Protective effect of inulin on methotrexate- induced liver toxicity in mice

The impact of high-fat diet consumption and inulin fiber supplementation on anxiety-related behaviors and liver oxidative status in female Wistar rats

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a worldwide public health problem associated with cognitive and mental health problems in both humans and rats. Studies assessing the effect of fiber supplementation on behavioral deficits and oxidative stress caused by high-fat diet (HFD) consumption in female rats are still scarce. We hypothesized that HFD consumption would lead to anxiety-related behavior and hepatic oxidative stress and that inulin would protect against these changes. We analyzed the impact of HFD-induced obesity combined with fiber supplementation (inulin) on anxiety-related defensive behavior and hepatic oxidative stress.

RESULTS

Female rats were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 45%) for nine weeks to induce obesity. The administration of inulin was found to decrease the adiposity index in both the control and obese groups. The consumption of a HFD combined with inulin supplementation resulted in a reduction in both CAT activity and carbonylated protein levels, leading to a shift in the hepatic redox balance. Interestingly, the behavioral data were conflicting. Specifically, animals that consumed a high-fat diet and received inulin showed signs of impaired learning and memory caused by obesity. The HFD did not impact anxiety-related behaviors in the female rats. However, inulin appears to have an anxiolytic effect, in the ETM, when associated with the HFD. On the other hand, inulin appears to have affected the locomotor activity in the HFD in both open field and light-dark box.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that consumption of a HFD induced obesity in female rats, similar to males. However, HFD consumption did not cause a consistent increase in anxiety-related behaviors in female Wistar rats. Treatment with inulin at the dosage used did not exert consistent changes on the behavior of the animals, but attenuated the abdominal WAT expansion and the hepatic redox imbalance elicited by high-fat diet-induced obesity.

Evaluation of the protective effect of losartan in acetaminophen-induced liver and kidney damage in mice

Acetaminophen is widely used among humans as an antipyretic and analgesic. In this study, the protective effect of losartan in hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity induced by acetaminophen in mice was investigated owing to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. An injection of a single dose of 500 mg/kg (i.p.) acetaminophen was administered to induce hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in Groups VI-X. Losartan at doses of 1 mg/kg (Group VII), 3 mg/kg (Group VIII), and 10 mg/kg (Groups III, V, IX, and X) was injected intraperitoneally twice, at 1 and 12 h after the acetaminophen injection. Additionally, a 4 mg/kg dose of GW9662 (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) antagonist) was injected intraperitoneally 30 min before the losartan injections in Groups V and X. At the end of 24 h, the mice were euthanized, and blood, liver, and kidney tissue samples were collected. Levels of AST, ALT, creatinine, and oxidative stress markers including TBARS, SOD, CAT, GPx, TAS, TOS, GSH, and GSSG, along with pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-17, and TNF-α, were measured using ELISA kits. Additionally, a histological evaluation of the tissue samples was performed. Acetaminophen causes increases in the levels of AST, ALT, creatinine, TBARS, TOS, GSSG, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-17, and TNF-α in serum, liver, and kidney tissue. Meanwhile, it led to a decrease in the levels of SOD, CAT, GPx, TAS, and GSH. Losartan injection reversed oxidative and inflammatory damage induced by acetaminophen. Histopathological changes in liver and kidney tissue were alleviated by losartan. The substance GW9662 increased the protective effect of losartan. In light of all the data obtained from our study, it can be said that losartan has a protective effect on liver and kidney damage induced by acetaminophen due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. In terms of the study, losartan was found to be an alternative substance that could protect people from the harmful effects of acetaminophen.

Chemistry of Bairui granules and its mechanisms in the protective effect against methotrexate-induced liver injury

BACKGROUND

Bairui granules (BRKL), a traditional Chinese medicine preparation, possess a range of pharmacological effects. However, its impact on methotrexate (MTX)-induced liver damage remains unexplored.

