Stress In Utero: Prenatal Programming of Brain Plasticity and Cognition

Maternal stress during pregnancy alters circulating small extracellular vesicles and enhances their targeting to the placenta and fetus

BACKGROUND

Maternal psychological distress during pregnancy can negatively impact fetal development, resulting in long-lasting consequences for the offspring. These effects show a sex bias. The mechanisms whereby prenatal stress induces functional and/or structural changes in the placental-fetal unit remain poorly understood. Maternal circulating small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are good candidates to act as "stress signals" in mother-to-fetus communication. Using a repetitive restraint-based rat model of prenatal stress, we examined circulating maternal sEVs under stress conditions and tested whether they could target placental-fetal tissues.

RESULTS

Our mild chronic maternal stress during pregnancy paradigm induced anhedonic-like behavior in pregnant dams and led to intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), particularly in male fetuses and placentas. The concentration and cargo of maternal circulating sEVs changed under stress conditions. Specifically, there was a significant reduction in neuron-enriched proteins and a significant increase in astrocyte-enriched proteins in blood-borne sEVs from stressed dams. To study the effect of repetitive restraint stress on the biodistribution of maternal circulating sEVs in the fetoplacental unit, sEVs from pregnant dams exposed to stress or control protocol were labeled with DiR fluorescent die and injected into pregnant females previously exposed to control or stress protocol. Remarkably, maternal circulating sEVs target placental/fetal tissues and, under stress conditions, fetal tissues are more receptive to sEVs.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that maternal circulating sEVs can act as novel mediators/modulators of mother-to-fetus stress communication. Further studies are needed to identify placental/fetal cellular targets of maternal sEVs and characterize their contribution to stress-induced sex-specific placental and fetal changes.

Neonatal Cannabidiol Exposure Impairs Spatial Memory and Disrupts Neuronal Dendritic Morphology in Young Adult Rats

Introduction: Early life is a sensitive period for brain development. Perinatal exposure to cannabis is increasingly linked to disruption of neurodevelopment; however, research on the effects of cannabidiol (CBD) on the developing brain is scarce. In this study, we aim to study the developmental effects of neonatal CBD exposure on behavior and dendritic architecture in young adult rats. Materials and Methods: Male and female neonatal Sprague Dawley rats were treated with CBD (50 mg/kg) intraperitoneally on postnatal day (PND) 1, 3, and 5 and evaluated for behavioral and neuronal morphological changes during early adulthood. Rats were subjected to a series of behavioral tasks to evaluate long-term effects of neonatal CBD exposure, including the Barnes maze, open field, and elevated plus maze paradigms to assess spatial memory and anxiety-like behavior. Following behavioral evaluation, animals were sacrificed, and neuronal morphology of the cortex and hippocampus was assessed using Golgi-Cox (GC) staining. Results: Rats treated with CBD displayed a sexually dimorphic response in spatial memory, with CBD-treated females developing a deficit but not males. CBD did not elicit alterations in anxiety-like behavior in either sex. Neonatal CBD caused an overall decrease in dendritic length and spine density (apical and basal) in cortical and hippocampal neurons in both sexes. Sholl analysis also revealed a decrease in dendritic intersections in the cortex and hippocampus, indicating reduced dendritic arborization. Conclusions: This study provides evidence that neonatal CBD exposure perturbs normal brain development and leads to lasting alterations in spatial memory and neuronal dendrite morphology in early adulthood, with sex-dependent sensitivity.

Expression of exploratory activity of rat offspring depends on the expression of exploratory activity of their parents at the moment of mating

The aim of this work was to study the, so far, unexplored possibility that non-genetic inheritance of animal behavioral characteristics could depend on the state of the parents at the time of conception. In this study, we measured the levels of motor and exploratory activity in rats at the ages of 2 and 5 months. Male and female rats were mated at the age of 5 months. The following groups were used: male and female rats with high motor activity at ages of 2 and 5 months (ACT+); male and female rats with high activity at the age of 2 months, but low activity at the age of 5 months (ACT-); male and female rats with low activity at the ages of 2 and 5 months (PAS-); male and female rats with low activity at the age of 2 months, but high activity at the age of 5 months (PAS+). It was found that both males and females ACT+ had significantly higher motor activity, which was observed in the first 10 minutes, in the next 20-60 minutes, in the center of the cage and more rearings as compared with PAS- rats. Significant differences in the severity of exploratory activity were found between the male offspring of ACT+ and ACT- rats. Differences between the offspring of PAS+ and PAS- rats were observed in both the male and female rats. The motor activity of animals in the period from 20 minutes after the start of registration did not differ between groups. Thus, it can be considered that individual characteristics of general motor activity are due to genetically inherited factors, while differences in the level of exploratory activity, apparently, are formed due to non-genetic influences from parents during mating.

Transgenerational impacts of early life adversity: from health determinants, implications to epigenetic consequences

Exposure to different environmental factors, social and socioeconomic factors promotes development of the early-life adversity (ELA) phenotype. The persistence of this phenotype across generations is an interesting phenomenon that remains unexplored. Of late many studies have focused on disease-associated outcomes of ELA following exposure during childhood but the persistence of epigenetic imprints transmitted by ELA exposed parents to their offspring remains poorly described. It is possible that both parents are able to transmit ELA-associated genetic imprints to their offspring via transgenerational inheritance mechanisms. Here, we highlight the role of the mother and father in the biological process of conception, from epigenetic reprogramming cycles to later environmental exposures. We explain some of the known determinants of ELA (pollution, socioeconomic challenges, infections, etc.) and their disease-associated outcomes. Finally, we highlight the role of epigenetics, mitochondria and ncRNAs as mechanisms mediating transgenerational inheritance. Whether these transgenerational inheritance mechanisms occur in the human context remains unclear but there is a large body of suggestive evidence in non-human models that points out to its existence.

Effects of Mediterranean Diet or Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction during Pregnancy on Fetal Brain Development Detected by Neurosonography: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial (IMPACT BCN)

INTRODUCTION

We investigated whether structured maternal lifestyle interventions based on Mediterranean diet or stress reduction influence fetal-infant neurodevelopment detected by detailed fetal neurosonography and Ages and Stages Questionnaires 3rd edition (ASQ) at 12 months old.

METHODS

This was a secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial (2017-2020), including 1,221 singleton pregnancies at high risk for small-for-gestational age. Participants were randomized into three groups at 19-23 weeks' gestation: Mediterranean diet intervention, stress reduction program, or usual care. A detailed neurosonography was performed on 881 participants at mean (SD) 33.4 (1.1) weeks' gestation. Neurosonographic measurements were done offline. ASQ was performed on 276 infants at 1 year of corrected age.

RESULTS

Biparietal diameter was similar among study groups. Mediterranean diet group fetuses had deeper insula (26.80 [1.68] versus 26.63 [1.75], mm, p = 0.02) and longer corpus callosum (42.98 [2.44] versus 42.62 [2.27], mm, p = 0.04), with a lower rate of suboptimal score infants in ASQ problem-solving domain (6.2 vs. 16.3%, p = 0.03). Stress reduction group fetuses had deeper insula (26.90 [1.75] versus 26.63 [1.75], mm, p = 0.04) and lower rates of suboptimal score infants in ASQ fine motor domain (4.3 vs. 12.8%, p = 0.04), compared to usual care group fetuses.

CONCLUSION

Maternal structured intervention during pregnancy of the trial has the potential to modify offspring's neurodevelopment.

First-trimester fetal size, accelerated growth in utero, and child neurodevelopment in a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Early pregnancy is a critical window for neural system programming; however, the association of first-trimester fetal size with children's neurodevelopment remains to be assessed. This study aimed to explore the association between first-trimester fetal size and children's neurodevelopment and to examine whether intrauterine accelerated growth could compensate for the detrimental effects of first-trimester restricted growth on childhood neurodevelopment.

METHODS

The participants were from a birth cohort enrolled from March 2014 to March 2019 in Wuhan, China. A total of 2058 fetuses with crown to rump length (CRL) (a proxy of first-trimester fetal size) measurements in the first trimester and neurodevelopmental assessment at age 2 years were included. We measured the first-trimester CRL and defined three fetal growth patterns based on the growth rate of estimated fetal weight from mid to late pregnancy. The neurodevelopment was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development of China Revision at 2 years.

RESULTS

Each unit (a Z score) increase of first-trimester CRL was associated with increased scores in mental developmental index (MDI) (adjusted beta estimate = 1.19, (95% CI: 0.42, 1.95), P = 0.03) and psychomotor developmental index (PDI) (adjusted beta estimate = 1.36, (95% CI: 0.46, 2.26), P < 0.01) at age 2 years, respectively. No significant association was observed between fetal growth rate and PDI. For children with restricted first-trimester fetal size (the lowest tertile of first-trimester CRL), those with "intrauterine accelerated growth" pattern (higher growth rates) had significantly higher MDI (adjusted beta estimate = 6.14, (95% CI: 3.80, 8.49), P < 0.001) but indistinguishable PDI compared to those with "intrauterine faltering growth" pattern (lower growth rates). Main limitations of this study included potential misclassification of gestational age due to recall bias of the last menstrual period and residual confounding.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study suggests that restricted first-trimester fetal size is associated with mental and psychomotor developmental delay in childhood. However, in children with restricted first-trimester fetal size, intrauterine accelerated growth was associated with improved mental development but had little effect on psychomotor development. Additional studies are needed to validate the results in diverse populations.

