3D printing promotes the development of drugs

Expiration analysis of the International Space Station formulary for exploration mission planning

Effective medications will be required to maintain human health for long-duration space operations. Previous studies have explored the stability and potency of several of the medications used on the International Space Station (ISS). This study is a comprehensive analysis of the expected terrestrial shelf-lives of the entire 2023 ISS formulary using 4 international registries. Of the 106 medications in the ISS formulary, shelf-life data was found in at least 1 of the registries for 91 (86%) medications. Of these 91 medications, 54 have an estimated terrestrial shelf-life of ≤36 months when stored in their original packaging. 14 will expire in less than 24 months. The results of this study provide operational insight to supplying a pharmacy for an exploration mission, optimize therapeutic outcomes, and prevent diseases associated with extended spaceflight operations. Ultimately, those responsible for the health of spaceflight crews will have to find ways to extend the expiration of medications to the complete mission duration or accept the elevated risk associated with administration of an expired medication.

(3D) Bioprinting-Next Dimension of the Pharmaceutical Sector

To create a review of the published scientific literature on the benefits and potential perspectives of the use of 3D bio-nitrification in the field of pharmaceutics. This work was performed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for reporting meta-analyses and systematic reviews. The scientific databases PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect were used to search and extract data using the following keywords: 3D bioprinting, drug research and development, personalized medicine, pharmaceutical companies, clinical trials, drug testing. The data points to several aspects of the application of bioprinting in pharmaceutics were reviewed. The main applications of bioprinting are in the development of new drug molecules as well as in the preparation of personalized drugs, but the greatest benefits are in terms of drug screening and testing. Growth in the field of 3D printing has facilitated pharmaceutical applications, enabling the development of personalized drug screening and drug delivery systems for individual patients. Bioprinting presents the opportunity to print drugs on demand according to the individual needs of the patient, making the shape, structure, and dosage suitable for each of the patient's physical conditions, i.e., print specific drugs for controlled release rates; print porous tablets to reduce swallowing difficulties; make transdermal microneedle patches to reduce patient pain; and so on. On the other hand, bioprinting can precisely control the distribution of cells and biomaterials to build organoids, or an Organ-on-a-Chip, for the testing of drugs on printed organs mimicking specified disease characteristics instead of animal testing and clinical trials. The development of bioprinting has the potential to offer customized drug screening platforms and drug delivery systems meeting a range of individualized needs, as well as prospects at different stages of drug development and patient therapy. The role of bioprinting in preclinical and clinical testing of drugs is also of significant importance in terms of shortening the time to launch a medicinal product on the market.

3D printing of multi-unit gastro-retentive tablets for the pulsatile release of artesunate

Pulsatile drug delivery is hardly achieved by conventional gastro-retentive dosage forms. Artesunate as a typical anti-malaria medicine needs oral pulsatile release. Here, artesunate-loaded pulsatile-release multi-unit gastro-retentive tablets (APGTs) were prepared with a semi-solid extrusion three-dimensional (3D) printing method. An APGT was composed of three units: artesunate-loaded immediate and delayed release units and a block unit. The matrix of the immediate/delayed release units consisted of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) K30 and croscarmellose sodium, which improved the rapid release of artesunate when contacting water. The block unit consisted of octadecanol, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose K15M, PVP K30, and poloxamer F68. APGTs showed multi-phase release in simulated gastric liquids (SGLs). The first immediate release phase continued for 1 h followed by a long block phase for 7 h. The second rapid release phase was initiated when the eroded holes in the block unit extended to the inner delayed release unit, and this phase continued for about 14 h. Low-density APGTs could ensure their long-term floating in the stomach. Oral APGTs remained in the rabbit stomach for about 20 h. 3D printing provides a new strategy for the preparation of oral pulsatile-release tablets.

Unveiling the Drug Formulation Code: A Journey to Three-Dimensional Precision

Magistral formulations emerged years ago and were of great help in the personalization of treatments for patients. Over time, innovation began in this area with new technologies such as three-dimensional (3D) printing, which has brought greater benefits, ease of preparation, new scopes, and even cost reduction. Three-dimensional printing of medicines opened the way to create personalized multi-dose, controlled-release, multi-drug tablets, among others. In addition, this technology manages to be more specific in adjusting pharmacokinetics, doses, and even organoleptic qualities, which is precisely what is sought since the medication is being personalized for a patient due to a particular case or condition. Throughout the research, some studies can be observed that function as a base that provides safety and effectiveness for the subsequent use of other pharmaceuticals in the 3D printing of medicines.

3D printing processes in precise drug delivery for personalized medicine

With the advent of personalized medicine, the drug delivery system will be changed significantly. The development of personalized medicine needs the support of many technologies, among which three-dimensional printing (3DP) technology is a novel formulation-preparing process that creates 3D objects by depositing printing materials layer-by-layer based on the computer-aided design method. Compared with traditional pharmaceutical processes, 3DP produces complex drug combinations, personalized dosage, and flexible shape and structure of dosage forms (DFs) on demand. In the future, personalized 3DP drugs may supplement and even replace their traditional counterpart. We systematically introduce the applications of 3DP technologies in the pharmaceutical industry and summarize the virtues and shortcomings of each technique. The release behaviors and control mechanisms of the pharmaceutical DFs with desired structures are also analyzed. Finally, the benefits, challenges, and prospects of 3DP technology to the pharmaceutical industry are discussed.

