Protective effects of phycocyanin on ischemia/reperfusion liver injuries

IL-1 receptor-associated kinase family proteins: An overview of their role in liver disease

The interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK) family is a group of serine-threonine kinases that regulates various cellular processes via toll-like receptor (TLR)/interleukin-1 receptor (IL1R)-mediated signaling. The IRAK family comprises four members, including IRAK1, IRAK2, IRAK3, and IRAK4, which play an important role in the expression of various inflammatory genes, thereby contributing to the inflammatory response. IRAKs are key proteins in chronic and acute liver diseases, and recent evidence has implicated IRAK family proteins (IRAK1, IRAK3, and IRAK4) in the progression of liver-related disorders, including alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, hepatitis virus infection, acute liver failure, liver ischemia-reperfusion injury, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of the role of IRAK family proteins and their associated inflammatory signaling pathways in the pathogenesis of liver diseases. The purpose of this study is to explore whether IRAK family proteins can serve as the main target for the treatment of liver related diseases.

Therapeutic potential of Phycocyanin in gastrointestinal cancers and related disorders

Gastrointestinal cancer is the most fatal cancer worldwide. The etiology of gastrointestinal cancer has yet to be fully characterized. Alcohol consumption, obesity, tobacco, Helicobacter pylori and gastrointestinal disorders, including gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastric ulcer, colon polyps and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease are among the several risks factors for gastrointestinal cancers. Phycocyanin which is abundant in Spirulina. Phycocyanin, a member of phycobiliprotein family with intense blue color, is an anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer compound. Evidence exists supporting that phycocyanin has antitumor effects, exerting its pharmacological effects by targeting a variety of cellular and molecular processes, i.e., apoptosis, cell-cycle arrest, migration and Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Phycocyanin has also been applied in treatment of several gastrointestinal disorders such as, gastric ulcer, ulcerative colitis and fatty liver that is known as a risk factor for progression to cancer. Herein, we summarize various cellular and molecular pathways that are affected by phycocyanin, its efficacy upon combined drug treatment, and the potential for nanotechnology in its gastrointestinal cancer therapy.

Effects of the algae derivatives on performance, intestinal histomorphology, ileal microflora, and egg yolk biochemistry of laying Japanese quail

We examined the effect of the Persian Gulf algae derivates, phycocyanin (PC) and fucoidan (FUC), on production performance, egg quality, intestinal histomorphology, ileal microflora, and egg yolk biochemistry of laying Japanese quail. A total of 250 six-wk-old Japanese quails with an average body weight of 215 ± 10 g were allocated to 5 treatments, 5 replicates and 10 birds in each replicate in a completely randomized design. The treatment groups received PC (from Spirulina platensis) and FUC (from brown seaweed) in their drinking water while control groups did not. Treatment groups received PC and FUC at 20 or 40 mg/L levels (denoted as PC20, PC40, FUC20, and FUC40, respectively). All birds were fed the same diet. All treatments significantly improved the percentage of hen day egg production (HDEP) (P = 0.002), egg mass (P = 0.002), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) (P = 0.022) but no difference was noted in egg weight (EW) and feed intake (FI). Different levels of PC and FUC significantly increased the thickness of eggshells (P = 0.022); however, the weight of the digestive tract (liver, spleen, proventriculus, gizzard, and pancreas) and oviduct was not affected. Algal derivates improved the villus height (P = 0.007) and crypt depth (P = 0.007) of the duodenum, as well as, the villus height (P = 0.005) and crypt depth (P = 0.026) of the jejunum. Both algal derivates positively affected the intestinal microflora (populations of Lactobacillus (P = 0.017), Coliform (P = 0.005), and Clostridium (P = 0.000)) whereas aerobic bacteria were unaffected. Yolk cholesterol P = 0.012) and yolk malondialdehyde P = 0.050) content were significantly reduced in experimental treatments compared to the control group. In conclusion, our results showed that the treatment of laying Japanese quails with algal derivates positively affects quail performance, intestinal morphology, intestinal microflora, and yolk cholesterol and malondialdehyde. Additional studies exploring optimal dosages and mechanisms of action is warranted to fully understand the scope of the algae derivates in poultry production.