Impact of Maternal Environment and Inflammation on Fetal Neurodevelopment

During intrauterine life, external stimuli including maternal nutrition, lifestyle, socioeconomic conditions, anxiety, stress, and air pollution can significantly impact fetal development. The human brain structures begin to form in the early weeks of gestation and continue to grow and mature throughout pregnancy. This review aims to assess, based on the latest research, the impact of environmental factors on fetal and neonatal brain development, showing that oxidative stress and inflammation are implied as a common factor for most of the stressors. Environmental insults can induce a maternal inflammatory state and modify nutrient supply to the fetus, possibly through epigenetic mechanisms, leading to significant consequences for brain morphogenesis and neurological outcomes. These risk factors are often synergic and mutually reinforcing. Fetal growth restriction and preterm birth represent paradigms of intrauterine reduced nutrient supply and inflammation, respectively. These mechanisms can lead to an increase in free radicals and, consequently, oxidative stress, with well-known adverse effects on the offspring's neurodevelopment. Therefore, a healthy intrauterine environment is a critical factor in supporting normal fetal brain development. Hence, healthcare professionals and clinicians should implement effective interventions to prevent and reduce modifiable risk factors associated with an increased inflammatory state and decreased nutrient supply during pregnancy.

Prenatal influences on postnatal neuroplasticity: Integrating DOHaD and sensitive/critical period frameworks to understand biological embedding in early development

Early environments can have significant and lasting effects on brain, body, and behavior across the lifecourse. Here, we address current research efforts to understand how experiences impact neurodevelopment with a new perspective integrating two well-known conceptual frameworks - the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) and sensitive/critical period frameworks. Specifically, we consider how prenatal experiences characterized in the DOHaD model impact two key neurobiological mechanisms of sensitive/critical periods for adapting to and learning from the postnatal environment. We draw from both animal and human research to summarize the current state of knowledge on how particular prenatal substance exposures (psychoactive substances and heavy metals) and nutritional profiles (protein-energy malnutrition and iron deficiency) each differentially impact brain circuits' excitation/GABAergic inhibition balance and myelination. Finally, we highlight new research directions that emerge from this integrated framework, including testing how prenatal environments alter sensitive/critical period timing and learning and identifying potential promotional/buffering prenatal exposures to impact postnatal sensitive/critical periods. We hope this integrative framework considering prenatal influences on postnatal neuroplasticity will stimulate new research to understand how early environments have lasting consequences on our brains, behavior, and health.

Prenatal exposure to maternal disadvantage-related inflammatory biomarkers: associations with neonatal white matter microstructure

Prenatal exposure to heightened maternal inflammation has been associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, including atypical brain maturation and psychiatric illness. In mothers experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage, immune activation can be a product of the chronic stress inherent to such environmental hardship. While growing preclinical and clinical evidence has shown links between altered neonatal brain development and increased inflammatory states in utero, the potential mechanism by which socioeconomic disadvantage differentially impacts neural-immune crosstalk remains unclear. In the current study, we investigated associations between socioeconomic disadvantage, gestational inflammation, and neonatal white matter microstructure in 320 mother-infant dyads over-sampled for poverty. We analyzed maternal serum levels of four cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α) over the course of pregnancy in relation to offspring white matter microstructure and socioeconomic disadvantage. Higher average maternal IL-6 was associated with very low socioeconomic status (SES; INR < 200% poverty line) and lower neonatal corticospinal fractional anisotropy (FA) and lower uncinate axial diffusivity (AD). No other cytokine was associated with SES. Higher average maternal IL-10 was associated with lower FA and higher radial diffusivity (RD) in corpus callosum and corticospinal tracts, higher optic radiation RD, lower uncinate AD, and lower FA in inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus and anterior limb of internal capsule tracts. SES moderated the relationship between average maternal TNF-α levels during gestation and neonatal white matter diffusivity. When these interactions were decomposed, the patterns indicated that this association was significant and positive among very low SES neonates, whereby TNF-α was inversely and significantly associated with inferior cingulum AD. By contrast, among the more advantaged neonates (lower-to-higher SES [INR ≥ 200% poverty line]), TNF-α was positively and significantly associated with superior cingulum AD. Taken together, these findings suggest that the relationship between prenatal cytokine exposure and white matter microstructure differs as a function of SES. These patterns are consistent with a scenario where gestational inflammation's effects on white matter development diverge depending on the availability of foundational resources in utero.

Prenatal and Postnatal Maternal Depressive Symptoms Are Associated With White Matter Integrity in 5-Year-Olds in a Sex-Specific Manner

BACKGROUND

Prenatal and postnatal maternal psychological distress predicts various detrimental consequences on social, behavioral, and cognitive development of offspring, especially in girls. Maturation of white matter (WM) continues from prenatal development into adulthood and is thus susceptible to exposures both before and after birth.

METHODS

WM microstructural features of 130 children (mean age, 5.36 years; range, 5.04-5.79 years; 63 girls) and their association with maternal prenatal and postnatal depressive and anxiety symptoms were investigated with diffusion tensor imaging, tract-based spatial statistics, and regression analyses. Maternal questionnaires were collected during first, second, and third trimesters and at 3, 6, and 12 months postpartum with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) for depressive symptoms and Symptom Checklist-90 for general anxiety. Covariates included child's sex; child's age; maternal prepregnancy body mass index; maternal age; socioeconomic status; and exposures to smoking, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and synthetic glucocorticoids during pregnancy.

RESULTS

Prenatal second-trimester EPDS scores were positively associated with fractional anisotropy in boys (p < .05, 5000 permutations) after controlling for EPDS scores 3 months postpartum. In contrast, postpartum EPDS scores at 3 months correlated negatively with fractional anisotropy (p < .01, 5000 permutations) in widespread areas only in girls after controlling for prenatal second-trimester EPDS scores. Perinatal anxiety was not associated with WM structure.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that prenatal and postnatal maternal psychological distress is associated with brain WM tract developmental alterations in a sex- and timing-dependent manner. Future studies including behavioral data are required to consolidate associative outcomes for these alterations.

Effects of Mediterranean diet or mindfulness-based stress reduction on fetal and neonatal brain development: a secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Maternal suboptimal nutrition and high stress levels are associated with adverse fetal and infant neurodevelopment.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate if structured lifestyle interventions involving a Mediterranean diet or mindfulness-based stress reduction during pregnancy are associated with differences in fetal and neonatal brain development.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a secondary analysis of the randomized clinical trial Improving Mothers for a Better Prenatal Care Trial Barcelona that was conducted in Barcelona, Spain, from 2017 to 2020. Participants with singleton pregnancies were randomly allocated into 3 groups, namely Mediterranean diet intervention, stress reduction program, or usual care. Participants in the Mediterranean diet group received monthly individual sessions and free provision of extra-virgin olive oil and walnuts. Pregnant women in the stress reduction group underwent an 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction program adapted for pregnancy. Magnetic resonance imaging of 90 fetal brains was performed at 36 to 39 weeks of gestation and the Neonatal Neurobehavioral Assessment Scale was completed for 692 newborns at 1 to 3 months. Fetal outcomes were the total brain volume and lobular or regional volumes obtained from a 3-dimensional reconstruction and semiautomatic segmentation of magnetic resonance images. Neonatal outcomes were the 6 clusters scores of the Neonatal Neurobehavioral Assessment Scale. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess the association between the interventions and the fetal and neonatal outcomes.

RESULTS

When compared with the usual care group, the offspring exposed to a maternal Mediterranean diet had a larger total fetal brain volume (mean, 284.11 cm3; standard deviation, 23.92 cm3 vs 294.01 cm3; standard deviation, 26.29 cm3; P=.04), corpus callosum (mean, 1.16 cm3; standard deviation, 0.19 cm3 vs 1.26 cm3; standard deviation, 0.22 cm3; P=.03), and right frontal lobe (44.20; standard deviation, 4.09 cm3 vs 46.60; standard deviation, 4.69 cm3; P=.02) volumes based on magnetic resonance imaging measures and higher scores in the Neonatal Neurobehavioral Assessment Scale clusters of autonomic stability (mean, 7.4; standard deviation, 0.9 vs 7.6; standard deviation, 0.7; P=.04), social interaction (mean, 7.5; standard deviation, 1.5 vs 7.8; standard deviation, 1.3; P=.03), and range of state (mean, 4.3; standard deviation, 1.3 vs 4.5; standard deviation, 1.0; P=.04). When compared with the usual care group, offspring from the stress reduction group had larger fetal left anterior cingulate gyri volume (1.63; standard deviation, 0.32 m3 vs 1.79; standard deviation, 0.30 cm3; P=.03) based on magnetic resonance imaging and higher scores in the Neonatal Neurobehavioral Assessment Scale for regulation of state (mean, 6.0; standard deviation, 1.8 vs 6.5; standard deviation, 1.5; P<.01).

CONCLUSION

Maternal structured lifestyle interventions involving the promotion of a Mediterranean diet or stress reduction during pregnancy were associated with changes in fetal and neonatal brain development.