Platelet rich fibrin and simvastatin-loaded pectin-based 3D printed-electrospun bilayer scaffold for skin tissue regeneration

Designing multifunctional wound dressings is a prerequisite to prevent infection and stimulate healing. In this study, a bilayer scaffold (BS) with a top layer (TL) comprising 3D printed pectin/polyacrylic acid/platelet rich fibrin hydrogel (Pec/PAA/PRF) and a bottom nanofibrous layer (NL) containing Pec/PAA/simvastatin (SIM) was produced. The biodegradable and biocompatible polymers Pec and PAA were cross-linked to form hydrogels via Ca2+ activation through galacturonate linkage and chelation, respectively. PRF as an autologous growth factor (GF) source and SIM together augmented angiogenesis and neovascularization. Because of 3D printing, the BS possessed a uniform distribution of PRF in TL and an average fiber diameter of 96.71 ± 18.14 nm was obtained in NL. The Young's modulus of BS was recorded as 6.02 ± 0.31 MPa and its elongation at break was measured as 30.16 ± 2.70 %. The wound dressing gradually released growth factors over 7 days of investigation. Furthermore, the BS significantly outperformed other groups in increasing cell viability and in vivo wound closure rate (95.80 ± 3.47 % after 14 days). Wounds covered with BS healed faster with more collagen deposition and re-epithelialization. The results demonstrate that the BS can be a potential remedy for skin tissue regeneration.

Perspectives on 3D printed personalized medicines for pediatrics

In recent years, the rapid advancement of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology has yielded distinct benefits across various sectors, including pharmaceuticals. The pharmaceutical industry has particularly experienced advantages from the utilization of 3D-printed medications, which have invigorated the development of tailored drug formulations. The approval of 3D-printed drugs by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has significantly propelled personalized drug delivery. Additionally, 3D printing technology can accommodate the precise requirements of pediatric drug dosages and the complexities of multiple drug combinations. This review specifically concentrates on the application of 3D printing technology in pediatric preparations, encompassing a broad spectrum of uses and refined pediatric formulations. It compiles and evaluates the fundamental principles associated with the application of 3D printing technology in pediatric preparations, including its merits and demerits, and anticipates its future progression. The objective is to furnish theoretical underpinning for 3D printing technology to facilitate personalized drug delivery in pediatrics and to advocate for its implementation in clinical settings.

3D printing of dolutegravir-loaded polylactide filaments as a long-acting implantable system for HIV treatment

3D printing was used to prepare implantable systems or tablets loaded with dolutegravir to explore their potential as long-acting implantables (LAIs). Our strategy relies on preparing a polylactide (PLA) filament loaded with the anti-HIV drug. Subsequently, 3D printing was performed under conditions that allowed the PLA to be simultaneously melted and the drug encapsulated within the printed strand. The dolutegravir release profiles indicated its sustained release for 47 days. Furthermore, neat and drug-loaded tablets were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), while their morphology was assessed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Finally, their biocompatibility was proved by MTT assay against ISO standards recommended L929 mouse and human Hs68 skin fibroblast cells. All the results indicated that the 3D printing of PLA-based tablets could produce customized medications with potential applications against HIV.

3D Printed Personalized Colon-targeted Tablets: A Novel Approach in Ulcerative Colitis Management

Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD) are two types of idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that are increasing in frequency and incidence worldwide, particularly in highly industrialized countries. Conventional tablets struggle to effectively deliver anti-inflammatory drugs since the inflammation is localized in different areas of the colon in each patient. The goal of 3D printing technology in pharmaceutics is to create personalized drug delivery systems (DDS) that are tailored to each individual's specific needs. This review provides an overview of existing 3D printing processes, with a focus on extrusion-based technologies, which have received the most attention. Personalized pharmaceutical products offer numerous benefits to patients worldwide, and 3D printing technology is becoming more affordable every day. Custom manufacturing of 3D printed tablets provides innovative ideas for developing a tailored colon DDS. In the future, 3D printing could be used to manufacture personalized tablets for UC patients based on the location of inflammation in the colon, resulting in improved therapeutic outcomes and a better quality of life.

Advances in volumetric bioprinting

The three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technologies are suitable for biomedical applications owing to their ability to manufacture complex and high-precision tissue constructs. However, the slow printing speed of current layer-by-layer (bio)printing modality is the major limitation in biofabrication field. To overcome this issue, volumetric bioprinting (VBP) is developed. VBP changes the layer-wise operation of conventional devices, permitting the creation of geometrically complex, centimeter-scale constructs in tens of seconds. VBP is the next step onward from sequential biofabrication methods, opening new avenues for fast additive manufacturing in the fields of tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, personalized drug testing, and soft robotics, etc. Therefore, this review introduces the printing principles and hardware designs of VBP-based techniques; then focuses on the recent advances in VBP-based (bio)inks and their biomedical applications. Lastly, the current limitations of VBP are discussed together with future direction of research.

