can cause insertions, deletions, and various point mutations for reverting the phenetic characteristics of a disease specially tested in human adult stem cells and cancer cell lines. The main aim of our review is to explore how Prime Editing and its various forms are being utilized as an emerging tool to cure deleterious diseases like cancer, also as a delivery strategy of the tool into cells. There are almost five generations of Prime Editors (PE) with increasing levels of efficiency from one level to another that have huge clinical potential in correcting mutations; however, the necessity for a pegRNA design is extremely significant. But besides having such advantages, the limitations of this technology particularly include generation of double nicks while optimizing the efficiency of PE3. So, it is important to consider all such consequences and customize PE as per requirements.

Studies on 1,4-Quinone Derivatives Exhibiting Anti-Leukemic Activity along with Anti-Colorectal and Anti-Breast Cancer Effects

Colorectal cancer (CRC), breast cancer, and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) are life-threatening malignancies worldwide. Although potent therapeutic and screening strategies have been developed so far, these cancer types are still major public health problems. Therefore, the exploration of more potent and selective new agents is urgently required for the treatment of these cancers. Quinones represent one of the most important structures in anticancer drug discovery. We have previously identified a series of quinone-based compounds (ABQ-1-17) as anti-CML agents. In the current work, ABQ-3 was taken to the National Cancer Institute (NCI) for screening to determine its in vitro antiproliferative effects against a large panel of human tumor cell lines at five doses. ABQ-3 revealed significant growth inhibition against HCT-116 CRC and MCF-7 breast cancer cells with 2.00 µM and 2.35 µM GI₅₀ values, respectively. The MTT test also showed that ABQ-3 possessed anticancer effects towards HCT-116 and MCF-7 cells with IC₅₀ values of 5.22 ± 2.41 μM and 7.46 ± 2.76 μM, respectively. Further experiments indicated that ABQ-3 induced apoptosis in both cell lines, and molecular docking studies explicitly suggested that ABQ-3 exhibited DNA binding in a similar fashion to previously reported compounds. Based on in silico pharmacokinetic prediction, ABQ-3 might display drug-like features enabling this compound to become a lead molecule for future studies.

Cytotoxicity towards Breast Cancer Cells of Pluronic F-127/Hyaluronic Acid Hydrogel Containing Nitric Oxide Donor and Silica Nanoparticles Loaded with Cisplatin

The incorporation of both nitric oxide (NO) donor (S-nitrosoglutathione, GSNO) and silica nanoparticles loaded with cisplatin (SiO₂@CisPt NPs) into a polymeric matrix represents a suitable approach to creating a drug-delivery system with sustained and localized drug release against tumor cells. Herein, we report the synthesis, characterization, and cytotoxicity evaluation of Pluronic F-127/hyaluronic acid hydrogel containing GSNO and SiO₂@CisPt NPs against breast cancer cells. SiO₂@CisPt NPs were successfully synthesized, revealing a spherical morphology with an average size of 158 ± 20 nm. Both GSNO and SiO₂@CisPt NPs were incorporated into the thermoresponsive Pluronic/hyaluronic hydrogel for sustained and localized release of both NO and cisplatin. The kinetics of NO release from a hydrogel matrix revealed spontaneous and sustained release of NO at the millimolar range for 24 h. The MTT assay showed concentration-dependent cytotoxicity of the hydrogel. The combination of GSNO and SiO₂@CisPt incorporated into a polymeric matrix decreased the cell viability 20% more than the hydrogel containing only GSNO or SiO₂@CisPt. At 200 µg/mL, this combination led to a critical cell viability of 30%, indicating a synergistic effect between GSNO and SiO₂@CisPt NPs in the hydrogel matrix, and, therefore, highlighting the potential application of this drug-delivery system in the field of biomedicine.

Promoter hypomethylation and overexpression of TSTD1 mediate poor treatment response in breast cancer