Maternal stress-induced changes in adolescent and adult offspring: Neurobehavioural improvement and telomere maintenance

Maternal stress (MS) during gestation is known to increase the risk for the development of behavioural and physiological disorders and advances cellular aging. In this study, we investigated whether the supplementation of standardized Bacopa monnieri extract (CDRI-08/BME) or l-Carnosine (L-C) to the mother exposed to social stress during gestation modify the effect on their offspring's neurobehaviour, antioxidant defence gene expression, telomere length, and telomere biology. To test this, timed pregnant rats were subjected to social stress during the gestational day (GD) 16-18. A subset of stressed pregnant rats received either BME [80 mg/kg in 0.5% gum acacia (per-orally; p.o)] or L-C [1 mg/kg (p.o)] every day from GD-10 to until their pup's attained postnatal day (PND)-23. We observed that MS induced anxiety-like behaviour, altered inter-limb coordination, antioxidant defence genes [Superoxide dismutase (SOD1,2), Catalase (CAT), Glutathione peroxidase-3 (GPX3)], telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT), shelterin complex subunits (TRF1, RAP1B, POT1) protein level and shorten telomere length. Notably, supplementation of BME/L-C dampens the MS, thus the effect on neurobehaviour, antioxidant defence gene expression, and telomere biology is minimized in their offspring. Together, our results suggest that supplementation of BME/L-C during gestation dampens the MS and reduced oxidative stress-mediated changes in telomere shortening/biology and associated neurobehaviour in offspring born following MS.

DNA Methylation Patterns in Relation to Acute Severity and Duration of Anxiety and Depression

Depression and anxiety are common mental disorders that often occur together. Stress is an important risk factor for both disorders, affecting pathophysiological processes through epigenetic changes that mediate gene-environment interactions. In this study, we explored two proposed models about the dynamic nature of DNA methylation in anxiety and depression: a stable change, in which DNA methylation accumulates over time as a function of the duration of clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression, or a flexible change, in which DNA methylation correlates with the acute severity of clinical symptoms. Symptom severity was assessed using clinical questionnaires for anxiety and depression (BDI-II, IDS-C, and HAM-A), and the current episode and the total lifetime symptom duration was obtained from patients' medical records. Peripheral blood DNA methylation levels were determined for the BDNF, COMT, and SLC6A4 genes. We found a significant negative correlation between COMT_1 amplicon methylation and acute symptom scores, with BDI-II (R(22) = 0.190, p = 0.033), IDS-C (R(22) = 0.199, p = 0.029), and HAM-A (R(22) = 0.231, p = 0.018) all showing a similar degree of correlation. Our results suggest that DNA methylation follows flexible dynamics, with methylation levels closely associated with acute clinical presentation rather than with the duration of anxiety and depression. These results provide important insights into the dynamic nature of DNA methylation in anxiety and affective disorders and contribute to our understanding of the complex interplay between stress, epigenetics, and individual phenotype.

A stable and replicable neural signature of lifespan adversity in the adult brain

Environmental adversities constitute potent risk factors for psychiatric disorders. Evidence suggests the brain adapts to adversity, possibly in an adversity-type and region-specific manner. However, the long-term effects of adversity on brain structure and the association of individual neurobiological heterogeneity with behavior have yet to be elucidated. Here we estimated normative models of structural brain development based on a lifespan adversity profile in a longitudinal at-risk cohort aged 25 years (n = 169). This revealed widespread morphometric changes in the brain, with partially adversity-specific features. This pattern was replicated at the age of 33 years (n = 114) and in an independent sample at 22 years (n = 115). At the individual level, greater volume contractions relative to the model were predictive of future anxiety. We show a stable neurobiological signature of adversity that persists into adulthood and emphasize the importance of considering individual-level rather than group-level predictions to explain emerging psychopathology.

Lifelong effects of prenatal and early postnatal stress on the hippocampus, amygdala, and psychological states of Holocaust survivors

This study focuses on hippocampal and amygdala volume, seed-based connectivity, and psychological traits of Holocaust survivors who experienced stress during prenatal and early postnatal development. We investigated people who lived in Central Europe during the Holocaust and who, as Jews, were in imminent danger. The group who experienced stress during their prenatal development and early postnatal (PreP) period (n = 11) were compared with a group who experienced Holocaust-related stress later in their lives: in late childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood (ChA) (n = 21). The results of volumetry analysis showed significantly lower volumes of both hippocampi and the right amygdala in the PreP group. Seed-based connectivity analysis revealed increased connectivity from the seed in the right amygdala to the middle and posterior cingulate cortex, caudate, and inferior left frontal operculum in the PreP group. Psychological testing found higher levels of traumatic stress symptoms (TCS-40) and lower levels of well-being (SOS-10) in the PreP group than in the ChA group. The results of our study demonstrate that extreme stress experienced during prenatal and early postnatal life has a profound lifelong impact on the hippocampus and amygdala and on several psychological characteristics.

Effect of a Mediterranean Diet or Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction During Pregnancy on Child Neurodevelopment: A Prespecified Analysis of the IMPACT BCN Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

Maternal suboptimal nutrition and high stress levels are associated with adverse fetal and childhood neurodevelopment.

Objective

To test the hypothesis that structured interventions based on a Mediterranean diet or mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) during pregnancy improve child neurodevelopment at age 2 years.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This was a prespecified analysis of the parallel-group Improving Mothers for a Better Prenatal Care Trial Barcelona (IMPACT BCN) randomized clinical trial, which was conducted at a university hospital in Barcelona, Spain, from February 2017 to March 2020. A total of 1221 singleton pregnancies (19 to 23 weeks' gestation) with high risk of delivering newborns who were small for gestational age were randomly allocated into 3 groups: a Mediterranean diet intervention, an MBSR program, or usual care. A postnatal evaluation with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, 3rd Edition (Bayley-III), was performed. Data were analyzed from July to November 2022.

Interventions

Participants in the Mediterranean diet group received monthly individual and group educational sessions and free provision of extra virgin olive oil and walnuts. Those in the stress reduction group underwent an 8-week MBSR program adapted for pregnancy. Individuals in the usual care group received pregnancy care per institutional protocols.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Neurodevelopment in children was assessed by Bayley-III at 24 months of corrected postnatal age.

Results

A total of 626 children (293 [46.8%] female and 333 [53.2%] male) participated at a mean (SD) age of 24.8 (2.9) months. No differences were observed in the baseline characteristics between intervention groups. Compared with children from the usual care group, children in the Mediterranean diet group had higher scores in the cognitive domain (β, 5.02; 95% CI, 1.52-8.53; P = .005) and social-emotional domain (β, 5.15; 95% CI, 1.18-9.12; P = .01), whereas children from the stress reduction group had higher scores in the social-emotional domain (β, 4.75; 95% CI, 0.54-8.85; P = .02).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this prespecified analysis of a randomized clinical trial, maternal structured lifestyle interventions during pregnancy based on a Mediterranean diet or MBSR significantly improved child neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 2 years.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03166332.

Associations between mother's depressive symptoms during pregnancy and newborn's brain functional connectivity

Depression during pregnancy is common and the prevalence further increased during the COVID pandemic. Recent findings have shown potential impact of antenatal depression on children's neurodevelopment and behavior, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Nor is it clear whether mild depressive symptoms among pregnant women would impact the developing brain. In this study, 40 healthy pregnant women had their depressive symptoms evaluated by the Beck Depression Inventory-II at ~12, ~24, and ~36 weeks of pregnancy, and their healthy full-term newborns underwent a brain MRI without sedation including resting-state fMRI for evaluation of functional connectivity development. The relationships between functional connectivities and maternal Beck Depression Inventory-II scores were evaluated by Spearman's rank partial correlation tests using appropriate multiple comparison correction with newborn's gender and gestational age at birth controlled. Significant negative correlations were identified between neonatal brain functional connectivity and mother's Beck Depression Inventory-II scores in the third trimester, but not in the first or second trimester. Higher depressive symptoms during the third trimester of pregnancy were associated with lower neonatal brain functional connectivity in the frontal lobe and between frontal/temporal lobe and occipital lobe, indicating a potential impact of maternal depressive symptoms on offspring brain development, even in the absence of clinical depression.

Absence of Depressive and Anxious Behavior with Genetic Dysregulation in Adult C57Bl/6J Mice after Prenatal Exposure to Ionizing Radiation

The exposure of ionizing radiation during early gestation often leads to deleterious and even lethal effects; however, few extensive studies have been conducted on late gestational exposures. This research examined the behavior al effects of C57Bl/6J mouse offspring exposed to low dose ionizing gamma irradiation during the equivalent third trimester. Pregnant dams were randomly assigned to sham or exposed groups to either low dose or sublethal dose radiation (50, 300, or 1000 mGy) at gestational day 15. Adult offspring underwent a behavioral and genetic analysis after being raised under normal murine housing conditions. Our results indicate very little change in the behavioral tasks measuring general anxiety, social anxiety, and stress-management in animals exposed prenatally across the low dose radiation conditions. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions were conducted on the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum of each animal; results indicate some dysregulation in markers of DNA damage, synaptic activity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation, and methylation pathways in the offspring. Together, our results provide evidence in the C57Bl/6J strain, that exposure to sublethal dose radiation (<1000 mGy) during the last period of gestation leads to no observable changes in behaviour when assessed as adults, although some changes in gene expression were observed for specific brain regions. These results indicate that the level of oxidative stress occurring during late gestation for this mouse strain is not sufficient for a change in the assessed behavioral phenotype, but results in some modest dysregulation of the genetic profile of the brain.