Hepatoprotective Effect Assessment of C-Phycocyanin on Hepatocellular Carcinoma Rat Model by Using Photoacoustic Spectroscopy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary neoplasia of the liver with elevated mortality. Experimental treatment with antioxidants has a beneficial effect on the experimental models of HCC. Arthrospira maxima (spirulina) and its phycocyanin have antitumoral action on different tumoral cells. However, it is unknown whether phycocyanin is the responsible molecule for the antitumoral effect on HCC. Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) stands out among other spectroscopy techniques for its versatility of samples analyzed. This technique makes it possible to obtain the optical absorption spectrum of solid or liquid, dark or transparent samples. Previous studies report that assessing liver damage in rats produced by the modified resistant hepatocyte model (MRHM) is possible by analyzing their blood optical absorption spectrum. This study aimed to investigate, by PAS, the effect of phycocyanin obtained from spirulina on hepatic dysfunction. The optical absorption spectra analysis of the rat blood indicates the damage level induced by the MRHM group, being in concordance with the carried out biological conventional studies results, indicating an increase in the activity of hepatic enzymes, oxidative stress, Bax/Bcl2 ratio, cdk2, and AKT2 expression results, with a reduction in p53 expression. Also, PAS results suggest that phycocyanin decreases induced damage, due to the prevention of the Bax, AKT2, and p53 altered expression and the tumor progression in a HCC rat model.

Modification of Preservative Fluids with Antioxidants in Terms of Their Efficacy in Liver Protection before Transplantation

Transplantation is currently the only effective treatment for patients with end-stage liver failure. In recent years, many advanced studies have been conducted to improve the efficiency of organ preservation techniques. Modifying the composition of the preservation fluids currently used may improve graft function and increase the likelihood of transplantation success. The modified fluid is expected to extend the period of safe liver storage in the peri-transplantation period and to increase the pool of organs for transplantation with livers from marginal donors. This paper provides a literature review of the effects of antioxidants on the efficacy of liver preservation fluids. Medline (PubMed), Scopus, and Cochrane Library databases were searched using a combination of MeSH terms: "liver preservation", "transplantation", "preservation solution", "antioxidant", "cold storage", "mechanical perfusion", "oxidative stress", "ischemia-reperfusion injury". Studies published up to December 2023 were included in the analysis, with a focus on publications from the last 30 years. A total of 45 studies met the inclusion criteria. The chemical compounds analyzed showed mostly bioprotective effects on hepatocytes, including but not limited to multifactorial antioxidant and free radical protective effects. It should be noted that most of the information cited is from reports of studies conducted in animal models, most of them in rodents.

C-Phycocyanin: A Phycobiliprotein from Spirulina with Metabolic Syndrome and Oxidative Stress Effects

Spirulina maxima is a cyanobacterium considered a "superfood" due to its metabolites and nutrient content. These include a complex mixture of minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, proteins, and accessory pigments. In recent years, it has positioned itself as a promising source of bioactive molecules for the treatment of several diseases, including metabolic syndrome, coronary diseases, cancer, and the improvement of health modulating oxidative stress. C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a photosynthetic pigment from green-blue cyanobacterium and the most abundant phycobiliprotein in the Spirulina genus with various pharmacological properties attributed due to its antioxidant capacity but has no specific cellular target. This has made it a molecule of great interest in biomedical research. This review focuses on the pharmacological effects and the benefits on metabolic syndrome and oxidative stress of C-PC.

Microalgae: A Promising Source of Bioactive Phycobiliproteins

Phycobiliproteins are photosynthetic light-harvesting pigments isolated from microalgae with fluorescent, colorimetric and biological properties, making them a potential commodity in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Hence, improving their metabolic yield is of great interest. In this regard, the present review aimed, first, to provide a detailed and thorough overview of the optimization of culture media elements, as well as various physical parameters, to improve the large-scale manufacturing of such bioactive molecules. The second section of the review offers systematic, deep and detailed data about the current main features of phycobiliproteins. In the ultimate section, the health and nutritional claims related to these bioactive pigments, explaining their noticeable potential for biotechnological uses in various fields, are examined.