A Bibliometric Analysis of 3D Printing in Personalized Medicine Research from 2012 to 2022

In recent years, the 3D printing of personalized drug formulations has attracted the attention of medical practitioners and academics. However, there is a lack of data-based analyses on the hotspots and trends of research in this field. Therefore, in this study, we performed a bibliometric analysis to summarize the 3D printing research in the field of personalized drug formulation from 2012 to 2022. This study was based on the Web of Science Core Collection Database, and a total of 442 eligible publications were screened. Using VOSviewer and online websites for bibliometric analysis and scientific mapping, it was observed that annual publications have shown a significant growth trend over the last decade. The United Kingdom and the United States, which account for 45.5% of the total number of publications, are the main drivers of this field. The International Journal of Pharmaceutics and University College London are the most prolific and cited journals and institutions. The researchers with the most contributions are Basit, Abdul W. and Goyanes Alvaro. The keyword analysis concluded that the current research hotspots are "drug release" and "drug dosage forms". In conclusion, 3D printing has broad application prospects in the field of personalized drugs, which will bring the pharmaceutical industry into a new era of innovation.

Diverse Applications of Three-Dimensional Printing in Biomedical Engineering: A Review

A three-dimensional (3D) printing is a robotically controlled state-of-the-art technology that is promising for all branches of engineering with a meritorious emphasis to biomedical engineering. The purpose of 3D printing (3DP) is to create exact superstructures without any framework in a brief period with high reproducibility to create intricate and complex patient-tailored structures for organ regeneration, drug delivery, imaging processes, designing personalized dose-specific tablets, developing 3D models of organs to plan surgery and to understand the pathology of disease, manufacturing cost-effective surgical tools, and fabricating implants and organ substitute devices for prolonging the lives of patients, etc. The formulation of bioinks and programmed G codes help to obtain precise 3D structures, which determines the stability and functioning of the 3D-printed structures. Three-dimensional printing for medical applications is ambitious and challenging but made possible with the culmination of research expertise from various fields. Exploring and expanding 3DP for biomedical and clinical applications can be life-saving solutions. The 3D printers are cost-effective and eco-friendly, as they do not release any toxic pollutants or waste materials that pollute the environment. The sampling requirements and processing parameters are amenable, which further eases the production. This review highlights the role of 3D printers in the health care sector, focusing on their roles in tablet development, imaging techniques, disease model development, and tissue regeneration.

Rapid Prototyping Technologies: 3D Printing Applied in Medicine

Three-dimensional printing technology has been used for more than three decades in many industries, including the automotive and aerospace industries. So far, the use of this technology in medicine has been limited only to 3D printing of anatomical models for educational and training purposes, which is due to the insufficient functional properties of the materials used in the process. Only recent advances in the development of innovative materials have resulted in the flourishing of the use of 3D printing in medicine and pharmacy. Currently, additive manufacturing technology is widely used in clinical fields. Rapid development can be observed in the design of implants and prostheses, the creation of biomedical models tailored to the needs of the patient and the bioprinting of tissues and living scaffolds for regenerative medicine. The purpose of this review is to characterize the most popular 3D printing techniques.

3D screen printing technology enables fabrication of oral drug dosage forms with freely tailorable release profiles

3D printing offers new opportunities to customize oral dosage forms of pharmaceuticals for different patient populations, improving patient safety, care, and compliance. Although several notable 3D print technologies have been developed, such as inkjet printing, powder-based printing, selective laser sintering (SLS) printing, and fused deposition modelling (FDM), among others, their capacity is often limited by the number of printing heads. 3D screen-printing (3DSP) is based on a classic flatbed screen printing that is widely used in industrial applications for technical applications. 3DSP can build up thousands of units per screen simultaneously, enabling mass customization of pharmaceuticals. Here, we use 3DSP to investigate two novel paste formulations: immediate-release (IR) and extended-release (ER) using Paracetamol (acetaminophen) as the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). Both disk-shaped and donut-shaped tablets were fabricated using one or both pastes to design drug delivery systems (DDS) with tailored API release profiles. The size and mass of the produced tablets demonstrated high uniformity. Characterization of the tablets physical properties, such as breaking force (25-39 N) and friability (0.002-0.237%), adhering to Ph. Eur (10th edition). Finally, drug release tests with a phosphate buffer at pH 5.8 showed Paracetamol release depended on the IR- and ER paste materials and their respective compartment size of the composite DDS, which can be readily varied using 3DSP. This work further demonstrates the potential of 3DSP to manufacture complex oral dosage forms exhibiting custom release functionalities for mass production.

Challenges and opportunities in delivering oral peptides and proteins

INTRODUCTION

Rapid advances in bioengineering enable the use of complex proteins as therapeutic agents to treat diseases. Compared with conventional small molecule drugs, proteins have multiple advantages, including high bioactivity and specificity with low toxicity. Developing oral dosage forms with active proteins is a route to improve patient compliance and significantly reduce production costs. However, the gastrointestinal environment remains a challenge to this delivery path due to enzymatic degradation, low permeability, and weak absorption, leading to reduced delivery efficiency and poor clinical outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes the barriers to oral delivery of peptides and complex proteins, current oral delivery strategies utilized and the opportunities and challenges ahead to try and circumvent these barriers. Oral protein drugs on the market and clinical trials provide insights and approaches for advancing delivery strategies.

EXPERT OPINION

Although most current studies on oral protein delivery rely on in vitro and in vivo animal data, the safety and limitations of the approach in humans remain uncertain. The shortage of clinical data limits the development of new or alternative strategies. Therefore, designing appropriate oral delivery strategies remains a significant challenge and requires new ideas, innovative design strategies and novel model systems.