Reported health, social support, stress and associations with choline intake in pregnant women in central South Africa: the NuEMI study 2018-2019

BACKGROUND

The health and well-being of pregnant women can influence pregnancy outcomes and are closely associated with social support and experiences of stress. Poor nutrition predisposes to poor health with choline intake affecting pregnancy outcome. This study determined reported health, social support, and stress and how these factors are associated with choline intake in pregnancy.

METHODS

A cross sectional study was performed. Pregnant women in their second and third trimesters attending a high-risk antenatal clinic at a regional hospital in Bloemfontein, South Africa, were included. Trained fieldworkers obtained information during structured interviews using standardised questionnaires. Logistic regression with backward selection (p < 0.05) was used to select significant independent factors associated with choline intake. Variables with a p-value < 0.15 in bivariate analysis were considered for inclusion in the model.

RESULTS

Median age and gestation in the sample (N = 682) were 31.8 years and 32.0 weeks, respectively. Most participants (84.7%) consumed less than the adequate intake (AI) of 450 mg of choline per day. Most participants (69.0%) were either overweight or obese. One in eight participants (12.6%) reported not having anyone that could help them in times of need, more than one third (36.0%) reported having unpayable debt and one in twelve (8.4%) reported experiencing physical abuse by their partners. Normotensive participants and those using anti-retroviral therapy (ART) (thus HIV-infected), were more likely to consume choline in amounts below the AI (p = 0.042 and p = 0.011, respectively). Logistic regression analysis showed that the odds of consuming choline in amounts below the AI were lower for participants that were not using ART versus those using ART, with an odds ratio of 0.53.

CONCLUSION

HIV-infected participants were more likely to consume choline in levels below the AI. This vulnerable group should be the focus of targeted efforts to improve choline intake.

Exposure in utero to adverse events and health late-in-life: Evidence from China

This paper estimates the effect of in utero exposure to adverse events on late life diabetes, cardiovascular disease risks and cognition deficiency. We merge data on the regional violence during the Cultural Revolution and the excessive death rates during the Chinese Great Famine with data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study survey. Results show that female babies who were exposed in utero to the famine have higher diabetes risks, while male babies who were exposed to the Cultural Revolution are shown to have lower cognitive abilities.

Pregnancy during the pandemic: the impact of COVID-19-related stress on risk for prenatal depression

BACKGROUND

Pregnant women may be especially susceptible to negative events (i.e. adversity) related to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and negative affective responses to these events (i.e. stress). We examined the latent structure of stress and adversity related to the COVID-19 pandemic among pregnant women, potential antecedents of COVID-19-related stress and adversity in this population, and associations with prenatal depressive symptoms.

METHOD

We surveyed 725 pregnant women residing in the San Francisco Bay Area in March-May 2020, 343 of whom provided addresses that were geocoded and matched by census tract to measures of community-level risk. We compared their self-reported depressive symptoms to women matched on demographic factors and history of mental health difficulties who were pregnant prior to the pandemic.

RESULTS

Women who were pregnant during the pandemic were nearly twice as likely to have possible depression than were matched women who were pregnant prior to the pandemic. Individual- and community-level factors tied to socioeconomic inequality were associated with latent factors of COVID-19-related stress and adversity. Beyond objective adversity, subjective stress responses were strongly associated with depressive symptoms during the pandemic.

CONCLUSIONS

Highlighting the role of subjective responses in vulnerability to prenatal depression and factors that influence susceptibility to COVID-19-related stress, these findings inform the allocation of resources to support recovery from this pandemic and future disease outbreaks. In addition to policies that mitigate disruptions to the environment due to the pandemic, treatments that focus on cognitions about the self and the environment may help to alleviate depressive symptoms in pregnant women.

Epigenetic (re)programming of gene expression changes of CB1R and FAAH in the medial prefrontal cortex in response to early life and adolescence stress exposure

Environmental factors, including stress, that are experienced during early life (ELS) or adolescence are potential risk factors for the development of behavioral and mental disorders later in life. The endocannabinoid system plays a major role in the regulation of stress responses and emotional behavior, thereby acting as a mediator of stress vulnerability and resilience. Among the critical factors, which determine the magnitude and direction of long-term consequences of stress exposure is age, i.e., the maturity of brain circuits during stress exposure. Thus, the present study addressed the hypotheses that ELS and adolescent stress differentially affect the expression of regulatory elements of the endocannabinoid system, cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of adult female rats. We also tested the hypothesis that the proposed gene expression changes are epigenetically modulated via altered DNA-methylation. The specific aims were to investigate if (i) ELS and adolescent stress as single stressors induce changes in CB1R and FAAH expression (ii) ELS exposure influences the effect of adolescent stress on CB1R and FAAH expression, and (iii) if the proposed gene expression changes are paralleled by changes of DNA methylation. The following experimental groups were investigated: (1) non-stressed controls (CON), (2) ELS exposure (ELS), (3) adolescent stress exposure (forced swimming; FS), (4) ELS + FS exposure. We found an up-regulation of CB1R expression in both single-stressor groups and a reduction back to control levels in the ELS + FS group. An up-regulation of FAAH expression was found only in the FS group. The data indicate that ELS, i.e., stress during a very immature stage of brain development, exerts a buffering programming effect on gene expression changes induced by adolescent stress. The detected gene expression changes were accompanied by altered DNA methylation patterns in the promoter region of these genes, specifically, a negative correlation of mean CB1R DNA methylation with gene expression was found. Our results also indicate that ELS induces a long-term "(re)programming" effect, characterized by CpG-site specific changes within the promoter regions of the two genes that influence gene expression changes in response to FS at adolescence.

Longitudinal and prospective assessment of prenatal maternal sleep quality and associations with newborn hippocampal and amygdala volume

BACKGROUND

The rapid maturation of the fetal brain renders the fetus susceptible to prenatal environmental signals. Prenatal maternal sleep quality is known to have important health implications for newborns including risk for preterm birth, however, the effect on the fetal brain is poorly understood.

METHOD

Participants included 94 pregnant participants and their newborns (53% female). Pregnant participants (Mage = 30; SDage= 5.29) reported on sleep quality three times throughout pregnancy. Newborn hippocampal and amygdala volumes were assessed using structural magnetic resonance imaging. Multilevel modeling was used to test the associations between trajectories of prenatal maternal sleep quality and newborn hippocampal and amygdala volume.

RESULTS

The overall trajectory of prenatal maternal sleep quality was associated with hippocampal volume (left: b = 0.00003, p = 0.013; right: b = 0.00003, p = .008). Follow up analyses assessing timing of exposure indicate that poor sleep quality early in pregnancy was associated with larger hippocampal volume bilaterally (e.g., late gestation left: b = 0.002, p = 0.24; right: b = 0.004, p = .11). Prenatal sleep quality was not associated with amygdala volume.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight the implications of poor prenatal maternal sleep quality and its role in contributing to newborn hippocampal development.

Cross-Generational Impact of Epigenetic Male Influence on Physical Activity in Rat

The aim of this work was to study whether epigenetic events at conception influence the formation of behavioral features found in adult rats. First generational inheritance of activity level, anxiety like behavior, and learning ability was studied. To separate genetic and non-genetic inheritance, mating of males and females with average motor activity was carried out in the presence anesthetized or conscious males with high or low activity. Our results show that offspring of parents who mated in the presence of males with a high motor activity were significantly more active than offspring of parents that were paired in the presence of males with low activity. Anxiety like behavior and learning ability were not inherited in this way. It is possible that the phenomenon we discovered is important for maintaining a certain level of activity of specific populations of animals. It counteracts natural selection, which should lead to a constant increase in the activity of animals.

Sex differences in the vulnerability of the hippocampus to prenatal stress

Distressing events during pregnancy that engage activity of the body's endocrine stress response have been linked with later life cognitive deficits in offspring and associated with developmental changes in cognitive-controlling neural regions. Interestingly, prenatal stress (PS)-induced alterations have shown some sex specificity. Here, we review the literature of animal studies examining sex-specific effect of physical PS on the function and structure of the hippocampus as hippocampal impairments likely underlie PS-associated deficits in learning and memory. Furthermore, the connectivity between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the hippocampus as well as the heavy presence of glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) in the hippocampus suggests this structure plays an important role in modulation of activity within stress circuitry in a sex-specific pattern. We hope that better understanding of sex-specific, PS-related hippocampal impairment will assist in uncovering the molecular mechanisms behind sex-based risk factors in PS populations across development, and perhaps contribute to greater precision in management of cognitive disturbances in this vulnerable population.