PURPOSE

The present work focused on investigating the potential protection of BRKL on MTX-induced liver damage, along with its potential active ingredients and underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

We evaluated the hepatoprotective activities of BRKL in liver-damaged Wistar rats induced by intraperitoneal MTX injection, observing the liver's morphological and pathological features. Additionally, we measured serum ALT, AST, and LDH levels using kits. Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Q-Exactive Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap MS) analyzed BRKL composition, and network pharmacology strategy predicted and analyzed BRKL's targets and pathways. Thereafter, we conducted molecular docking for analyzing affinity of bioactive ingredients for targets with Autodock. At last, results were verified through in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

The animal experiments revealed the significant protection of BRKL against MTX-mediated rat liver damage. A total of 64 major chemical constituents were identified in BRKL by UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap MS. We then applied the network-based pharmacological strategy to clarify BRKL's molecular mechanism on liver damage based on the identified components. The targets EGFR, SRC, PIK3R1, AKT1, and ESR1, as well as compounds isorhamnetin 3,7-O-diglucoside, β-ecdysone, chrysoeriol, apigenin, and diosmetin, may play pivotal roles in treating MTX-mediated liver damage. According to our in vitro experiments, isorhamnetin 3,7-O-diglucoside may exert its liver-protective effect via AKT/NF-κB pathway.

CONCLUSION

BRKL protected against MTX-mediated liver injury, and the bioactive ingredients, key pathways, and liver injury-related molecular targets have been identified. These findings provide new insights into using BRKL in treating liver damage and propose a feasible approach to exploring phytomedicine's chemical and pharmacological foundation.

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees Alleviates Methotrexate-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Wistar Albino Rats

Andrographis paniculata is a herbal plant used in traditional medicinal approaches to treat various ailments and diseases. Methotrexate (MTX) is a clinically used immunosuppressant and anticancer drug. One of the increasing concerns with MTX use is liver toxicity. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential effect of aqueous leaf extract of Andrographis paniculata against methotrexate-induced hepatotoxicity. Wistar albino rats were grouped into five groups, and the drugs were administered. MTX (20 mg/kg b.w.) was intraperitoneally injected into rats on the ninth day alone. Aqueous leaf extract of Andrographis paniculata (500 mg/kg b.w./day) was orally administered for 10 days. We confirmed the beneficial effect of aqueous extracts of Andrographis paniculata on restoring the hepatic enzyme markers, lipid profile, antioxidant level, anti-inflammatory marker (IL-10), anti-apoptosis (bcl-2), significant suppression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, and IL-6), apoptosis marker (caspase 3) and cellular tissue damage caused by MTX. Overall, we revealed that Andrographis paniculata reduces critical aspects of oxidative stress, inflammatory processes, and apoptosis, thus protecting against methotrexate-induced hepatotoxicity.

Empagliflozin mitigates methotrexate-induced hepatotoxicity: Targeting ASK-1/JNK/Caspase-3 pathway

Methotrexate (MTX) administration causes hepatotoxicity, a serious side effect limiting its clinical use. Therefore, this study was performed to investigate the beneficial effect of empagliflozin (Empa) against MTX-induced hepatotoxicity. Adult male albino mice were pre-treated with Empa (at 10 or 25 mg/kg/d, orally) for 6 days and then received a single MTX injection (at 20 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). Empa effectively ameliorated MTX-induced structural and functional alterations. It significantly decreased transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma-glutamyl transferase levels and increased albumin levels in the serum. Moreover, Empa restored the oxidant/antioxidant balance as indicated by reduced malondialdehyde and total nitrite/nitrate contents and elevated reduced glutathione level and superoxide dismutase activity. Additionally, Empa (10 and 25 mg/kg) markedly suppressed the elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6, apoptosis signal-regulating kinase1, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, BCL2 associated X protein, and Caspase-3 in hepatic tissues and increased the hepatic interleukin-10 levels. Furthermore, Empa substantially decreased nuclear factor kappa B expression in hepatic tissues. These biochemical findings were further confirmed by histopathological and transmission electron microscopy observations. Therefore, Empa might be used as an adjuvant to ameliorate MTX-induced hepatotoxicity after further clinical evaluation.