Long-Acting Therapeutic Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Gliomas

Despite the emergence of cutting-edge therapeutic strategies and tremendous progress in research, a complete cure of glioma remains elusive. The heterogenous nature of tumor, immunosuppressive state and presence of blood brain barrier are few of the major obstacles in this regard. Long-acting depot formulations such as injectables and implantables are gaining attention for drug delivery to brain owing to their ease in administration and ability to elute drug locally for extended durations in a controlled manner with minimal toxicity. Hybrid matrices fabricated by incorporating nanoparticulates within such systems help to enhance pharmaceutical advantages. Utilization of long-acting depots as monotherapy or in conjunction with existing strategies rendered significant survival benefits in many preclinical studies and some clinical trials. The discovery of novel targets, immunotherapeutic strategies and alternative drug administration routes are now coupled with several long-acting systems with an ultimate aim to enhance patient survival and prevent glioma recurrences.

3D Printing as a Technological Strategy for the Personalized Treatment of Wound Healing

Wound healing is a dynamic process which involves stages of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and remodeling. Any error in this process results in abnormal wound healing, generating financial burdens for health systems and even affecting the physical and mental health of the patient. Traditional dressings do not meet the complexities of ideal treatment in all types of wounds. For this reason, in the last decades, different materials for drug delivery and for the treatment of wounds have been proposed reaching novel level of standards, such as 3D printing techniques. The use of natural or synthetic polymers, and the correct design of these printed products loaded with cells and/or combined with active compounds, can generate an effective system for the treatment of wounds, improving the healing process and generating customized dressings according to the patient needs. This manuscript provides a comprehensive review of different types of 3D printing techniques, as well as its use in wound healing and its different stages, including the advantages and limitations of additive manufacturing and future perspectives.

Natural Alternatives to Non-biodegradable Polymers in 3D Printing of Pharmaceuticals

BACKGROUND

Due to potential toxicity, non-biodegradable polymers used in 3D (3-dimensional) printing of drugs could be dangerous for patient safety and the environment.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to investigate the toxicity of non-biodegradable polymers and investigate the use of natural materials as an alternative in 3D printing medicines. The study evaluates the dangers connected to 3D printing.

METHODS

A review of the literature on various 3D printing processes, such as inkjet printing, fused filament manufacturing, and extrusion-related 3DP systems, was done for this study. Also, the use of cellulose derivatives and natural materials in 3D printing and their potential as active excipients was proposed.

RESULTS

The review identified potential toxicity risks linked to non-biodegradable polymers used in drug 3D printing. As a potential fix for this issue, the use of natural materials with improved mechanical and thermal properties was explored. The use of cellulose derivatives as an alternative to non-biodegradable polymers in 3D printing pharmaceuticals was also investigated in the study.

CONCLUSION

This study emphasises the significance of evaluating the risks connected to drug 3D printing and recommends using natural materials as an alternative to non-biodegradable polymers. More study is required to create secure and reliable 3D printing processes for pharmaceuticals.

Role of 3D Printing in the Development of Biodegradable Implants for Central Nervous System Drug Delivery

Increased life expectancy has led to a rise in age-related disorders including neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Limited progress has been made in the development of clinically translatable therapies for these central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Challenges including the blood-brain barrier, brain complexity, and comorbidities in the elderly population are some of the contributing factors toward lower success rates. Various invasive and noninvasive ways are being employed to deliver small and large molecules across the brain. Biodegradable, implantable drug-delivery systems have gained lot of interest due to advantages such as sustained and targeted delivery, lower side effects, and higher patient compliance. 3D printing is a novel additive manufacturing technique where various materials and printing techniques can be used to fabricate implants with the desired complexity in terms of mechanical properties, shapes, or release profiles. This review discusses an overview of various types of 3D-printing techniques and illustrative examples of the existing literature on 3D-printed systems for CNS drug delivery. Currently, there are various technical and regulatory impediments that need to be addressed for successful translation from the bench to the clinical stage. Overall, 3D printing is a transformative technology with great potential in advancing customizable drug treatment in a high-throughput manner.

Recombinant Spider Silk Bioinks for Continuous Protein Release by Encapsulated Producer Cells

Targeted therapies using biopharmaceuticals are of growing clinical importance in disease treatment. Currently, there are several limitations of protein-based therapeutics (biologicals), including suboptimal biodistribution, lack of stability, and systemic side effects. A promising approach to overcoming these limitations could be a therapeutic cell-loaded 3D construct consisting of a suitable matrix component that harbors producer cells continuously secreting the biological of interest. Here, the recombinant spider silk proteins eADF4(C16), eADF4(C16)-RGD, and eADF4(C16)-RGE have been processed together with HEK293 producer cells stably secreting the highly traceable reporter biological TNFR2-Fc-GpL, a fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of TNFR2, the Fc domain of human IgG1, and the luciferase of Gaussia princeps as a reporter domain. eADF4(C16) and eADF4(C16)-RGD hydrogels provide structural and mechanical support, promote HEK293 cell growth, and allow fusion protein production by the latter. Bioink-captured HEK293 producer cells continuously release functional TNFR2-Fc-GpL over 14 days. Thus, the combination of biocompatible, printable spider silk bioinks with drug-producing cells is promising for generating implantable 3D constructs for continuous targeted therapy.