Epigenetic alterations play a pivotal role in cancer treatment outcomes. Using the methylation array data and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset, we observed the hypomethylation and upregulation of thiosulfate sulfurtransferase–like domain containing 1 (TSTD1) in patients with breast cancer. We examined paired tissues from Taiwanese patients and observed that 65.09% and 68.25% of patients exhibited TSTD1 hypomethylation and overexpression, respectively. A significant correlation was found between TSTD1 hypomethylation and overexpression in Taiwanese (74.2%, p = 0.040) and Western (88.0%, p < 0.001) cohorts. High expression of TSTD1 protein was observed in 68.8% of Taiwanese and Korean breast cancer patients. Overexpression of TSTD1 in tumors of breast cancer patients was significantly associated with poor 5-year overall survival (p = 0.021) and poor chemotherapy response (p = 0.008). T47D cells treated with TSTD1 siRNA exhibited lower proliferation than the control group, and transfection of TSTD1 in MDA-MB-231 induced the growth of MDA-MB-231 cells compared to the vector control. Additionally, overexpression of TSTD1 in MCF7 cells mediated a poor response to chemotherapy by epirubicin (p < 0.001) and docetaxel (p < 0.001) and hormone therapy by tamoxifen (p =0.025). Circulating cell-free hypomethylated TSTD1 was detected in plasma of Taiwanese breast cancer patients with disease progression and poor chemotherapy efficacy. Our results indicate that promoter hypomethylation and overexpression of TSTD1 in patients with breast cancer are potential biomarkers for poor 5-year overall survival and poor treatment response.

Nano-Clays for Cancer Therapy: State-of-the Art and Future Perspectives

To date, cancer continues to be one of the deadliest diseases. Current therapies are often ineffective, leading to the urgency to develop new therapeutic strategies to improve treatments. Conventional chemotherapeutics are characterized by a reduced therapeutic efficacy, as well as them being responsible for important undesirable side effects linked to their non-specific toxicity. In this context, natural nanomaterials such as clayey mineral nanostructures of various shapes (flat, tubular, spherical and fibrous) with adjustable physico-chemical and morphological characteristics are emerging as systems with extraordinary potential for the delivery of different therapeutic agents to tumor sites. Thanks to their submicron size, high specific surface area, high adsorption capacity, chemical inertia and multilayer organization of 0.7 to 1 nm-thick sheets, they have aroused considerable interest among the scientific community as nano systems that are highly biocompatible in cancer therapy. In oncology, the nano-clays usually studied are halloysite, bentonite, laponite, kaolinite, montmorillonite and sepiolite. These are multilayered minerals that can act as nanocarriers (with a drug load generally between 1 and 10% by weight) for improved stabilization, efficient transport and the sustained and controlled release of a wide variety of anticancer agents. In particular, halloysite, montmorillonite and kaolinite are used to improve the dissolution of therapeutic agents and to delay and/or direct their release. In this review, we will examine and expose to the scientific community the extraordinary potential of nano-clays as unique crystalline systems in the treatment of cancer.

Regulation of mitochondrial fusion and mitophagy by intra-tumoral delivery of membrane-fused mitochondria or Midiv-1 enhances sensitivity to doxorubicin in triple-negative breast cancer

Increasing mitochondrial fusion by intra-tumoral grafting of membrane-fused mitochondria created with Pep-1 conjugation (P-Mito) contributes to breast cancer treatment, but it needs to be validated. Using mitochondrial division inhibitor-1 (Mdivi-1, Mdi) to disturb mitochondrial dynamics, we showed that the antitumor action of P-Mito in a mouse model of triple-negative breast cancer depends upon mitochondrial fusion and that Mdi treatment alone is ineffective. P-Mito significantly enhanced Doxorubicin (Dox) sensitivity by inducing mitochondrial fusion and mitophagy, and the same efficiency was also achieved with Mdi by inhibiting mitophagy. Cell death was induced via the p53 pathway and AIF nuclear translocation in the case of P-Mito, versus the caspase-dependent pathway for Mdi. Notably, both mitochondrial treatments reduced oxidative stress and blood vessel density of xenograft tumors, especially P-Mito, which was accompanied by inhibition of nuclear factor kappa-B activation. Furthermore, through enrichment analysis, four microRNAs in serum microvesicles induced by P-Mito caused expression of predicted targets via the PI3K-Akt pathway, and significantly impacted regulation of nuclear processes and myeloid cell differentiation. Clustering of gene-sets implicated a major steroid catabolic network. This study showed diverse roles of mitochondria in breast cancer and revealed effective adjuvant therapy targeting mitochondrial fusion and mitophagy.