Methotrexate-Induced Liver Injury Is Associated with Oxidative Stress, Impaired Mitochondrial Respiration, and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress In Vitro

Low-dose methotrexate (MTX) is a standard therapy for rheumatoid arthritis due to its low cost and efficacy. Despite these benefits, MTX has been reported to cause chronic drug-induced liver injury, namely liver fibrosis. The hallmark of liver fibrosis is excessive scarring of liver tissue, triggered by hepatocellular injury and subsequent activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). However, little is known about the precise mechanisms through which MTX causes hepatocellular damage and activates HSCs. Here, we investigated the mechanisms leading to hepatocyte injury in HepaRG and used immortalized stellate cells (hTERT-HSC) to elucidate the mechanisms leading to HSC activation by exposing mono- and co-cultures of HepaRG and hTERT-HSC to MTX. The results showed that at least two mechanisms are involved in MTX-induced toxicity in HepaRG: (i) oxidative stress through depletion of glutathione (GSH) and (ii) impairment of cellular respiration in a GSH-independent manner. Furthermore, we measured increased levels of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in activated HSC following MTX treatment. In conclusion, we established a human-relevant in vitro model to gain mechanistical insights into MTX-induced hepatotoxicity, linked oxidative stress in HepaRG to a GSH-dependent and -independent pathway, and hypothesize that not only oxidative stress in hepatocytes but also ER stress in HSCs contribute to MTX-induced activation of HSCs.

Fasudil Ameliorates Methotrexate-Induced Hepatotoxicity by Modulation of Redox-Sensitive Signals

Methotrexate (MTX) is one of the most widely used cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents, and it is used in the treatment of different autoimmune disorders. However, the clinical applications of MTX are limited by its hepatic toxicity. Hence, the present study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of fasudil (Rho-Kinase inhibitor) in the amelioration of MTX hepatotoxicity and the possible underlying mechanisms. Experimentally, 32 male Sprague Dawley rats were used and divided into four groups: control, MTX (20 mg/kg, i.p., single dose), fasudil (10 mg/kg/day i.p.) for one week, and fasudil plus MTX. It was found that MTX significantly induced hepatitis and hepatocellular damage, as shown by abnormal histological findings and liver dysfunction (ALT and AST), with up-regulation of the inflammatory mediators NF-κB-p65 and IL-1β. Moreover, MTX remarkably disrupted oxidant/antioxidant status, as evidenced by malondialdehyde (MDA) up-regulation associated with the depletion of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels. Moreover, MTX reduced the hepatic expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2). On the contrary, the i.p. administration of fasudil significantly ameliorated MTX hepatotoxicity by histopathological improvement, restoring oxidant/antioxidant balance, preventing hepatic inflammation, and improving the hepatic anti-apoptotic capability. Furthermore, fasudil hepatic concentration was determined for the first time using the validated RP-HPLC method. In conclusion, the present study revealed that fasudil has a reliable hepatoprotective effect against MTX hepatotoxicity with underlying antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms. It also introduced a new method for the determination of fasudil hepatic tissue concentration using the RP-HPLC technique.

Combination Treatment of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Vitamin C Exhibited Promising Therapeutic Effect against Oxidative Impairment of the Liver in Methotrexate-Intoxicated Mice