Customised 3D printed multi-drug systems: An effective and efficient approach to polypharmacy

INTRODUCTION

Combination therapies continue to improve therapeutic outcomes as currently achieved by polypharmacy. Since the introduction of the polypill, there has been a significant improvement in adherence and patient outcomes. However, the mass production of polypills presents a number of technical, formulation, and clinical challenges. The current one-size-fits-all approach ignores the unique clinical demands of patients, necessitating the adoption of a more versatile tool. That will be the novel, but not so novel, 3D printing.

AREAS COVERED

: The present review investigates this promising paradigm shift from one medication for all, to customised medicines, providing an overview of the current state of 3D-printed multi-active pharmaceutical forms, techniques applied and printing materials. Details on cost implications, as well as potential limitations and challenges are also elaborated.

EXPERT OPINION

: 3D printing of multi-active systems, is not only beneficial but also essential. With growing interest in this field, a shift in manufacturing, prescribing, and administration patterns is at this point, unavoidable. Addressing limitations and challenges, as well as data presentation on clinical trial results, will aid in the acceleration of this technology's implementation. However, it is clear that 3D printing is not the end of it, as evidenced by the emerging 4D printing technology.

A novel technology for preparing the placebos of vortioxetine hydrobromide tablets using LCD 3D printing

This study aimed to describe the use of liquid crystal display (LCD) three-dimensional (3D) printing technology to prepare moulds for vortioxetine hydrobromide (VOR) tablet placebos and provide an economical, convenient, and flexible method for the small-batch preparation of special-shaped, scored, and coated placebo tablets. First, LCD 3D printing was used to generate different placebo moulds of VOR tablets based on VOR tablet digital models subtracted from the digital models of cuboid moulds by Boolean operation to optimise the structures of moulds. The better placebo mould had a parting surface located at the 7/10 height of the packing cavities and the positioning columns and slots were three pairs, and the efflux space had slender efflux channels combined with wide efflux tanks. Next, the placebo mould was corrected by the dimensional compensation method due to the shrinkage rates of the packing cavities (2.42%) and placebo prescription (1.12%) and the thickness of the film coating (25.08 μm). The placebo prescription was 8% hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (SH K15M) hydroalcoholic gel, and its mass ratio to lactose was 0.8:2. The placebos were coated with 13% gastric-soluble film coating solution for 30 min and polished with the 30% PEG 4000 solution. The National Bureau of Standards value between the VOR tablets and their placebos was 1.22 ± 0.10 (less than1.5). Finally, the mass of the placebos was similar to that of the VOR tablets. Their dimensional differences were less than 0.1 mm. Their mass, colour, odour, shape, and texture were all similar, which were assessed by manual evaluation. In conclusion, the preparations of VOR tablet placebos can be applied in placebo-controlled trials, and LCD 3D printing has an extensive application value in preparing placebo tablets.

Personalised Paediatric Chewable Ibuprofen Tablets Fabricated Using 3D Micro-extrusion Printing Technology

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is becoming an attractive technology for the design and development of personalized paediatric dosage forms with improved palatability. In this work micro-extrusion based printing was implemented for the fabrication of chewable paediatric ibuprofen (IBU) tablets by assessing a range of front runner polymers in taste masking. Due to the drug-polymer miscibility and the IBU plasticization effect, micro-extrusion was proved to be an ideal technology for processing the drug/polymer powder blends for the printing of paediatric dosage forms. The printed tablets presented high printing quality with reproducible layer thickness and a smooth surface. Due to the drug-polymer interactions induced during printing processing, IBU was found to form a glass solution confirmed by differential calorimetry (DSC) while H-bonding interactions were identified by confocal Raman mapping. IBU was also found to be uniformly distributed within the polymer matrices at molecular level. The tablet palatability was assessed by panellists and revealed excellent taste masking of the IBU's bitter taste. Overall micro-extrusion demonstrated promising processing capabilities of powder blends for rapid printing and development of personalised dosage forms.

3D printing of bioactive materials for drug delivery applications

INTRODUCTION

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), is a modern technique/technology, which makes it possible to construct 3D objects from computer-aided design (CAD) digital models. This technology can be used in the progress of drug delivery systems, where porosity has played important role in attaining an acceptable level of biocompatibility and biodegradability with improved therapeutic effects. 3D printing may also provide the user possibility to control the dosage of each ingredient in order to a specific purpose, and makes it probable to improve the formulation of drug delivery systems.

AREAS COVERED

This article covers the 3D printing technologies, bioactive materials including natural and synthetic polymers as well as some ceramics and minerals and their roles in drug delivery systems.

EXPERT OPINION

This technology is feasible to fabricate drug products by incorporating multiple drugs in different parts in such a mode that these drugs can release from the section at a predetermined rate. Furthermore, this 3D printing technology has the possible to transform personalized therapy to various age-groups by design flexibility and precise dosing. In recent years, the potential use of this technology can be realized in a clinical situation where patients will acquire individualized medicine as per their require.