Obstetric complications and cognition in schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a complex brain disorder linked to cognitive and neurostructural abnormalities that involves genetic and environmental factors with obstetric complications (OCs) at birth conferring a high risk for the disease. Indeed, current research in the general population describes the deleterious effect of OCs on cognitive performance in adulthood. With this rationale, we aim to review the relationship between OCs and cognition in SZ and related psychotic disorders.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis describing cognitive function and OCs in patients with SZ and related disorders were conducted. PubMed, EmBase, SCOPUS, and the Cochrane Library were systematically searched to identify eligible studies up to January 2022. We calculated the effect sizes (Hedges' g) of cognitive domains within each study and quantified the proportion of between-study variability using the I² statistic. Homogeneity was assessed using the Q-statistic (X²). The study was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42018094238).

RESULTS

A total of 4124 studies were retrieved, with 10 studies meeting inclusion criteria for the systematic review and eight for meta-analysis. SZ subjects with OCs showed poor verbal memory [Hedges' g = -0.89 (95% CI -1.41 to -0.37), p < 0.001] and working memory performance [Hedges' g = -1.47 (95% CI -2.89 to -0.06), p = 0.01] in a random-effect model compared to those without OCs.

CONCLUSIONS

OCs appear to have a moderate impact on specific cognitive such as working memory and verbal memory. Our findings suggest that OCs are associated with brain development and might underlie the cognitive abnormalities described at onset of psychosis.

Prenatal hair cortisol concentrations during the COVID-19 outbreak: Associations with maternal psychological stress and infant temperament

BACKGROUND

Maternal psychological stress during pregnancy, including stress resulting from disasters and trauma, has been linked to temperamental difficulties in offspring. Although heightened cortisol concentrations are often hypothesized as an underlying mechanism, evidence supporting this mechanism is not consistent, potentially because of methodological issues and low stress in the population.

AIM

To address these issues, this preregistered study investigated the following associations between: 1) prenatal psychological stress and hair cortisol, as a biomarker for chronic stress, during the COVID-19 outbreak (i.e., as a major worldwide psychological stressor), and 2) maternal hair cortisol during the COVID-19 outbreak and later infant temperamental negative affectivity and orienting/regulation. Additionally, we explored whether associations were different for women with low versus high socioeconomic status (SES; maternal education and annual household income) and at different stages of pregnancy.

METHOD

Pregnant women (N = 100) filled out online questionnaires during the first COVID-19 lockdown. Six months later, when most mothers were still pregnant or had just given birth, maternal hair samples were collected during home visits. When infants were six months old, mothers reported on their infant's temperament.

RESULTS

Although hierarchical regression analyses revealed no associations between prenatal COVID-19 psychological stress and hair cortisol during the COVID-19 outbreak, SES proved to be a moderator in this association. Only pregnant women with higher levels of SES, not lower levels, showed a positive association between work-related and social support-related COVID-19 worries and hair cortisol. Finally, prenatal hair cortisol was not associated with later infant temperamental negative affectivity and orienting/regulation.

CONCLUSION

Although the COVID-19 outbreak proved to be a major psychological stressor worldwide, the physiological impact of the crisis might be different for pregnant women with higher SES as compared to lower SES.

Novel Dopamine Transporter Inhibitor, CE-123, Ameliorates Spatial Memory Deficits Induced by Maternal Separation in Adolescent Rats: Impact of Sex

Maternal separation (MS) is a key contributor to neurodevelopmental disorders, including learning disabilities. To test the hypothesis that dopamine signaling is a major factor in this, an atypical new dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibitor, CE-123, was assessed for its potential to counteract the MS-induced spatial learning and memory deficit in male and female rats. Hence, neonatal rats (postnatal day (PND)1 to 21) were exposed to MS (180 min/day). Next, the acquisition of spatial learning and memory (Barnes maze task) and the expression of dopamine D1 receptor, dopamine transporter (DAT), and the neuronal GTPase, RIT2, which binds DAT in the vehicle-treated rats were evaluated in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus in the adolescent animals. The results show that MS impairs the acquisition of spatial learning and memory in rats, with a more severe effect in females. Moreover, the MS induced upregulation of DAT and dopamine D1 receptors expression in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus in adolescent rats. Regarding RIT2, the expression was decreased in the hippocampus for both the males and females, however, in the prefrontal cortex, reduction was found only in the females, suggesting that there are region-specific differences in DAT endocytic trafficking. CE-123 ameliorated the behavioral deficits associated with MS. Furthermore, it decreased the MS-induced upregulation of D1 receptor expression level in the hippocampus. These effects were more noted in females. Overall, CE-123, an atypical DAT inhibitor, is able to restore cognitive impairment and dopamine signaling in adolescent rats exposed to MS—with more evident effect in females than males.

Effects of single and combined exposure to lead and stress during pregnancy on offspring neurodevelopment

OBJECTIVE

To assess associations of single and combined exposures to lead and stress during different stages of pregnancy with offspring neurodevelopment.

METHODS

We measured prenatal lead (maternal blood-lead in early-pregnancy and umbilical-cord-blood-lead) and maternal stress levels in Shanghai-Birth-Cohort from 2013 to 2016. Maternal stress was assessed using Center-for-Epidemiological-Studies-Depression-Scale and Self-Rating-Anxiety-Scale during mid-pregnancy. The Ages-Stages-Questionnaires-3 (at 6/12-months-of-age) and Bayley-III (at 24-months-of-age) were both used to assess neurodevelopment.

RESULTS

A total of 2132 mother-child pairs with both prenatal lead and stress measurements were included. The geometric-means of blood-lead in early-pregnancy and cord-blood-lead were 1.46 μg/dL and 1.33 μg/dL, respectively. Among the study women, 1.89 % and 0.14 % were screened positive for depression and anxiety. Adjusting for related confounders, the combined exposures had stronger adverse associations with offspring social-emotional skills than single exposures; and the combined exposure in early-pregnancy was associated with greater neurodevelopmental differences than combined exposure around-birth, especially in social-emotion at 24 months-of-age [β (95 %CI): - 10.48(-17.42, -3.54) vs. - 5.95(-11.53, -0.36)].

CONCLUSIONS

Both single and combined prenatal exposures to lead/stress impaired infant neuro-development, and the effects of combined exposure may be more profound than single exposures. Combined exposure in early-pregnancy may be associated with worse neurodevelopmental outcomes than combined exposure around-birth, especially in social-emotional development.

Altered Development of Prefrontal GABAergic Functions and Anxiety-like Behavior in Adolescent Offspring Induced by Prenatal Stress

Maternal stress can afflict fetal brain development, putting the offspring at risk of cognitive deficits, including anxiety. The prefrontal cortex (PFC), a protracted maturing region, is notably affected by prenatal stress (PS). However, it remains unclear how PS interferes with the maturation of the GABAergic system, considering its functional adjustment in the PFC during adolescence. The present study thus investigated the long-lasting consequences of PS on the prefrontal GABAergic functions of adolescent offspring. Pregnant Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into controls and the PS group, which underwent restraint stress during the last week of gestation. Male pups from postnatal days (PND) 40–42 were submitted to the elevated plus maze (EPM) test. Proteins essentially involved in GABAergic signaling were then examined in PFC tissues, including the K+-Cl− cotransporter (KCC2), Na+-K+-Cl− cotransporter (NKCC1), α1 and α5 subunits of GABA type A receptors (GABAA receptors), and parvalbumin (PV), along with cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation (pCREB), which reacts in the plasticity regulation of PV-positive interneurons. The results revealed that the higher anxiety-like behavior of PS adolescent rats concurred with the significant decreases of the KCC2 and α1 subunits, with PV- and pCREB-lowered levels. The findings suggested that PS disrupts the continuance of PFC maturity by reducing the essential elements of GABAergic functions. These changes likely underlie the anxiety emerging in adolescence, possibly progressing to mental disorders.

The Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Neighborhood Crime on Neonatal Functional Connectivity

BACKGROUND

Maternal exposure to adversity during pregnancy has been found to affect infant brain development; however, the specific effect of prenatal crime exposure on neonatal brain connectivity remains unclear. Based on existing research, we hypothesized that living in a high-crime neighborhood during pregnancy would affect neonatal frontolimbic connectivity over and above other individual- and neighborhood-level adversity and that these associations would be mediated by maternal psychosocial stress.

METHODS

Participants included 399 pregnant women, recruited as part of the eLABE (Early Life Adversity, Biological Embedding, and Risk for Developmental Precursors of Mental Disorders) study. In the neonatal period, 319 healthy, nonsedated infants were scanned using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (repetition time = 800 ms; echo time = 37 ms; voxel size = 2.0 × 2.0 × 2.0 mm3; multiband = 8) on a Prisma 3T scanner and had at least 10 minutes of high-quality data. Crime data at the block group level were obtained from Applied Geographic Solution. Linear regressions and mediation models tested associations between crime, frontolimbic connectivity, and psychosocial stress.

RESULTS

Living in a neighborhood with high property crime during pregnancy was related to weaker neonatal functional connectivity between the thalamus-anterior default mode network (aDMN) (β = -0.15, 95% CI = -0.25 to -0.04, p = .008). Similarly, high neighborhood violent crime was related to weaker functional connectivity between the thalamus-aDMN (β = -0.16, 95% CI = -0.29 to -0.04, p = .01) and amygdala-hippocampus (β = -0.16, 95% CI = -0.29 to -0.03, p = .02), controlling for other types of adversity. Psychosocial stress partially mediated relationships between the thalamus-aDMN and both violent and property crime.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that prenatal exposure to crime is associated with weaker neonatal limbic and frontal functional brain connections, providing another reason for targeted public policy interventions to reduce crime.