In Vitro and In Silico Study to Assess Toxic Mechanisms of Hybrid Molecules of Quinone-Benzocaine as Plastoquinone Analogues in Breast Cancer Cells

We managed to obtain three different series of 2,3-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinones, named nonhalogenated and halogenated (brominated and chlorinated) PQ analogues, via the molecular hybridization strategy. Sixteen of eighteen hybrid molecules were selected by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) of Bethesda for their in vitro antiproliferative potential against the full NCI 60 cell line panel. The hybrid molecules (BrPQ5, CIPQ1, and CIPQ3) showed good growth inhibition at 10 μM concentration, particularly against breast cancer cell lines. As per the results obtained from in vitro antiproliferative evaluation, cytotoxic activities of the hybrid molecules (BrPQ5, CIPQ1, and CIPQ3) were evaluated with an 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay in T47D and MCF7 breast cancer and human umbilical vein endothelial (HUVEC) cells. Molecules exhibited cytotoxic activity, and especially, CIPQ1 showed remarkable cytotoxic activity and good selectivity on T47D and MCF7 cells. Furthermore, CIPQ1 could inhibit cell proliferation, cause apoptotic cell death and disturb the cell cycle in T47D and MCF7 cells. Additionally, CIPQ1 caused oxidative stress induction in both cells, more so in T47D. In vitro study results indicated that the anticancer activity of CIPQ1 was more prominent in T47D cells than in MCF7 cells. The compound CIPQ1 showed a prominent binding with JNK3 in silico. Thus, the obtained hybrid molecules via the molecular hybridization strategy of two important pharmacophores could be useful in the discovery of novel antiproliferative agents, and CIPQ1 could be considered a promising drug candidate.

A Review of Twenty Years of Research on the Regulation of Signaling Pathways by Natural Products in Breast Cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the second leading cause of death among women, and it has become a global health issue due to the increasing number of cases. Different treatment options, including radiotherapy, surgery, chemotherapy and anti-estrogen therapy, aromatase inhibitors, anti-angiogenesis drugs, and anthracyclines, are available for BC treatment. However, due to its high occurrence and disease progression, effective therapeutic options for metastatic BC are still lacking. Considering this scenario, there is an urgent need for an effective therapeutic strategy to meet the current challenges of BC. Natural products have been screened as anticancer agents as they are cost-effective, possess low toxicity and fewer side effects, and are considered alternative therapeutic options for BC therapy. Natural products showed anticancer activities against BC through the inhibition of angiogenesis, cell migrations, proliferations, and tumor growth; cell cycle arrest by inducing apoptosis and cell death, the downstream regulation of signaling pathways (such as Notch, NF-κB, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK/ERK, and NFAT-MDM2), and the regulation of EMT processes. Natural products also acted synergistically to overcome the drug resistance issue, thus improving their efficacy as an emerging therapeutic option for BC therapy. This review focused on the emerging roles of novel natural products and derived bioactive compounds as therapeutic agents against BC. The present review also discussed the mechanism of action through signaling pathways and the synergistic approach of natural compounds to improve their efficacy. We discussed the recent in vivo and in vitro studies for exploring the overexpression of oncogenes in the case of BC and the current status of newly discovered natural products in clinical investigations.

A novel anticancer property of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide in triggering ferroptosis of breast cancer cells

Breast cancer is one of the most malignant tumors and is associated with high mortality rates among women. Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) is an extract from the fruits of the traditional Chinese herb, L. barbarum. LBP is a promising anticancer drug, due to its high activity and low toxicity. Although it has anticancer properties, its mechanisms of action have not been fully established. Ferroptosis, which is a novel anticancer strategy, is a cell death mechanism that relies on iron-dependent lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. In this study, human breast cancer cells (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) and MD Anderson-Metastatic Breast-231 (MDA-MB-231)) were treated with LBP. LBP inhibited their viability and proliferation in association with high levels of ferroptosis. Therefore, we aimed to ascertain whether LBP reduced cell viability through ferroptosis. We found that the structure and function of mitochondria, lipid peroxidation, and expression of solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11, also known as xCT, the light-chain subunit of cystine/glutamate antiporter system X_c^-) and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) were altered by LBP. Moreover, the ferroptosis inhibitor, Ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1), rescued LBP-induced ferroptosis-associated events including reduced cell viability and glutathione (GSH) production, accumulation of intracellular free divalent iron ions and malondialdehyde (MDA), and down-regulation of the expression of xCT and GPX4. Erastin (xCT inhibitor) and RSL3 (GPX4 inhibitor) inhibited the expression of xCT and GPX4, respectively, which was lower after the co-treatment of LBP with Erastin and RSL3. These results suggest that LBP effectively prevents breast cancer cell proliferation and promotes ferroptosis via the xCT/GPX4 pathway. Therefore, LBP exhibits novel anticancer properties by triggering ferroptosis, and may be a potential therapeutic option for breast cancer.