Space Medicines for Space Health

Scientists from around the world are studying the effects of microgravity and cosmic radiation via the "off-Earth" International Space Station (ISS) laboratory platform. The ISS has helped scientists make discoveries that go beyond the basic understanding of Earth. Over 300 medical experiments have been performed to date, with the goal of extending the knowledge gained for the benefit of humanity. This paper gives an overview of these numerous space medical findings, critically identifies challenges and gaps, and puts the achievements into perspective toward long-term space traveling and also adding benefits to our home planet. The medical contents are trifold structured, starting with the well-being of space travelers (astronaut health studies), followed by medical formulation research under space conditions, and then concluding with a blueprint for space pharmaceutical manufacturing. The review covers essential elements of our Earth-based pharmaceutical research such as drug discovery, drug and formulation stability, drug-organ interaction, drug disintegration/bioavailability/pharmacokinetics, pathogen virulence, genome mutation, and body's resistance. The information compiles clinical, medicinal, biological, and chemical research as well as fundamentals and practical applications.

Immunology Meets Bioengineering: Improving the Effectiveness of Glioblastoma Immunotherapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) therapy has seen little change over the past two decades. Surgical excision followed by radiation and chemotherapy is the current gold standard treatment. Immunotherapy techniques have recently transformed many cancer treatments, and GBM is now at the forefront of immunotherapy research. GBM immunotherapy prospects are reviewed here, with an emphasis on immune checkpoint inhibitors and oncolytic viruses. Various forms of nanomaterials to enhance immunotherapy effectiveness are also discussed. For GBM treatment and immunotherapy, we outline the specific properties of nanomaterials. In addition, we provide a short overview of several 3D (bio)printing techniques and their applications in stimulating the GBM microenvironment. Lastly, the susceptibility of GBM cancer cells to the various immunotherapy methods will be addressed.

Supercritical Impregnation of Mango Leaf Extract into PLA 3D-Printed Devices and Evaluation of Their Biocompatibility with Endothelial Cell Cultures

The addition of natural substances with pharmacoactive properties to polymeric biomedical devices would provide beneficial regarding the assimilation of these endoprostheses when implanted into a patient’s body. The added drug would facilitate endothelization by regulating the inflammatory processes that such interventions entail, preventing contamination hazards and favoring the angiogenesis or formation of blood vessels in the tissue. The present work used mango leaf extract (MLE) obtained through pressurized ethanol for this purpose. Polylactic acid (PLA) in the form of filaments or 3D-printed disks was impregnated by means of supercritical technology with MLE for the culture essays. The release kinetics has been studied and the polymer matrices have been examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The impregnated devices were subjected to in vitro culture of colony-forming endothelial cells. The influence of the different impregnation conditions used for the production of the MLE impregnated polymeric devices on the development of the cell culture was determined by fluorescence microscopy. The best results were obtained from the calcein cultures on 35 °C MLE impregnated into 3D-printed polymer disks.

The emerging potential of interactive virtual reality in drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

The potential of virtual reality (VR) to contribute to drug design and development has been recognized for many years. A recent advance is to use VR not only to visualize and interact with molecules, but also to interact with molecular dynamics simulations 'on the fly' (interactive molecular dynamics in VR, IMD-VR), which is useful for flexible docking and examining binding processes and conformational changes.

AREAS COVERED

The authors use the term 'interactive VR' to refer to software where interactivity is an inherent part of the user VR experience e.g. in making structural modifications or interacting with a physically rigorous molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, as opposed to using VR controllers to rotate and translate the molecule for enhanced visualization. Here, they describe these methods and their application to problems relevant to drug discovery, highlighting the possibilities that they offer in this arena.

EXPERT OPINION

The ease of viewing and manipulating molecular structures and dynamics, using accessible VR hardware, and the ability to modify structures on the fly (e.g. adding or deleting atoms) - and for groups of researchers to work together in the same virtual environment - makes modern interactive VR a valuable tool to add to the armory of drug design and development methods.

Application and Multi-Stage Optimization of Daylight Polymer 3D Printing of Personalized Medicine Products

Additive technologies have undoubtedly become one of the most intensively developing manufacturing methods in recent years. Among the numerous applications, the interest in 3D printing also includes its application in pharmacy for production of small batches of personalized drugs. For this reason, we conducted multi-stage pre-formulation studies to optimize the process of manufacturing solid dosage forms by photopolymerization with visible light. Based on tests planned and executed according to the design of the experiment (DoE), we selected the optimal quantitative composition of photocurable resin made of PEG 400, PEGDA MW 575, water, and riboflavin, a non-toxic photoinitiator. In subsequent stages, we adjusted the printer set-up and process parameters. Moreover, we assessed the influence of the co-initiators ascorbic acid or triethanolamine on the resin’s polymerization process. Next, based on an optimized formulation, we printed and analyzed drug-loaded tablets containing mebeverine hydrochloride, characterized by a gradual release of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), reaching 80% after 6 h. We proved the possibility of reusing the drug-loaded resin that was not hardened during printing and determined the linear correlation between the volume of the designed tablets and the amount of API, confirming the possibility of printing personalized modified-release tablets.