Modular-based psychotherapy (MoBa) versus cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) for patients with depression, comorbidities and a history of childhood maltreatment: study protocol for a randomised controlled feasibility trial

INTRODUCTION

In depression treatment, most patients do not reach response or remission with current psychotherapeutic approaches. Major reasons for individual non-response are interindividual heterogeneity of etiological mechanisms and pathological forms, and a high rate of comorbid disorders. Personalised treatments targeting comorbidities as well as underlying transdiagnostic mechanisms and factors like early childhood maltreatment may lead to better outcomes. A modular-based psychotherapy (MoBa) approach provides a treatment model of independent and flexible therapy elements within a systematic treatment algorithm to combine and integrate existing evidence-based approaches. By optimally tailoring module selection and application to the specific needs of each patient, MoBa has great potential to improve the currently unsatisfying results of psychotherapy as a bridge between disorder-specific and personalised approaches.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

In a randomised controlled feasibility trial, N=70 outpatients with episodic or persistent major depression, comorbidity and childhood maltreatment are treated in 20 individual sessions with MoBa or standard cognitive-behavioural therapy for depression. The three modules of MoBa focus on deficits associated with early childhood maltreatment: the systems of negative valence, social processes and arousal. According to a specific questionnaire-based treatment algorithm, elements from cognitive behavioural analysis system of psychotherapy, mentalisation-based psychotherapy and/or mindfulness-based cognitive therapy are integrated for a personalised modular procedure.As a proof of concept, this trial will provide evidence for the feasibility and efficacy (post-treatment and 6-month follow-up) of a modular add-on approach for patients with depression, comorbidities and a history of childhood maltreatment. Crucial feasibility aspects include targeted psychopathological mechanisms, selection (treatment algorithm), sequence and application of modules, as well as training and supervision of the study therapists.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This study obtained approval from the independent Ethics Committees of the University of Freiburg and the University of Heidelberg. All findings will be disseminated broadly via peer-reviewed articles in scientific journals and contributions to national and international conferences.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

DRKS00022093.

Hippocampal AMPA receptors mediate the impairment of spatial learning and memory in prenatally stressed offspring rats

Numerous studies have shown that prenatal stress (PS) induces learning and memory deficits in offspring, yet the specific mechanisms and effective interventions remain limited. Chewing has been known as one of the active coping strategies to suppress stress, but its effects during PS on learning and memory are unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of hippocampal AMPA receptors in the adverse effects of PS on spatial learning and memory, and whether chewing during PS could prevent these effects in prenatally stressed adult offspring rats. Prenatal restraint stress with or without chewing to dams during the day 11-20 of pregnancy was used to analyze the impact of different treatments for offspring. The spatial learning and memory were tested by the Morris water maze. The mRNA and protein expression of AMPA receptors in the hippocampus were measured by qRT-PCR and Western blot, respectively. The methylation of AMPA receptors was detected by bisulfite sequencing PCR. Our results revealed that PS impaired spatial learning acquisition and memory retrieval in adult offspring rats, but chewing could relieve this effect. Hippocampal GluA1-4 expression was significantly reduced in prenatally stressed offspring, while there were no changes in the methylation level of GluA2 and GluA4 promoters. Moreover, chewing increased PS-induced suppression of AMPA receptors in the hippocampus. In short, hippocampal AMPA receptors mediate the impairment of spatial learning and memory in prenatally stressed offspring, whereas chewing during PS could ameliorate PS-induced memory deficits.

Early Life Stress-Induced Epigenetic Programming of Hippocampal NPY-Y2 Receptor Gene Expression Changes in Response to Adult Stress

Early Life Stress (ELS) can critically influence brain development and future stress responses and thus represents an important risk factor for mental health and disease. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is discussed to be a key mediator of resilient vs. vulnerable adaptations and specifically, the NPY-Y2 receptor (Y2R) may be involved in the pathophysiology of depression due to its negative regulation of NPY-release. The present study addressed the hypotheses that ELS and adult stress (AS) affect the expression of hippocampal Y2R and that exposure to ELS induces an epigenetically mediated programming effect towards a consecutive stress exposure in adulthood. The specific aims were to investigate if (i) ELS or AS as single stressors induce changes in Y2 receptor gene expression in the hippocampus, (ii) the predicted Y2R changes are epigenetically mediated via promoter-specific DNA-methylation, (iii) the ELS-induced epigenetic changes exert a programming effect on Y2R gene expression changes in response to AS, and finally (iv) if the predicted alterations are sex-specific. Animals were assigned to the following experimental groups: (1) non-stressed controls (CON), (2) only ELS exposure (ELS), (3) only adult stress exposure (CON+AS), and (4) exposure to ELS followed by AS (ELS+AS). Using repeated maternal separation in mice as an ELS and swim stress as an AS we found that both stressors affected Y2R gene expression in the hippocampus of male mice but not in females. Specifically, upregulated expression was found in the CON+AS group. In addition, exposure to both stressors ELS+AS significantly reduced Y2R gene expression when compared to CON+AS. The changes in Y2R expression were paralleled by altered DNA-methylation patterns at the Y2R promoter, specifically, a decrease in mean DNA-methylation in the CON+AS males compared to the non-AS exposed groups and an increase in the ELS+AS males compared to the CON+AS males. Also, a strong negative correlation of mean DNA-methylation with Y2R expression was found. Detailed CpG-site-specific analysis of DNA-methylation revealed that ELS induced increased DNA-methylation only at specific CpG-sites within the Y2R promoter. It is tempting to speculate that these ELS-induced CpG-site-specific changes represent a “buffering” programming effect against elevations of Y2R expression induced by AS.

Interplay Between Stress and Reproduction: Novel Epigenetic Markers in Response to Shearing Patterns in Australian Merino Sheep (Ovis aries)

In this study, we determined the effect(s) of early shearing on Australian Merino ewes (Ovis aries) and their lambs. To test this research question, we used a suite of field and laboratory methods including GPS collars, wool cortisol, and epigenetic change between ewes and lambs identified using Illumina NovaSeq RRBS. Once shorn ewes (n = 24) were kept on their full fleece throughout the entire gestation period, whereas twice (early) shorn ewes (n = 24) had their wool shorn pre-joining. Top-knot wool sample was taken from ewes during pre-joining, day 50 (mid-gestation), and day 90 (late gestation) for laboratory analysis. Ewes were pregnancy scanned at mid-gestation to determine whether they were early or late parturition (this confirmation is provided by the pregnancy scanner based on fetus size). Top-knot wool sample was also taken from the lambs at weaning for hormone and wool quality testing. Ear tissue was taken from ewes at day 50 (mid-gestation) and from lambs at lamb marking for DNA analysis. Results showed that twice or early shorn ewes grazed 10% higher and maintained stronger body condition than once shorn ewes. Wool cortisol levels were also significantly lower in the early shorn ewes between mid- and late gestation. Lambs bred from twice shorn ewes had on average better visual wool quality parameters in terms of micron, spin finesses, and curvature. For the DNA methylation results, when comparing a group of once sheared with twice sheared ewes, we have discovered one locus (Chr20:50404014) that was significantly differentially methylated [False Discovery Rate (FDR) = 0.005]. This locus is upstream of a protein-coding gene (ENSOARG00000002778.1), which shows similarities to the forkhead box C1 (FOXC1) mRNA using BLAST searches. To further our understanding of the potential interaction between pregnancy status and shearing frequency of the ewes, we performed further differential methylation analysis using a combination of shearing treatment and pregnancy scanning status. The comparisons (1) late pregnancy vs. early pregnancy for ewes with one shearing treatment and (2) late pregnancy vs. early pregnancy for sheep with two shearing treatments were carried out to identify associations between loci and pregnancy duration for sheep with either one or two shearing events. We discovered that 36 gene loci were significantly modulated either between different shearing treatments or late vs. early pregnancy status of ewes. This result suggests that maternal pregnancy and nutritional status during gestation influence DNA methylation. We further investigated DNA methylation in lambs and identified 16 annotated gene loci that showed epigenetic modulation as a result of being born from an early or late stage pregnancy. From the genomics data, we pointed out that ewes go through epigenetic modifications during gestation, and there is a degree of intra-individual variation in the reproductive performance of ewes, which could be due to combination of intrinsic (genetic and physiological) and extrinsic (management and climatic) factors. Collectively, this research provides novel dataset combining physiological, molecular epigenetics, and digital tracking indices that advances our understanding of how Merino ewes respond to shearing frequency, and this information could guide further research on Merino sheep breeding and welfare.