Promoting Heme and Phycocyanin Biosynthesis in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 by Overexpression of Porphyrin Pathway Genes with Genetic Engineering

Due to their unique biochemical and spectroscopic properties, both heme and phycocyanobilin are widely applied in the medical and food industries. Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 contains both heme and phycocyanin, and is capable of synthesizing phycocyanin using heme as a precursor. The aim of this study was to uncover viable metabolic targets in the porphyrin pathway from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 to promote the accumulation of heme and phycocyanin in the recombinant strains of microalgae. A total of 10 genes related to heme synthesis pathway derived from Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 and 12 genes related to endogenous heme synthesis were individually overexpressed in strain PCC 6803. The growth rate and pigment content (heme, phycocyanin, chlorophyll a and carotenoids) of 22 recombinant algal strains were characterized. Quantitative real-time PCR technology was used to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the changes in physiological indicators in the recombinant algal strains. Among the 22 mutant strains, the mutant overexpressing the haemoglobin gene (glbN) of strain PCC 6803 had the highest heme content, which was 2.5 times higher than the wild type; the mutant overexpressing the gene of strain PCC 7942 (hemF) had the highest phycocyanin content, which was 4.57 times higher than the wild type. Overall, the results suggest that genes in the porphyrin pathway could significantly affect the heme and phycocyanin content in strain PCC 6803. Our study provides novel crucial targets for promoting the accumulation of heme and phycocyanin in cyanobacteria.

Recent developments in the production and utilization of photosynthetic microorganisms for food applications

The growing use of photosynthetic microorganisms for food and food-related applications is driving related biotechnology research forward. Increasing consumer acceptance, high sustainability, demand of eco-friendly sources for food, and considerable global economic concern are among the main factors to enhance the focus on the novel foods. In the cases of not toxic strains, photosynthetic microorganisms not only provide a source of sustainable nutrients but are also potentially healthy. Several published studies showed that microalgae are sources of accessible protein and fatty acids. More than 400 manuscripts were published per year in the last 4 years. Furthermore, industrial approaches utilizing these microorganisms are resulting in new jobs and services. This is in line with the global strategy for bioeconomy that aims to support sustainable development of bio-based sectors. Despite the recognized potential of the microalgal biomass value chain, significant knowledge gaps still exist especially regarding their optimized production and utilization. This review highlights the potential of microalgae and cyanobacteria for food and food-related applications as well as their market size. The chosen topics also include advanced production as mixed microbial communities, production of high-value biomolecules, photoproduction of terpenoid flavoring compounds, their utilization for sustainable agriculture, application as source of nutrients in space, and a comparison with heterotrophic microorganisms like yeast to better evaluate their advantages over existing nutrient sources. This comprehensive assessment should stimulate further interest in this highly relevant research topic.

Phycobiliproteins, the pigment-protein complex form of natural food colorants and bioactive ingredients

Currently, the use of synthetic pigments in foods is restricted since synthetic pigments are proven and suspected to be harmful to human health. Phycobiliproteins (PBPs), existed in phycobilisomes (PBSs) of algae, are a kind of pigment-proteins with intense color. The specific color of PBPs (red and blue) is given by the water-soluble open-chained tetrapyrrole chromophore (phycobilin) that covalently attaches to the apo-protein via thioether linkages to cysteine residues. According to the spectral characteristics of PBPs, they can be categorized as phycoerythrins (PEs), phycocyanins (PCs), allophycocyanins (APCs), and phycoerythrocyanins (PECs). PBPs can be used as natural food colorants, fluorescent substances, and bioactive ingredients in food applications owing to their color characteristics and physiological activities. This paper mainly summarizes the extraction and purification methods of the PBPs and reviews their characteristics and applications. Moreover, the use of several strategies such as additives, microencapsulation, electrospray, and cross-linking to improve the stability and bioavailability of PBPs as well as the future outlooks of PBPs as natural colorants in food commercialization are elucidated.

Fabrication and characterization of phycocyanin-alginate-pregelatinized corn starch composite gel beads: Effects of carriers on kinetic stability of phycocyanin

Composite gel beads using calcium alginate and different concentrations of pregelatinized corn starch (PCS) were produced to encapsulate phycocyanin (PC). Rheological properties of different sodium alginate/PCS/PC mixtures, structural and morphological properties of beads, and kinetic stability of encapsulated PC (upon heating at various time-temperature combinations) were then assessed. Rheological properties of the mixtures exhibited shear thinning behaviors. Aquagram revealed that the PC-containing beads had more water structure with weak‑hydrogen bonds. Morphological images represented less subsidence in the structures of composite gel beads, unlike PCS-free beads. Kinetic study showed that degradation rate constant values of PC encapsulated in composite gel beads (1.08-3.45 × 10^-4, 3.38-4.43 × 10^-4, and 5.57-15.32 × 10^-4 s^-1) were lower than those in PCS-free alginate gel beads (4.45 × 10^-4, 9.20 × 10^-4, and 18.04 × 10^-4 s^-1) at 40, 50, and 60 °C, respectively. This study suggests that the composite gel beads can improve PC stability.