Development and evaluation of a multicomponent bioink consisting of alginate, gelatin, diethylaminoethyl cellulose and collagen peptide for 3D bioprinting of tissue construct for drug screening application

Three dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology has been making a progressive advancement in the field of tissue engineering to produce tissue constructs that mimic the shape, framework, and microenvironment of an organ. The technology has not only paved the way to organ development but has been widely studied for its application in drug and cosmetic testing using 3D bioprinted constructs. However, not much has been explored on the utilization of bioprinting technology for the development of tumor models to test anti-cancer drug efficacy. The conventional methodology involves a two dimensional (2D) monolayer model to test cellular drug response which has multiple limitations owing to its inability to mimic the natural tissue environment. The choice of bioink for 3D bioprinting is critical as cell morphology and proliferation depend greatly on the property of bioink. In this study, we developed a multicomponent bioink composed of alginate, diethylaminoethyl cellulose, gelatin, and collagen peptide to generate a 3D bioprinted construct. The bioink has been characterised and validated for its printability, shape fidelity and biocompatibility to be used for generating tumor models. Further, a bioprinted tumor model was developed using lung cancer cell line and the efficacy of 3D printed construct for drug screening application was established.

Establishing 3D Printing at the Point of Care: Basic Principles and Tools for Success

As the medical applications of three-dimensional (3D) printing increase, so does the number of health care organizations in which adoption or expansion of 3D printing facilities is under consideration. With recent advancements in 3D printing technology, medical practitioners have embraced this powerful tool to help them to deliver high-quality patient care, with a focus on sustainability. The use of 3D printing in the hospital or clinic at the point of care (POC) has profound potential, but its adoption is not without unanticipated challenges and considerations. The authors provide the basic principles and considerations for building the infrastructure to support 3D printing inside the hospital. This process includes building a business case; determining the requirements for facilities, space, and staff; designing a digital workflow; and considering how electronic health records may have a role in the future. The authors also discuss the supported applications and benefits of medical 3D printing and briefly highlight quality and regulatory considerations. The information presented is meant to be a practical guide to assist radiology departments in exploring the possibilities of POC 3D printing and expanding it from a niche application to a fixture of clinical care. An invited commentary by Ballard is available online. ^©RSNA, 2022.

‘Tablet-in-Syringe’: A Novel Dosing Mechanism for Dysphagic Patients Containing Fast-Disintegrating Tablets Fabricated Using Semisolid Extrusion 3D Printing

With the ability to fabricate personalized dosage forms and considerably shorter manufacturing time, semisolid extrusion (SSE) 3D printing has rapidly grown in popularity in recent years as a novel, versatile manufacturing method that powers a wide range of applications in the pharmaceutical field. In this work, the feasibility of using SSE 3D printing to fabricate fast-disintegrating tablets (FDTs) that are pre-filled in dosing syringes was evaluated. The novel design approach, ‘tablet-in-syringe’, was aimed to ease the oral drug administration and improve the dosing accuracy for dysphagic patients. The effect of varying polymer (hydroxypropyl methylcellulose E15) concentrations and printing parameters (e.g., extrusion rate) on dimensional accuracy, physicochemical properties, disintegration time, and content uniformity of 3D-printed FDTs was studied. An overall comparison of results demonstrated that the best FDT formulation among those developed was with a polymer:drug ratio (w/w) of 1:30, printed at extrusion rate of 3.5 μL/s. The diameter of printed filaments of this formulation was observed to be similar to the nozzle diameter (22G), proving that good printing accuracy was achieved. This FDTs also had the fastest disintegration time (0.81 ± 0.14 min) and a drug (phenytoin sodium, as the model drug) content uniformity that met pharmacopeial specifications. Although the flow characteristics of the dissolved formulation still need improvement, our findings suggested that the novel ‘tablet-in-syringe’ could potentially be considered as a promising fast-disintegrating drug delivery system that can be personalized and manufactured at—or close to—the point of care for dysphagic patients using SSE.

Patient Centricity Driving Formulation Innovation: Improvements in Patient Care Facilitated by Novel Therapeutics and Drug Delivery Technologies

Innovative formulation technologies can play a crucial role in transforming a novel molecule to a medicine that significantly enhances patients' lives. Improved mechanistic understanding of diseases has inspired researchers to expand the druggable space using new therapeutic modalities such as interfering RNA, protein degraders, and novel formats of monoclonal antibodies. Sophisticated formulation strategies are needed to deliver the drugs to their sites of action and to achieve patient centricity, exemplified by messenger RNA vaccines and oral peptides. Moreover, access to medical information via digital platforms has resulted in better-informed patient groups that are requesting consideration of their needs during drug development. This request is consistent with health authority efforts to upgrade their regulations to advance age-appropriate product development for patients. This review describes formulation innovations contributingto improvements in patient care: convenience of administration, preferred route of administration, reducing dosing burden, and achieving targeted delivery of new modalities.

A Three-Dimensional Co-Culture Model for Rheumatoid Arthritis Pannus Tissue

Three-dimensional (3D) co-culture models have closer physiological cell composition and behavior than traditional 2D culture. They exhibit pharmacological effects like in vivo responses, and therefore serve as a high-throughput drug screening model to evaluate drug efficacy and safety in vitro. In this study, we created a 3D co-culture environment to mimic pathological characteristics of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) pannus tissue. 3D scaffold was constructed by bioprinting technology with synovial fibroblasts (MH7A), vascular endothelial cells (EA.hy 926) and gelatin/alginate hydrogels. Cell viability was observed during 7-day culture and the proliferation rate of co-culture cells showed a stable increase stage. Cell-cell interactions were evaluated in the 3D printed scaffold and we found that spheroid size increased with time. TNF-α stimulated MH7A and EA.hy 926 in 3D pannus model showed higher vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiopoietin (ANG) protein expression over time. For drug validation, methotrexate (MTX) was used to examine inhibition effects of angiogenesis in 3D pannus co-culture model. In conclusion, this 3D co-culture pannus model with biological characteristics may help the development of anti-RA drug research.