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is the main cause of liver damage mediated by the excretion of toxic active drug metabolites. Omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin C have potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects that could offer protection against oxidative stress and liver damage. This study evaluated the hepatoprotective effect of omega-3 and vitamin C alone as well as in a combined form in methotrexate- (MTX-) induced acute liver injury in mice. Male ICR mice of seven groups (7 mice per group) were used. Groups 1 (control group) and 2 (MTX) received 0.9% saline/day (po) for 9 days. Groups 3 and 4 received 100 and 200 mg/kg bw/day omega-3 (po), respectively, for 9 days. Groups 5 and 6 received 100 and 200 mg/kg bw/day vitamin C (po), respectively, for 9 days, while group 7 received omega-3 (100 mg/kg bw/day) and vitamin C (100 mg/kg bw/day) (po) for 9 days. All animals in groups 2 to 7 received 20 mg/kg/day MTX (I.P.) once on the 10th day. Our results revealed that MTX significantly induced the elevation of transaminases, alkaline phosphates (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and malonaldehyde (MDA) while depleting the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) when compared to the control group. Treatment with omega-3 fatty acids or vitamin C significantly attenuated the antioxidants and biochemical alterations in a dose-independent manner. Our molecular docking study of ligand-receptor interaction revealed that both ascorbic acid and omega-3 docked well to the binding cavity of LDH with high binding affinities of –5.20 and –4.50 kcal/mol, respectively. The histopathological features were also improved by treatment with omega-3 and vitamin C. The combined form of omega-3 and vitamin C showed a remarkable improvement in the liver enzymes, oxidative stress biomarkers, and the histopathological architecture of the mice. Conclusively, the combination of omega-3 and vitamin C demonstrated a synergistic therapeutic effect against MTX-intoxicated mice, hence representing a potential novel strategy for the management of drug-induced liver disorders.

Protective effects of melatonin and L-carnitine against methotrexate-induced toxicity in isolated rat hepatocytes

The present study was designed to evaluate the possible protective effects of melatonin (MEL) and/or L-carnitine (L-CAR) against methotrexate (MTX)-induced toxicity in isolated rat hepatocytes. Hepatocytes were prepared using collagenase techniques of perfusion and digestion of rat liver. Trypan blue uptake, as well as, glutathione (GSH), lipid peroxidation (LPO), nitric oxide (NO), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels were measured. Caspase-3 activity was also assessed. Pre-incubation of hepatocytes with MEL (1 mM) and/or L-CAR (10 mM) 30 min prior to intoxication with MTX, significantly protected hepatocytes against toxicity. In addition, LPO, NO, TNF-α levels, and caspase-3 activity were decreased in comparison to the MTX-intoxicated group. Furthermore, the two drugs increased the MTX-depleted GSH level. MEL and L-CAR prevented MTX-induced hepatocytotoxicity, at least partly, by their antioxidative, antiinflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects. Further studies are recommended on the clinical pharmacologic and toxicologic effects of MEL and L-CAR in patients receiving MTX.

Epicatechin ameliorative effects on methotrexate-induced hepatotoxicity in mice

BACKGROUND

Due to the fact that methotrexate is widely used both as an immunosuppressive drug and as a chemotherapy agent, many studies are needed to reduce the side effects of this drug on non-target organs.

PURPOSE

This study was designed to investigate the effects of epicatechin (Epi) on MTX (methotrexate)-induced hepatotoxicity in mice.

RESEARCH DESIGN

After 1 week for adaptation, we randomly divided 42 male Naval Medical Research Institute mice into six groups: (I) control; (II) Epi (100 mg/kg, po); (III) MTX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) on the fifth day; and (IV, V, and VI) Epi (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, po) + MTX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) on the fifth day. At day 10, the mice were sacrificed and serum factors, oxidative stress markers, and inflammatory cytokines were measured.

RESULTS

MTX increased activity level of serum enzymes (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase), lipid peroxidation marker (malondialdehyde), and inflammatory factors including interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and nitric oxide. Furthermore, MTX decreased glutathione level and activity level of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase. Epi was able to reduce the destructive effects of oxidative/antioxidant system imbalance and inflammatory reactions and also histopathological damage in MTX intoxicated mice. Epi pretreatment reduced liver dysfunction by improving the antioxidant defense system, anti-inflammatory effects, and alleviation of histopathological damage in MTX hepatotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Accordingly, Epi can be used as a therapeutic agent in hepatotoxicity associated with MTX chemotherapy.