The functional significance and cross-talk of non-coding RNAs in triple negative and quadruple negative breast cancer

One of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide is breast cancer, among which triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most malignant and lethal subtype. This cancer accounts for 10-20% of all breast cancer deaths. Proliferation, tumorigenesis, and prognosis of TNBC are affected when the androgen receptor (AR) is not expressed, and it is classified as quadruple negative breast cancer (QNBC). Non-coding RNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), play a significant role in tumorigenesis by virtue of their oncogenic and tumor-suppressive properties. To regulate tumorigenesis, miRNAs interact with their target mRNAs and modulate their expression, whereas lncRNAs can either act alone or interact with miRNAs or other molecules through various signaling pathways. Conversely, circRNAs regulate tumorigenesis by acting as miRNA sponges predominantly. Recently, non-coding RNAs were studied comprehensively for their roles in tumor proliferation, progression, and metastasis. As a result of existing studies and research progress, non-coding RNAs have been implicated in TNBC, necessitating their use as biomarkers for future diagnostic applications. In this review, the non-coding RNAs are explicitly implicated in the regulation of breast cancer, and their cross-talk between TNBC and QNBC is also discussed.

Programmed Cell Death Alterations Mediated by Synthetic Indole Chalcone Resulted in Cell Cycle Arrest, DNA Damage, Apoptosis and Signaling Pathway Modulations in Breast Cancer Model

Although new chemotherapy significantly increased the survival of breast cancer (BC) patients, the use of these drugs is often associated with serious toxicity. The discovery of novel anticancer agents for BC therapy is expected. This study was conducted to explore the antiproliferative effect of newly synthesized indole chalcone derivative ZK-CH-11d on human BC cell lines. MTT screening, flow cytometry, Western blot, and fluorescence microscopy were used to evaluate the mode of cell death. ZK-CH-11d significantly suppressed the proliferation of BC cells with minimal effect against non-cancer cells. This effect was associated with cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase and apoptosis induction. Apoptosis was associated with cytochrome c release, increased activity of caspase 3 and caspase 7, PARP cleavage, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, and activation of the DNA damage response system. Furthermore, our study demonstrated that ZK-CH-11d increased the AMPK phosphorylation with simultaneous inhibition of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway indicating autophagy initiation. However, chloroquine, an autophagy inhibitor, significantly potentiated the cytotoxic effect of ZK-CH-11d in MDA-MB-231 cells indicating that autophagy is not principally involved in the antiproliferative effect of ZK-CH-11d. Taking together the results from our experiments, we assume that autophagy was activated as a defense mechanism in treated cells trying to escape from chalcone-induced harmful effects.

Curcumin as an Enhancer of Therapeutic Efficiency of Chemotherapy Drugs in Breast Cancer

Female breast cancer is the world’s most prevalent cancer in 2020. Chemotherapy still remains a backbone in breast cancer therapy and is crucial in advanced and metastatic breast cancer treatment. The clinical efficiency of chemotherapy regimens is limited due to tumor heterogeneity, chemoresistance, and side effects. Chemotherapeutic drug combinations with natural products hold great promise for enhancing their anticancer efficacy. Curcumin is an ideal chemopreventive and chemotherapy agent owning to its multitargeting function on various regulatory molecules, key signaling pathways, and pharmacological safety. This review aimed to elucidate the potential role of curcumin in enhancing the efficacy of doxorubicin, paclitaxel, 5-fluorouracil, and cisplatin via combinational therapy. Additionally, the molecular mechanisms underlying the chemosensitizing activity of these combinations have been addressed. Overall, based on the promising therapeutic potential of curcumin in combination with conventional chemotherapy drugs, curcumin is of considerable value to develop as an adjunct for combination chemotherapy with current drugs to treat breast cancer. Furthermore, this topic may provide the frameworks for the future research direction of curcumin–chemotherapy combination studies and may benefit in the development of a novel therapeutic strategy to maximize the clinical efficacy of anticancer drugs while minimizing their side effects in the future breast cancer treatment.

Immunomodulatory properties of nanostructured systems for cancer therapy

Based on statistical data reported in 2020, cancer was responsible for approximately 10 million deaths. Furthermore, 17 million new cases were diagnosed worldwide. Nanomedicine and immunotherapy have shown satisfactory clinical results among all scientific and technological alternatives for the treatment of cancer patients. Immunotherapy-based treatments comprise the consideration of new alternatives to hinder neoplastic proliferation and to reduce adverse events in the body, thereby promoting immune destruction of diseased cells. Additionally, nanostructured systems have been proven to elicit specific immune responses that may enhance anti-tumor activity. A new generation of nanomedicines, based on biomimetic and bioinspired systems, has been proposed to target tumors by providing immunomodulatory features and by enabling recovery of human immune destruction capacity against cancer cells. This review provides an overview of the aspects and the mechanisms by which nanomedicines can be used to enhance clinical procedures using the immune modulatory responses of nanoparticles (NPs) in the host defense system. We initially outline the cancer statistics for conventional and new treatment approaches providing a brief description of the human host defense system and basic principles of NP interactions with monocytes, leukocytes, and dendritic cells for the modulation of antitumor immune responses. A report on different biomimetic and bioinspired systems is also presented here and their particularities in cancer treatments are addressed, highlighting their immunomodulatory properties. Finally, we propose future perspectives regarding this new therapeutic strategy, highlighting the main challenges for future use in clinical practice.