Toward closed-loop drug delivery: Integrating wearable technologies with transdermal drug delivery systems

The recent advancement and prevalence of wearable technologies and their ability to make digital measurements of vital signs and wellness parameters have triggered a new paradigm in the management of diseases. Drug delivery as a function of stimuli or response from wearable, closed-loop systems can offer real-time on-demand or preprogrammed drug delivery capability and offer total management of disease states. Here we review the key opportunities in this space for development of closed-loop systems, given the advent of digital wearable technologies. Particular considerations and focus are given to closed-loop systems combined with transdermal drug delivery technologies.

Stereolithography 3D printing technology in pharmaceuticals: a review

Three-dimensional printing (3DP) technology is an innovative tool used in manufacturing medical devices, producing alloys, replacing biological tissues, producing customized dosage forms and so on. Stereolithography (SLA), a 3D printing technique, is very rapid and highly accurate and produces finished products of uniform quality. 3D formulations have been optimized with a perfect tool of artificial intelligence learning techniques. Complex designs/shapes can be fabricated through SLA using the photopolymerization principle. Different 3DP technologies are introduced and the most promising of these, SLA, and its commercial applications, are focused on. The high speed and effectiveness of SLA are highlighted. The working principle of SLA, the materials used and applications of the technique in a wide range of different sectors are highlighted in this review. An innovative idea of 3D printing customized pharmaceutical dosage forms is also presented. SLA compromises several advantages over other methods, such as cost effectiveness, controlled integrity of materials and greater speed. The development of SLA has allowed the development of printed pharmaceutical devices. Considering the present trends, it is expected that SLA will be used along with conventional methods of manufacturing of 3D model. This 3D printing technology may be utilized as a novel tool for delivering drugs on demand. This review will be useful for researchers working on 3D printing technologies.

Opportunities and challenges of three-dimensional printing technology in pharmaceutical formulation development

Three-dimensional printing is a technology that prints the products layer-by-layer, in which materials are deposited according to the digital model designed by computer aided design (CAD) software. This technology has competitive advantages regarding product design complexity, product personalization, and on-demand manufacturing. The emergence of 3D technology provides innovative strategies and new ways to develop novel drug delivery systems. This review summarizes the application of 3D printing technologies in the pharmaceutical field, with an emphasis on the advantages of 3D printing technologies for achieving rapid drug delivery, personalized drug delivery, compound drug delivery and customized drug delivery. In addition, this article illustrates the limitations and challenges of 3D printing technologies in the field of pharmaceutical formulation development.

Preparation of High-Drug-Loaded Clarithromycin Gastric-Floating Sustained-Release Tablets Using 3D Printing

The high-drug-loaded sustained-release gastric-floating clarithromycin (CAM) tablets were proposed and manufactured via semisolid extrusion (SSE)-based 3D printing. The physical and mechanical properties, such as dimensions, weight variation, friability, and hardness, were accessed according to the quality standards of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Ch.P). The interactions among the drug-excipients were evaluated via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. Next, the rheological properties of the paste and the effect of the excipients and solvents were evaluated. Finally, a very high drug-loading of up to 81.7% (w/w) with the sustain release time of 8 h (125 mg) and 12 h (250 mg) was achieved. The results revealed the potential of SSE for achieving a high drug loading and identified the suitable properties of the paste for SSE-based 3D printing.

Exploration of Bioengineered Scaffolds Composed of Thermo-Responsive Polymers for Drug Delivery in Wound Healing

Innate and adaptive immune responses lead to wound healing by regulating a complex series of events promoting cellular cross-talk. An inflammatory response is presented with its characteristic clinical symptoms: heat, pain, redness, and swelling. Some smart thermo-responsive polymers like chitosan, polyvinylpyrrolidone, alginate, and poly(ε-caprolactone) can be used to create biocompatible and biodegradable scaffolds. These processed thermo-responsive biomaterials possess 3D architectures similar to human structures, providing physical support for cell growth and tissue regeneration. Furthermore, these structures are used as novel drug delivery systems. Locally heated tumors above the polymer lower the critical solution temperature and can induce its conversion into a hydrophobic form by an entropy-driven process, enhancing drug release. When the thermal stimulus is gone, drug release is reduced due to the swelling of the material. As a result, these systems can contribute to the wound healing process in accelerating tissue healing, avoiding large scar tissue, regulating the inflammatory response, and protecting from bacterial infections. This paper integrates the relevant reported contributions of bioengineered scaffolds composed of smart thermo-responsive polymers for drug delivery applications in wound healing. Therefore, we present a comprehensive review that aims to demonstrate these systems' capacity to provide spatially and temporally controlled release strategies for one or more drugs used in wound healing. In this sense, the novel manufacturing techniques of 3D printing and electrospinning are explored for the tuning of their physicochemical properties to adjust therapies according to patient convenience and reduce drug toxicity and side effects.