A study on Wistar Albino rats: investigating protective role of ramelteon on liver damage caused by methotrexate

Methotrexate is an important immunosuppressive and antineoplastic drug and is widely used for treatment. However, hepatotoxicity is one of the major adverse effects of methotrexate. In this study, it was aimed to investigate whether ramelteon has a possible protective effect on hepatotoxicity induced by methotrexate. Thirty-two Wistar albino rats were equally divided into four groups: control, methotrexate, methotrexate + ramelteon, and ramelteon. Following a single dose of 20 mg/kg, methotrexate (i.p.), either saline or ramelteon 10 mg/kg (orally) was administered for 7 days. After treatment, animals were sacrificed, and histopathological analyses were evaluated with Hematoxylin-eosin (H-E), immunohistological analyses were evaluated with Interleukın-1 Beta (IL-1β) and Caspase 3 (CAS-3), biochemical analyzes were evaluated with Total Oxidant Status (TOS), Total antioxidants status (TAS), Oxidative Stress Index (OSI), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities, at last genetical analyses were evaluated with Sirtuin-1 (SIRT-1) - P53 gene expressions. In the control and ramelteon groups, normal histological structures were observed, while histopathological findings were observed in the methotrexate group. Increasing levels of IL-1β staining, CAS-3 staining, p53 gene expression, TOS, OSI, AST and ALT were observed in methotrexate group while were observed decreasing levels of TAS and SIRT-1 gene expression (p < 0.05). However, ramelteon reduced the increased findings in methotrexate-induced hepatotoxicity (p < 0.05). The results of the present study showed that ramelteon protects against methotrexate induced hepatotoxicity in rats via SIRT-1 signaling by histological, immunohistological, biochemical and genetical analyses.

Glabridin ameliorates methotrexate-induced liver injury via attenuation of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis

Despite unprecedented advances in modern medicine, no safe and effective drug is available to date for oral administration to combat drug-induced liver injury, which is a vital concern nowadays. The present study deals with the hepatoprotective effect of pure glabridin, a key phytoconstituent from Glycyrrhiza glabra with mechanistic investigations using an in-vivo methotrexate-induced liver injury model as there is no such precedent. The study was performed in the Swiss mice model where a single dose of methotrexate (40 mg/kg) was given on the 7^th day through an intraperitoneal route to induce hepatotoxicity, and glabridin as a test compound was administered orally for eleven consecutive days at 10 to 40 mg/kg. Glabridin markedly improved serum biochemical parameters (SGPT, SGOT), proinflammatory cytokine (TNF-α) level, oxidative stress markers (MDA, GSH, SOD, CAT) as compared to methotrexate alone. Alterations in methotrexate-induced liver architecture were considerably prevented by glabridin treatment as suggested by liver histopathological examination and SEM investigation. Glabridin substantially prevented methotrexate-induced down-regulation of Nrf2, & activation of NF-κB, and caused up-regulation of BAX at different dose levels. Overall, glabridin is found to protect methotrexate-induced hepatotoxicity by improving important factors for oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis.

Phytochemical add-on therapy to DMARDs therapy in rheumatoid arthritis: In vitro and in vivo bases, clinical evidence and future trends