Nostoc sphaeroides Cyanobacteria: a review of its nutritional characteristics and processing technologies

Nostoc sphaeroides is an edible Cyanobacterium which has high nutritional value and is widely used in dietary supplements and therapeutic products. N. sphaeroides contains protein, fatty acid, minerals and vitamins. Its polysaccharides, phycobilin, phycobiliproteins and some lipids are highly bioactive. Thus, N. sphaeroides possesses anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation and cholesterol reducing functions. This paper reviews and evaluates the literature on nutritionally and functionally important compounds of N. sphaeroides. It also reviews and evaluates the processing of technologies used to process N. sphaeroides from fresh harvest to dry particulates including pretreatment, sterilization and drying, including their impact on sensorial and nutritional values. This review shows that a suitable combination of ultrasound, radio frequency and pulse spouted microwave with traditional sterilization and drying technologies greatly improves the sensorial and nutritive quality of processed N. sphaeroides and improves their shelf life; however, further research is needed to evaluate these hybrid technologies. Once suitably processed, N. sphaeroides can be used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical drugs as an ingredient.

Evaluation of the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant potentials of food grade Phycocyanin

Excessive generation of oxygen free radicals plays a pivotal role in destruction of biological molecules like DNA, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and results in various pathologies including neuronal disorders. Antioxidant molecules from natural products are reported to have ability to mitigate their production or at least halt their progression and metastasis in the system. Different studies have been performed to spot antioxidants from natural sources and attempts have been made to integrate them in conventional therapy. In our present study, food grade Phycocyanin, a nutraceutical isolated from Spirulina platensis, has been evaluated for its in vitro and in vivo antioxidant potential using a battery of antioxidant assays viz. DPPH, TAC, FRAP, hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, SOD, GSH, and LPO assays. Reducing properties of Phycocyanin were also assessed by FRAC assay. For in vivo evaluation of antioxidant profile, animal model of intracerebroventricular administration of streptozotocin was employed. Levels of oxidative stress biomarkers were measured in cortex and hippocampal parts of brain. Results obtained depicted that Phycocyanin demonstrated a dose-dependent pattern in its efficacy, which indicates the presence of free radical scavenger moieties and possible role as a neuroprotective agent.

Lactobacillus acidophilus LA14 Alleviates Liver Injury

Although the probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus LA14 is used worldwide, its effect on liver diseases remains unelucidated. Here, 32 rats were divided into four groups, gavaged with L. acidophilus LA14 (3 × 10⁹ CFU) or phosphate-buffered saline for 7 days, and then intraperitoneally injected with d-galactosamine or saline. After 24 h, blood, liver, ileum, and feces samples were collected for liver injury, inflammation, intestinal barrier, gut microbiota, metabolome, and transcriptome analyses. Pretreatment with L. acidophilus LA14 alleviated the d-galactosamine-induced elevation of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and bile acids; mitigated the histological injury to the liver and gut; and suppressed the inflammatory cytokines macrophage inflammatory protein 1α (MIP-1α), MIP-3α, and MCP-1. L. acidophilus LA14 also ameliorated the d-galactosamine-induced dysbiosis of the gut microbiota and metabolism, such as the enrichment of Bacteroides sp. strain dnLKV3 and the depletion of Streptococcus, butanoic acid, and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine. The underlying mechanism of L. acidophilus LA14 included prevention of not only the d-galactosamine-induced upregulation of infection- and tumor-related pathways but also the d-galactosamine-induced downregulation of antioxidation-related pathways during this process, as reflected by the liver transcriptome and proteome analyses. Furthermore, the administration of L. acidophilus LA14 to healthy rats did not alter the tested liver indicators but significantly enriched the beneficial Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species, promoted metabolism and regulated pathways to improve immunity. The ability of L. acidophilus LA14 to alleviate liver injury was further confirmed with an acetaminophen-induced mouse model. These results might provide a reference for future studies on the application of L. acidophilus LA14 for the prevention of liver injury.