Remote and at-home data collection: Considerations for the NIH HEALthy Brain and Cognitive Development (HBCD) study

The NIH HEALthy Brain and Cognitive Development (HBCD) study aims to characterize the impact of in utero exposure to substances, and related environmental exposures on child neurodevelopment and health outcomes. A key focus of HBCD is opioid exposure, which has disproportionately affected rural areas. While most opioid use and neonatal abstinence syndrome has been reported outside of large cities, rural communities are often under-represented in large-scale clinical research studies that involve neuroimaging, in-person assessments, or bio-specimen collections. Thus, there exists a likely mismatch between the communities that are the focus of HBCD and those that can participate. Even geographically proximal participants, however, are likely to bias towards higher socioeconomic status given the anticipated study burden and visit frequency. Wearables, ‘nearables’, and other consumer biosensors, however, are increasingly capable of collecting continuous physiologic and environmental exposure data, facilitating remote assessment. We review the potential of these technologies for remote in situ data collection, and the ability to engage rural, affected communities. While not necessarily a replacement, these technologies offer a compelling complement to traditional ‘gold standard’ lab-based methods, with significant potential to expand the study’s reach and importance.

Gene by environment interaction mouse model reveals a functional role for 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in neurodevelopmental disorders

Mouse knockouts of Cntnap2 show altered neurodevelopmental behavior, deficits in striatal GABAergic signaling, and a genome-wide disruption of an environmentally sensitive DNA methylation modification (5-hydroxymethylcytosine [5hmC]) in the orthologs of a significant number of genes implicated in human neurodevelopmental disorders. We tested adult Cntnap2 heterozygous mice (Cntnap2 +/-; lacking behavioral or neuropathological abnormalities) subjected to a prenatal stress and found that prenatally stressed Cntnap2 +/- female mice show repetitive behaviors and altered sociability, similar to the homozygote phenotype. Genomic profiling revealed disruptions in hippocampal and striatal 5hmC levels that are correlated to altered transcript levels of genes linked to these phenotypes (e.g., Reln, Dst, Trio, and Epha5). Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with high-throughput sequencing and hippocampal nuclear lysate pull-down data indicated that 5hmC abundance alters the binding of the transcription factor CLOCK near the promoters of these genes (e.g., Palld, Gigyf1, and Fry), providing a mechanistic role for 5hmC in gene regulation. Together, these data support gene-by-environment hypotheses for the origins of mental illness and provide a means to identify the elusive factors contributing to complex human diseases.

Hippocampal mTOR Dysregulation and Morphological Changes in Male Rats after Fetal Growth Restriction

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) has been linked to long-term neurocognitive impairment, especially in males. To determine possible underlying mechanisms, we examined hippocampal cellular composition and mTOR signaling of male rat FGR offspring during main brain growth and development (postnatal days (PND) 1 and 12). FGR was either induced by a low-protein diet throughout pregnancy, experimental placental insufficiency by bilateral uterine vessel ligation or intrauterine stress by “sham” operation. Offspring after unimpaired gestation served as common controls. Low-protein diet led to a reduced cell density in the molecular dentate gyrus subregion, while intrauterine surgical stress was associated with increased cell density in the cellular CA2 subregion. Experimental placental insufficiency caused increased mTOR activation on PND 1, whereas intrauterine stress led to mTOR activation on PND 1 and 12. To determine long-term effects, we additionally examined mTOR signaling and Tau phosphorylation, which is altered in neurodegenerative diseases, on PND 180, but did not find any changes among the experimental groups. Our findings suggest that hippocampal cellular proliferation and mTOR signaling are dysregulated in different ways depending on the cause of FGR. While a low-protein diet induced a decreased cell density, prenatal surgical stress caused hyperproliferation, possibly via increased mTOR signaling.

Fetal surgery has no additional effect to general anesthesia on brain development in neonatal rabbits

BACKGROUND

Fetal surgery is part of modern fetal medicine, and some procedures, such as fetal spina bifida repair, are performed under general anesthesia. Fetuses are operated on in a time window when the developing brain is extremely vulnerable to external, potentially harmful factors. To date, little is known about the effect of fetal surgery on fetal brain development.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the effect of fetal surgery on the developing fetal brain in the rabbit model.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a randomized, sham-controlled study in time-mated pregnant does at 28 days' gestation (term, 31 days), which corresponds to the start of the peak of brain development and end of the second trimester of pregnancy in humans. We included 4 different groups in this experiment: no-surgery, general anesthesia, general anesthesia+hysterotomy, and general anesthesia+fetal surgery. In 11 does, anesthesia was induced using propofol and maintained for 75 minutes with 3.6 vol% (4% is the equivalent of 1 minimum alveolar concentration) sevoflurane. Maternal blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation, temperature, end-tidal CO2 were continuously monitored. For each operated doe, 6 fetuses were part of the experiment. Randomization determined which cornual sac and what opposing third sac were assigned to fetal surgery: hysterotomy, fetal injection (atropine, fentanyl, and cisatracurium), fetal skin incision, and suturing. Only hysterotomy was performed on the opposing cornual and third amniotic sacs of the does. The fetus in these experimental sacs was used as internal unmanipulated control (general anesthesia). All fetuses (n=38) from unmanipulated does (n=4) served as external controls (no-surgery). At term, the does were delivered by cesarean delivery under ketamine-medetomidine sedation and local anesthesia. The pups underwent standardized motoric and sensory neurologic testing on day 1 followed by euthanasia and brain harvesting for histologic assessment of neurons, synapses, proliferation, and glial cells.

RESULTS

Maternal vital signs were stable during surgery. Survival was similar in the 4 groups (75%-94%), and brain-to-body weight ratio was comparable; only the no-surgery pups had a higher brain weight. On postnatal day 1, the pups in the 4 groups had a comparable neurobehavioral outcome on both motoric and sensory testing. In the prefrontal cortex, no-surgery pups had significantly higher neuron density than pups who underwent maternal surgery, but there was no difference among pups that underwent general anesthesia, hysterotomy, or fetal surgery. The measurements of proliferation had a similar outcome: a higher proliferation rate in the prefrontal cortex of no-surgery pups. Moreover, synaptic density values were higher in the no-surgery pups, but there was no difference observed among pups who underwent general anesthesia, hysterotomy, and fetal surgery. Lastly, there was no difference in gliosis among the 4 groups.

CONCLUSION

In rabbits, fetal surgery through hysterotomy under maternal general anesthesia did not affect brain development, in addition to the effects of general anesthesia per se.

Developmental Stressors Induce Innate Immune Memory in Microglia and Contribute to Disease Risk

Many types of stressors have an impact on brain development, function, and disease susceptibility including immune stressors, psychosocial stressors, and exposure to drugs of abuse. We propose that these diverse developmental stressors may utilize a common mechanism that underlies impaired cognitive function and neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia, autism, and mood disorders that can develop in later life as a result of developmental stressors. While these stressors are directed at critical developmental windows, their impacts are long-lasting. Immune activation is a shared pathophysiology across several different developmental stressors and may thus be a targetable treatment to mitigate the later behavioral deficits. In this review, we explore different types of prenatal and perinatal stressors and their contribution to disease risk and underlying molecular mechanisms. We highlight the impact of developmental stressors on microglia biology because of their early infiltration into the brain, their critical role in brain development and function, and their long-lived status in the brain throughout life. Furthermore, we introduce innate immune memory as a potential underlying mechanism for developmental stressors' impact on disease. Finally, we highlight the molecular and epigenetic reprogramming that is known to underlie innate immune memory and explain how similar molecular mechanisms may be at work for cells to retain a long-term perturbation after exposure to developmental stressors.

Sex-specific changes in peripheral metabolism in a model of chronic anxiety induced by prenatal stress

BACKGROUND

Prenatal stress is associated with increased susceptibility to psychiatric and metabolic disorders later in life. Prenatal exposure to stress mediators may have sex-dependent effects on offspring brain and metabolic function, promoting a sex-specific vulnerability to psychopathology and metabolic alterations at adulthood. In this work, the impact of prenatal stress on glucose homeostasis and peripheral metabolism of male and female offspring was investigated in a chronic anxiety animal model.

METHODS

Pregnant Wistar rats were injected with saline or glucocorticoid (dexamethasone: 1 mg/kg, subcutaneous) at gestational days 18 and 19. Male and female offspring weight was monitored, and anxious-like behaviour and peripheral insulin-sensitive tissues were analysed at adulthood.

RESULTS

At birth, females and males prenatally exposed to stress presented decreased body weight which remained low in females. At adulthood, a morphological disorganization of the Langerhans islets was observed in both sexes prenatally exposed to stress, yet not changes in insulin levels were detected. Also, prenatal stress increased glucose transporter 4 (GLUT-4) levels in female and male adipose tissues and decreased insulin receptor levels in the liver and skeleton muscle but only in females.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to stress mediators in critical periods of development negatively affects behaviour and metabolism. Prenatal stress programmes offspring peripheral metabolism in a sex-specific manner, emphasizing that the response to stress in critical periods of development may be sex-specific having each sex different vulnerabilities to psychiatric and metabolic disorders. Considering sex-specificities may provide critical clues for the design of preventive strategies and for early therapeutic intervention.

Maternal stress during pregnancy and early childhood development

We estimate the impact of prenatal stress on early childhood development outcomes known as "middle years" or intermediate outcomes, which has not been studied previously. Using a unique measure of actual maternal stress induced by a large earthquake, we find that relative to children that were not exposed, in utero maternal stress reduces children's cognitive skills and socio-emotional problems by age 3, and that the effects are heterogeneous. The negative impacts on cognitive skills occur during the first trimester of pregnancy and are found among both low and high-income children, and boys and girls. The harmful effects on socio-emotional behaviors occur when stress is experienced in the last trimester of pregnancy.