The use of biologically active compounds derived from plants i.e. phytochemicals, have been known for ages for their pharmacological activities in the treatment of autoimmune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Besides enormous scientific evidence, the therapeutic potential of phytochemicals is often undervalued. The treatment in RA involves the use of synthetic and biological disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs). However, the long-term treatment in RA is associated with the risk of gastrointestinal, liver, pulmonary and renal toxicities and serious infections including latent tuberculosis, pneumococcus influenza, herpes zoster and hepatitis. These adverse effects sometimes lead to discontinuation of the therapy. A relatively new vision based on the combination of DMARDs with phytochemicals exhibiting anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-oxidant, hepatoprotective and nephroprotective properties for the treatment of RA has achieved substantial importance in the last decade. From this perspective, the present review focuses on the combination of DMARDs (primarily MTX) with phytochemicals that have shown synergistic therapeutic effects while decreasing the toxic repercussions of current RA therapy. The review covers recent evidences of such combination studies that have shown promising results both in experimental arthritic models and clinical arthritis. Few of the combinations including resveratrol, sinomenine, coenzyme Q10 exhibited considerable interest because of their efficacy as an adjuvant to the MTX/standard DMARDs therapy in clinical trials. Besides giving an overview of such combination studies the review also critically discusses the limitations with the use of phytochemicals (e.g. solubility, permeability and bioavailability) compromising their clinical application. Additionally, it stresses upon the need of novel delivery systems and pharmaceutical technologies to increase the therapeutic efficacy of the combination therapy. Overall, the review unveils the potential of phytochemicals in combination with DMARDs with increased tolerability and superior efficacy in further refining the future of the RA therapy.

Apigenin alleviates methotrexate-induced liver and kidney injury in mice

Methotrexate (MTX) is a drug used in the treatment of various types of cancer and inflammatory diseases, but its clinical use has been restricted due to its toxicity. Apigenin (API) is an effective flavonoid with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of this study was to determine the protective effect of API against MTX-induced liver and kidney toxicity. Four groups with 12 male mice each were used. The control and API groups were received 0.9% saline (ip) and API (3 mg/kg ip) for 4 days, respectively. The MTX group were given a single dose of MTX (20 mg/kg ip) on the fourth day. The MTX + API group were administered API for 7 days and then MTX on fourth day. Blood, liver and kidney were collected to evaluate tissue injury markers, oxidative stress biomarkers, and histopathological and immunohistochemical assessments. In MTX-treated group, significant increases in aminotransferases activities, creatinine and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and significant decreases in catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and superoxide dismutase1 (SOD1) activities and glutathione (GSH) levels were determined compared to the control group. Furthermore, histopathological changes and significant increases in caspase-3, C-reactive protein (CRP), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expressions were detected in both liver and kidney tissues of MTX-treated mice. Pretreatment with API alleviates liver and kidney toxicity by attenuating oxidative stress and tissue injury markers, histopathological alterations, and apoptosis and inflammation. These results suggest that API has a protective effect against oxidative stress and liver-kidney toxicity induced by MTX.

Atypical immunometabolism and metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer: Deciphering the role of gut microbiome

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Much recent research has delved into understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of HCC pathogenesis, which has revealed to be heterogenous and complex. Two major hallmarks of HCC include: (i) a hijacked immunometabolism and (ii) a reprogramming in metabolic processes. We posit that the gut microbiota is a third component in an entanglement triangle contributing to HCC progression. Besides metagenomic studies highlighting the diagnostic potential in the gut microbiota profile, recent research is pinpointing the gut microbiota as an instigator, not just a mere bystander, in HCC. In this chapter, we discuss mechanistic insights on atypical immunometabolism and metabolic reprogramming in HCC, including the examination of tumor-associated macrophages and neutrophils, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (e.g., T-cell exhaustion, regulatory T-cells, natural killer T-cells), the Warburg effect, rewiring of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and glutamine addiction. We further discuss the potential involvement of the gut microbiota in these characteristics of hepatocarcinogenesis. An immediate highlight is that microbiota metabolites (e.g., short chain fatty acids, secondary bile acids) can impair anti-tumor responses, which aggravates HCC. Lastly, we describe the rising 'new era' of immunotherapies (e.g., immune checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive T-cell transfer) and discuss for the potential incorporation of gut microbiota targeted therapeutics (e.g., probiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation) to alleviate HCC. Altogether, this chapter invigorates for continuous research to decipher the role of gut microbiome in HCC from its influence on immunometabolism and metabolic reprogramming.