IMPORTANCE The probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus LA14 is widely used, but its effect on liver diseases has not been elucidated. We explored the protective effect of L. acidophilus LA14 on the liver using rats with d-galactosamine-induced liver injury. Pretreatment with L. acidophilus LA14 alleviated the d-galactosamine-induced elevation of serum ALT, AST, ALP, and bile acids, mitigated the histological injury to the liver and gut, and suppressed the inflammatory cytokines MIP-1α, MIP-3α, and MCP-1. These effects were correlated with the modulations of the gut microbiome, metabolome, and hepatic gene expression induced by L. acidophilus LA14. Moreover, the ability of L. acidophilus LA14 to alleviate liver injury was further confirmed with an acetaminophen-induced mouse model. These results might provide a reference for future studies on the application of L. acidophilus LA14 for the prevention of liver injury.

Extraction Methods for Obtaining Natural Blue Colorants

Background:

Blue is a color not often present in food. Even so, it is especially attractive to children. Today, most blue coloring agents used by the food industry are synthetic. With increasing health issues concern by the scientific community and the general population, there is a trend to look for natural alternatives to most synthetic products. There only exist few natural blue colorants, which are presented in a literature survey, along with the methods currently used for their recovery from natural sources. The best extraction methods and process parameters for the extraction of blue anthocyanins, iridoids and phycocyanin are discussed.

Methods:

A literature survey was conducted to detect the main sources of blue colorants found in nature. The focus was on the extraction methods used to recover such molecules, with the objective of finding efficient and environmentally safe techniques for application at industrial level, and, thus, allowing the production of natural blue colorants at scale high enough for food industry consumption.

Results:

The main natural blue colorants found in literature are anthocyanins, phycocyanin, and genipin. While anthocyanins can be recovered from a variety of plants, the source of phycocyanin are algae, and genipin can be obtained specifically from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis and Genipa americana L. Several extraction techniques have been applied to recover blue colorants from such sources, from classical methods using organic solvents, to more sophisticated technologies as ultrasoundassisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, high-pressure extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction.

Conclusion:

There is great potential for anthocyanins, phycocyanin and genipin use as natural food additives with health benefits, besides imparting color. However, the technologies for the colorants recovery and application are not mature enough. Therefore, this area is still developing, and it is necessary to evaluate the economic feasibility of the proposed extraction processes, along with the safety and acceptance of colored food using these additives.

Dimethyl fumarate and curcumin attenuate hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury via Nrf2/HO-1 activation and anti-inflammatory properties

BACKGROUND

Hepatic ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury occurs in different clinical settings as hepatic transplantation, and different types of shock. I/R injury is the main cause of hepatic damage and failure due to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory cytokines. Dimethyl fumarate (DMF), an immunomodulatory drug, activates cellularantioxidantsignaling pathways exerting cytoprotective properties. Curcumin (CUR), a natural phenolic compound, possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

METHOD

To study potential protective effects of DMF with CUR against hepatic I/R injury in rats, animals were randomly allocated into seven groups as follows: (1) Sham; (2) DMF (25 mg/Kg, p.o); (3) CUR (400 mg/Kg, p.o.); (4) I/R; (5) DMF + I/R; (6) CUR + I/R; and combination (COM) therapy + I/R. Drugs were given for 14 days before I/R.

RESULTS

Compared with I/R group, COM group showed the best amelioration in hepatic injury induced by I/R insult. This was confirmed by a significant reduction in serum ALT and AST activity with improved histopathological results when compared to every single treatment. Hepatic protection afforded by DMF was mediated by activating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling and increasing GSH and TAC contents. CUR treatment improved the inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1β, Il-6 and iNOS) as well as neutrophilic infiltration assessed as MPO. Moreover, CUR potentiated Nrf2/HO-1 signaling induced by DMF with significant suppression in lipid peroxidation.