Prenatal stress dysregulates resting-state functional connectivity and sensory motifs

Prenatal stress (PS) can impact fetal brain structure and function and contribute to higher vulnerability to neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. To understand how PS alters evoked and spontaneous neocortical activity and intrinsic brain functional connectivity, mesoscale voltage imaging was performed in adult C57BL/6NJ mice that had been exposed to auditory stress on gestational days 12-16, the age at which neocortex is developing. PS mice had a four-fold higher basal corticosterone level and reduced amplitude of cortical sensory-evoked responses to visual, auditory, whisker, forelimb, and hindlimb stimuli. Relative to control animals, PS led to a general reduction of resting-state functional connectivity, as well as reduced inter-modular connectivity, enhanced intra-modular connectivity, and altered frequency of auditory and forelimb spontaneous sensory motifs. These resting-state changes resulted in a cortical connectivity pattern featuring disjoint but tight modules and a decline in network efficiency. The findings demonstrate that cortical connectivity is sensitive to PS and exposed offspring may be at risk for adult stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders.

Paeoniflorin ameliorates oxidase stress in Glutamate-stimulated SY5Y and prenatally stressed female offspring through Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Prenatal stress (PS) can cause brain retardation, reduce the learning and memory ability of the offspring and significantly increase the incidence of depression in offspring. Paeoniflorin (PF), a kind of monoterpenoid glycoside, is one of the main active ingredients of Chinese Medicine Paeonia lactiflora Pall, has anti-inflammation and potential neuroprotective effects. However, few reports have shown that the neuroprotective effects of PF are exerted through ameliorating Glutamate toxicity in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS

Here, we used a prenatal restraint stress model and Glu-induced excitotoxic neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells to study the effects of PF.

RESULTS

Our results showed that PF can ameliorate learning and memory impairments and increases the density of hippocampal neurons, typical Golgi-positive pyramidal cells, and neuronal Neurogranin (Ng) expression in PS rat offspring. Furthermore, PF can significantly up-regulate the decrease of Glu-induced SH-SY5Y cell viability. At the same time, PF can significantly reduce apoptosis, ROS, NO levels, and intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration, and significantly inhibit the increase of mitochondrial membrane potential. Besides, PF significantly increased the expression of Nrf2 and iNOS, decreased p-JNK/JNK, p-P38/P38, Bax/Bcl-2, active-caspase-3, and active-caspase-9.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that PF may be an effective treatment in preventing the development of PS-induced learning and memory impairment and have therapeutic potential in Glu-related neurological diseases.

Early Life Adversity and Polygenic Risk for High Fasting Insulin Are Associated With Childhood Impulsivity

While the co-morbidity between metabolic and psychiatric behaviors is well-established, the mechanisms are poorly understood, and exposure to early life adversity (ELA) is a common developmental risk factor. ELA is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and poor behavioral inhibition throughout life, which seems to contribute to the development of metabolic and psychiatric disturbances in the long term. We hypothesize that a genetic background associated with higher fasting insulin interacts with ELA to influence the development of executive functions (e.g., impulsivity in young children). We calculated the polygenic risk scores (PRSs) from the genome-wide association study (GWAS) of fasting insulin at different thresholds and identified the subset of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that best predicted peripheral insulin levels in children from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) cohort [N = 467; p_{t– initial} = 0.24 (10,296 SNPs), p_{t– refined} = 0.05 (57 SNPs)]. We then calculated the refined PRS (rPRS) for fasting insulin at this specific threshold in the children from the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment (MAVAN) cohort and investigated its interaction effect with adversity on an impulsivity task applied at 36 months. We found a significant effect of interaction between fasting insulin rPRS and adversity exposure predicting impulsivity measured by the Snack Delay Task at 36 months [β = −0.329, p = 0.024], such that higher PRS [β = −0.551, p = 0.009] was linked to more impulsivity in individuals exposed to more adversity. Enrichment analysis (MetaCore^TM) of the SNPs that compose the fasting insulin rPRS at this threshold was significant for certain nervous system development processes including dopamine D2 receptor signaling. Additional enrichment analysis (FUMA) of the genes mapped from the SNPs in the fasting insulin rPRS showed enrichment with the accelerated cognitive decline GWAS. Therefore, the genetic background associated with risk for adult higher fasting insulin moderates the impact of early adversity on childhood impulsivity.

Maternal mindfulness during pregnancy predicts newborn neurobehavior

Newborn neurobehavioral competencies portend a young child's abilities to modulate their arousal and attention in response to dynamic environmental cues. Although evidence suggests prenatal contributions to newborn neurobehavioral differences, no study to date has examined wellness-promoting traits, such as a pregnant woman's mindfulness, in this association. We examined whether a mother's mindfulness while pregnant related to neurobehavioral outcomes in her neonate, as well as whether maternal mindfulness moderated the link between prenatal maternal emotion dysregulation and newborn neurobehavior. Mothers (N = 162) reported on their mindfulness and emotion dysregulation while pregnant. Newborn arousal and attention were assessed at least 24 h after birth (M = 3.8 days, SD = 8.3) using the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). Highly mindful pregnant women reported lower levels of emotion dysregulation. Newborns of highly mindful mothers exhibited higher levels of arousal (e.g., excitability, motor activity) but did not differ in regards to attention at birth. Maternal emotion dysregulation while pregnant was associated with blunted newborn attention, but only among mothers who were less mindful. Our findings suggest that a mother's mindfulness while pregnant may influence her fetus' neurobehavioral development in ways that are evident at birth.

Maternal exposure to psychosocial job strain during pregnancy and behavioral problems in the 11-year-old children: a Danish cohort study

Maternal psychosocial stress may impact child neurodevelopment, but little is known regarding psychosocial job strain. We hypothesized high psychosocial job strain during pregnancy was associated with behavioural problems in the 11-year-old children. Mothers in the Danish National Birth Cohort (1996-2002) were included if they worked, provided information on job strain [Karasek's model: high job strain (often job demand/seldom job control) and passive (seldom or sometimes job demands/seldom job control)] during early pregnancy. At the 11-year follow-up, children (N = 30,592), mothers (N = 30,993), and teachers (N = 12,810) responded to the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), a screening tool for child behaviour. Scores for hyperactivity, conduct, emotional and peer problems were dichotomised [80% (no) vs. 20% (yes)] according to Danish norms (yes/no). Maternal job strain was not associated with behavioural problems with teachers as informants. When assessed by child or mother, high maternal job strain increased risk of child behavioural problems, but risks were more pronounced for mothers in passive jobs [maternal assessment of total difficulties/odds ratio (95% confidence interval): high strain-girls: 1.16 (0.97-1.40); boys: 1.24 (1.02-1.50). Passive girls: 1.43 (1.21-1.68); boys: 1.25 (1.05-1.49)]. This is one of the first studies on this topic. The different types of maternal job strain were partly associated with child behavioural problems at 11 years; more so if mothers worked in passive rather than the hypothesized high strain jobs. Findings showing dependency on informant could not only indicate unmeasured confounding or rater's bias, but also selection in the smaller numbers of teacher informants or different environments of interaction with the children.

Melatonin: From Neurobiology to Treatment

Melatonin, the major regulator of the sleep/wake cycle, also plays important physiological and pharmacological roles in the control of neuronal plasticity and neuroprotection. Accordingly, the secretion of this hormone reaches the maximal extent during brain development (childhood-adolescence) while it is greatly reduced during aging, a condition associated to altered sleep pattern and reduced neuronal plasticity. Altogether, these properties of melatonin have allowed us to demonstrate in both experimental models and clinical studies the great chronobiotic efficacy and sleep promoting effects of exogenous melatonin. Thus, the prolonged release formulation of melatonin, present as a drug in the pharmaceutical market, has been recently recommended for the treatment of insomnia in over 55 years old subjects.

Maternal depression during pregnancy alters infant subcortical and midbrain volumes

BACKGROUND

Maternal depression in pregnancy increases the risk for adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in the offspring. The reason for this is unknown, however, one plausible mechanism may include the impact of maternal antenatal depression on infant brain. Nevertheless, relatively few studies have examined the brain anatomy of infants born to clinically diagnosed mothers.

METHODS

A legacy magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) dataset was used to compare regional brain volumes in 3-to-6-month-old infants born to women with a clinically confirmed diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) during pregnancy (n = 31) and a reference sample of infants born to women without a current or past psychiatric diagnosis (n = 33). A method designed for analysis of low-resolution scans enabled examination of subcortical and midbrain regions previously found to be sensitive to the parent-child environment.

RESULTS

Compared with infants of non-depressed mothers, infants exposed to maternal antenatal depression had significantly larger subcortical grey matter volumes and smaller midbrain volumes. There was no association between gestational medication exposure and the infant regional brain volumes examined in our sample.

LIMITATIONS

Our scanning approach did not allow for an examination of fine-grained structural differences, and without repeated measures of brain volume, it is unknown whether the direction of reported associations are dependent on developmental stage.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal antenatal depression is associated with an alteration in infant brain anatomy in early postnatal life; and that this is not accounted for by medication exposure. However, our study cannot address whether anatomical differences impact on future outcomes of the offspring.