Chemical characterization of polysaccharides from Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC. infusion and its hepatoprotective effects

Baccharis trimera is a native medicinal plant from South America popularly known as "carqueja". Its infusion is traditionally ingested for the treatment and prevention of hepatic disorders. Up to now, only the crude aqueous extract or hydroethanolic fractions, containing the secondary metabolites, have been studied and correlated with their biological action on the liver. Here we report that an inulin type fructan is present in the B. trimera infusion and contributes to the hepatoprotective effect of the species. In vitro, inulin at 300 μg/mL, was able to scavenger 97% of the DPPH radicals. In vivo experiments showed that it protected the liver against CCl₄-induced injuries. The administration of inulin at low dose of 1 mg/kg significantly reduced the blood levels of ALT, AST and ALP, reduced the lipid peroxidation and increased the catalase activity and the levels of reduced glutathione in the liver of CCl₄-treated mice. Moreover, the administration of inulin at 100 mg/kg increased GSH levels in the liver of Naïve mice. No signs of toxicity were observed. Thus, inulin present in B. trimera infusion protects the liver from the oxidative stress caused by CCl₄ administration and can corroborate with the hepatoprotective effects presented by the species infusion.

Hydrogen sulfide modulates IL-6/STAT3 pathway and inhibits oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in rat model of methotrexate hepatotoxicity

Methotrexate (MTX) is a commonly used anticancer and immunosuppressive agent. However, MTX can induce hepatotoxicity due to oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), the endogenous gaseous molecule, has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects. The present work explored the probable protective effect of H₂S against MTX hepatotoxicity in rats and also the possible mechanisms underlying this effect. MTX was given at a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) dose of 20 mg/kg. Sodium H₂S (56 µmol /kg/day, i.p.), as H₂S donor, was given for 10 days, starting 6 days before MTX administration. H₂S significantly reduced serum alanine aminotransferase, hepatic malondialdehyde, interleukin 6, nuclear factor κB p65, cytosolic cytochrome c, phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and significantly increased hepatic total antioxidant capacity and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in rats received MTX. In addition, H₂S minimized the histopathological injury and significantly decreased the expression of STAT3 in liver tissue of MTX-challenged rats. The effects of H₂S were significantly antagonized by administration of glibenclamide as K_ATP channel blocker, Nω-nitro-l-arginine, as eNOS inhibitor, or ruthenium red, as transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) antagonist. It was concluded that H₂S provided significant hepatoprotection in MTX-challenged rats through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic effects. These effects are most probably mediated by the ability of H₂S to act as IL-6/STAT3 pathway modulator, K_ATP channel opener, eNOS activator, and TRPV1 agonist.

Dietary Additives and Supplements Revisited: The Fewer, the Safer for Liver and Gut Health

Purpose of Review

The supplementation of dietary additives into processed foods has exponentially increased in the past few decades. Similarly, the incidence rates of various diseases, including metabolic syndrome, gut dysbiosis and hepatocarcinogenesis, have been elevating. Current research reveals that there is a positive association between food additives and these pathophysiological diseases. This review highlights the research published within the past 5 years that elucidate and update the effects of dietary supplements on liver and intestinal health.

Recent Findings

Some of the key findings include: enterocyte dysfunction of fructose clearance causes non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD); non-caloric sweeteners are hepatotoxic; dietary emulsifiers instigate gut dysbiosis and hepatocarcinogenesis; and certain prebiotics can induce cholestatic hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in gut dysbiotic mice. Overall, multiple reports suggest that the administration of purified, dietary supplements could cause functional damage to both the liver and gut.

Summary

The extraction of bioactive components from natural resources was considered a brilliant method to modulate human health. However, current research highlights that such purified components may negatively affect individuals with microbiotal dysbiosis, resulting in a deeper break of the symbiotic relationship between the host and gut microbiota, which can lead to repercussions on gut and liver health. Therefore, ingestion of these dietary additives should not go without some caution!