CONCLUSION

We concluded that combining DMF and CUR has more efficient hepatoprotective effects against hepatic-induced IRI via potentiating antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties mediated by Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

Recent Advances in Microalgae Peptides: Cardiovascular Health Benefits and Analysis

There is now great interest in food protein hydrolysates and food-derived peptides, because they may provide numerous health benefits. Among other foodstuffs, microalgae appear to be sustainable sources of proteins and bioactive peptides that can be exploited in foods and functional formulations. This review considers protein hydrolysates and individual peptides that may be relevant in cardiovascular disease prevention because they mimic the functions of mediators involved in pathologic processes that represent relevant risk factors for cardiovascular disease development, such as hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, diabetes, inflammation, and oxidative status. Some of these peptides are also multifunctional (i.e., they offer more than one benefit). Moreover, the most efficient techniques for protein extraction and hydrolyzation are commented on, as well as the best methodologies for high-throughput detection and quantification. Finally, current challenges and critical issues are discussed.

Phycocyanin Exerts Anti-Proliferative Effects through Down-Regulating TIRAP/NF-κB Activity in Human Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells

Phycocyanin is a type of marine functional food additive, exerting a health care efficacy with no side effects. It has been shown that phycocyanin possesses anticancer function in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, but the underlying regulatory mechanism still remains unclear. Further investigation on the antineoplastic mechanism of phycocyanin would provide useful information on NSCLC treatment. In this study, we explored the in vitro function and mechanism of phycocyanin in three typical NSCLC cell lines, H1975, H1650, and LTEP-a2, for the first time. Phenotypic experiments showed that phycocyanin significantly induced the apoptosis as well as suppressed the growth of NSCLC cells. Transcriptome analysis suggested that toll/interleukin 1 receptor domain-containing adaptor protein (TIRAP) was significantly down-regulated by phycocyanin. Strikingly, similar to phycocyanin-treated assays, siRNA knockdown of TIRAP expression also resulted in the anti-proliferative phenomenon in NSCLC cells. In addition, the activity of NF-κB signaling was also suppressed after silencing TIRAP expression, revealing that phycocyanin exerted anti-proliferative function through down-regulating TIRAP/NF-κB activity in NSCLC cells. Collectively, this study has laid a theoretical basis on the treatment of NSCLC and the potential utilization of marine functional products.

Alkaline phosphatase: a potential biomarker for stroke and implications for treatment

Stroke is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S., with more than 100,000 deaths annually. There are a multitude of risks associated with stroke, including aging, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and immune suppression. One of the many challenges, which has so far proven to be unsuccessful, is the identification of a cost-effective diagnostic or prognostic biomarker for stroke. Alkaline phosphatase (AP), an enzyme first discovered in the 1920s, has been evaluated as a potential biomarker in many disorders, including many of the co-morbidities associated with stroke. This review will examine the basic biology of AP, and its most common isoenzyme, tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP), with a specific focus on the central nervous system. It examines the preclinical and clinical evidence which supports a potential role for AP in stroke and suggests potential mechanism(s) of action for AP isoenzymes in stroke. Lastly, the review speculates on the clinical utility of AP isoenzymes as potential blood biomarkers for stroke or as AP-targeted treatments for stroke patients.

Spirulina Liquid Extract Protects against Fibrosis Related to Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis and Increases Ursodeoxycholic Acid

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is characterized by an excess of lipids and oxidative stress in the liver. Spirulina was reported to possess hypolipemic and antioxidative effects and might counteract NASH development. C57Bl/6J mice were fed a western diet (WD) during 25 weeks with or without spirulina liquid extract (SLE) at 2 different doses (WDS1 and WDS2 groups) in drinking water. Liver histology, inflammation, and oxidative stress were assessed as well as glucose tolerance status, lipid metabolism, and gallbladder bile acid profile. WDS2 gained significantly less weight than WD. Liver weight-to-body weight ratio and plasma alanine aminotransferase were significantly lower in WDS2 mice. A reduced liver fibrosis and NFκBp65 protein expression were measured in the supplemented group as a lower accumulation of superoxide anion, nitric oxide, and thiobarbituric reactive substances. WDS2 mice showed also a preserved glucose tolerance, a strong decrease of plasma cholesterol, and a significant increase of gallbladder ursodeoxycholic acid and β-muricholic acid. Our findings demonstrate a protective effect of SLE against WD induced NASH that is related to less inflammation and oxidative stress, a preserved glucose tolerance, and less hepatotoxic bile acid profile.