A novel, dual action chimera comprising DNA methylating agent and near-IR xanthene-cyanine photosensitizer for combined anticancer therapy

A facile synthesis, biological evaluation and photodynamic properties of novel activatable anticancer molecular hybrids (chimeras) Ch and I-Ch are described. The chimeras consist of DNA methylating methyl triazene moiety and fluorogenic xanthene-cyanine (XCy) or iodinated xanthene-cyanine (I-XCy) photosensitizer. These two anticancer core structures are bound by means of a self-immolative 4-aminobenzyl alcohol linker. The hydrolytic cleavage of the carbamate protecting group promotes activation of both DNA methylating monomethyl triazene and phototoxic xanthene-cyanine dye providing, in addition, a near-IR emission signal for detection of the drug activation events. Preliminary antiproliferative assay demonstrates that the developed chimeras exhibit higher antitumor activity in the breast cancer cell line upon near-IR light irradiation compared to their structural constituents, xanthene-cyanine photosensitizer and monomethyl triazene substance.

The therapeutic effect of hesperetin on doxorubicin-induced testicular toxicity: Potential roles of the mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR) and dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1)

Clinical utilization of doxorubicin (DOX), which is a commonly used chemotherapeutic, is restricted due to toxic effects on various tissues. Using hesperetin (HST), an antioxidant used in Chinese traditional medicine protects testis against DOX-induced toxicity although the molecular mechanisms are not well-known. The study was aimed to examine the possible role of the mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR) and dynamin 1-like dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) in the therapeutic effects of HST on the DOX-induced testicular toxicity. Rats were divided into Control, DOX, DOX + HST, and HST groups (n = 7). Single-dose DOX (15 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally and HST (50 mg/kg) was administered by oral gavage every other day for 28 days. Total antioxidant status (TAS), histopathological evaluations, immunohistochemistry, and gene expression level detection analyses were performed. Histopathologically, DOX-induced testicular damage was ameliorated by HST treatment. DOX reduced testicular TAS levels and increased oxidative stress markers, 8-Hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and 4-Hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). Also, upregulated mTOR and DRP1 expressions with DOX exposure were decreased after HST treatment in the testis (p < 0.05). On the other hand, DOX-administration downregulated miR-150-5p and miR-181b-2-3p miRNAs, targeting mTOR and mRNA levels of beclin 1 (BECN1) and autophagy-related 5 (ATG5), autophagic markers. Furthermore, these levels were nearly similar to control testis samples in the DOX + HST group (p < 0.05). The study demonstrated that HST may have a therapeutic effect on DOX-induced testicular toxicity by removing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and by modulating the mTOR and DRP1 expressions, which have a critical role in regulating the balance of generation/elimination of ROS.

The Role of ATRA, Natural Ligand of Retinoic Acid Receptors, on EMT-Related Proteins in Breast Cancer: Minireview

The knowledge of the structure, function, and abundance of specific proteins related to the EMT process is essential for developing effective diagnostic approaches to cancer with the perspective of diagnosis and therapy of malignancies. The success of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) differentiation therapy in acute promyelocytic leukemia has stimulated studies in the treatment of other tumors with ATRA. This review will discuss the impact of ATRA use, emphasizing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) proteins in breast cancer, of which metastasis and recurrence are major causes of death.

Recent advances in targeted nanotherapeutic approaches for breast cancer management

Breast cancer is the most commonly occurring tumor disease worldwide. Breast cancer is currently managed by conventional chemotherapy, which is inadequate in curbing this heterogeneous disease and results in off-site toxic effects, suggesting effective treatment approaches with better therapeutic profiles are needed. This review, therefore, focuses on the recent advancements in delivering therapeutics to the target site using passive and/or active targeted nanodrug-delivery systems to ameliorate endolysosomal escape. In addition, recent strategies in targeting breast cancer stem cells are discussed. The role of naturally cell-secreted nanovesicles (exosomes) in the management of triple-negative breast cancer is also discussed.