Individual differences in emotional expressivity predict oxytocin responses to cortisol administration: Relevance to breast cancer?

Oxytocin treatments or activation of the paraventricular nucleus-the shell of nucleus accumbens pathway reduce adverse effects of chronic social defeat stress on emotional and social behaviors in Mandarin voles

Chronic social stress can cause psychological disease. Although oxytocin (OT) has been showed to modulate effects of chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) on emotional and social behaviors, however, how OT circuits mediate effects of CSDS on emotional and social abnormalities remains unclear. Here, we found that repeated intraperitoneal OT administration in the process of CSDS buffered adverse effects of CSDS on emotional and social behaviors in mandarin voles (Microtus mandarinus) of both sexes except no effect on depression-like behavior of males. Repeated OT treatments during CSDS prevented decrease of oxytocin receptors in nucleus accumbens (NAc) in females, but produced no effects on males. Furthermore, using designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs)-based chemogenetic tools, we determined that the activation of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN)-the shell of NAc (NAcs) projections before social defeat during CSDS process significantly prevented the increase of the anxiety-like behaviors and social avoidance induced by CSDS in both sexes, and reversed the depressive-like behaviors induced by CSDS only in females. Besides, optogenetic activation of PVN-NAcs projections after CSDS reduced anxiety-like behaviors and increased levels of sociality. Collectively, we suggest that PVN-NAcs projections modulate emotional and social behaviors during or after the process of CSDS sex-specifically, although AAV viruses did not specifically infect OT neurons. These findings offer potential targets for preventing or treating emotional and social disorders induced by chronic stress.

Serum Oxytocin, Cortisol and Social Behavior in Calves: A Study in the Impossible Task Paradigm

In this study, we explored the correlations between circulating levels of oxytocin, cortisol, and different social behaviors toward humans in 26 Italian Red Pied calves (all females, with an average age of 174 ± 24 days) using the impossible task paradigm. This paradigm has proved fruitful in highlighting the effect of socialization on the willingness to interact with humans in several domesticated species. The test consists of the violation of an expectation (recovering food from an experimental apparatus) while a caregiver and a stranger are present. Immediately after the end of the test (less than one minute), blood was collected from the coccygeal vein. Statistics were performed by the Spearman's rank correlation; significant differences were adjusted according to Bonferroni's correction. Cortisol correlates positively (ρ = 0.565; p < 0.05) with the latency of behaviors directed at the caregiver, and the duration of behaviors directed at the apparatus correlates negatively with both the caregiver (ρ = -0.654; p < 0.05) and a stranger (ρ = -0.644; p < 0.05). Contrary to what is reported in the literature on cows, no correlations were found between oxytocin levels and direct behaviors toward the caregiver. This highlights a different behavioral strategy between calves and cows when placed in front of an impossible task.

Intranasal oxytocin administration impacts the acquisition and consolidation of trauma-associated memories: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled experimental study in healthy women

Intrusive memories are a hallmark symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and oxytocin has been implicated in the formation of intrusive memories. This study investigates how oxytocin influences the acquisition and consolidation of trauma-associated memories and whether these effects are influenced by individual neurobiological and genetic differences. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 220 healthy women received either a single dose of intranasal 24IU oxytocin or a placebo before exposure to a trauma film paradigm that solicits intrusive memories. We used a "general random forest" machine learning approach to examine whether differences in the noradrenergic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, polygenic risk for psychiatric disorders, and genetic polymorphism of the oxytocin receptor influence the effect of oxytocin on the acquisition and consolidation of intrusive memories. Oxytocin induced significantly more intrusive memories than placebo did (t(188.33) = 2.12, p = 0.035, Cohen's d = 0.30, 95% CI 0.16-0.44). As hypothesized, we found that the effect of oxytocin on intrusive memories was influenced by biological covariates, such as salivary cortisol, heart rate variability, and PTSD polygenic risk scores. The five factors that were most relevant to the oxytocin effect on intrusive memories were included in a Poisson regression, which showed that, besides oxytocin administration, higher polygenic loadings for PTSD and major depressive disorder were directly associated with a higher number of reported intrusions after exposure to the trauma film stressor. These results suggest that intranasal oxytocin amplifies the acquisition and consolidation of intrusive memories and that this effect is modulated by neurobiological and genetic factors. Trial registration: NCT03031405.

Augmentation of Psychotherapy with Neurobiological Methods: Current State and Future Directions

BACKGROUND

Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy are first-line treatments for mental disorders. Despite recent improvements, only approximately 50% of the patients reach sustained remission, indicating a need for novel developments. The main concept put forward in this systematic review and hypothesis article is the targeted co-administration of defined neurobiological interventions and specific psychotherapeutic techniques.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature search for randomized controlled trials comparing the efficacy of augmented psychotherapy to psychotherapy alone.

RESULTS

Thirty-five trials fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The majority (29 trials) used augmentation strategies such as D-cycloserine, yohimbine, or sleep to enhance the effects of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders. Fewer studies investigated noninvasive brain stimulation with the aim of improving cognitive control, psychedelic compounds with the aim of enhancing existentially oriented psychotherapy, and oxytocin to improve social communication during psychotherapy. Results demonstrate small augmentation effects for the enhancement of exposure therapy - however, some of the studies found negative results. Other methods are less thoroughly researched, and results are mixed.

CONCLUSIONS

This approach provides an open matrix for further research and has the potential to systematically guide future studies.

Female Sexual Dysfunction in Primary Adrenal Insufficiency

Purpose. No data are currently available on female sexual dysfunction (FSD) in primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) and the possible impact of replacement therapy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of FSD and sexual distress (SD), and to evaluate the possible impact of replacement therapy on sexuality in women with PAI. Methods. Female Sexual Function Index-6 (FSFI-6) and Sexual Distress Scale (SDS) questionnaires were administered to 22 women with PAI and 23 healthy women matched for age as controls. Results. The prevalence of sexual symptoms measured by FSFI-6 (total score < 19) was significantly higher in women with PAI (15/22; 68.2%) compared to the controls (2/23; 8.7%; p = 0.001). Regarding the questionnaire items, significantly different scores were found for desire (p < 0.001), arousal (p = 0.0006), lubrication (p = 0.046) and overall sexual satisfaction (p < 0.0001) in women with PAI compared to the controls. The rate of FSD (FSFI < 19 with SDS >15) was 60% in patients with PAI. A significant inverse correlation was found between FSFI-6 total scores and SD (r = −0.65; p = 0.0011), while a significant direct correlation was found between FSFI-6 total scores and serum cortisol levels (r = 0.55; p = 0.035). Conclusions. A higher prevalence of FSD was found in women affected by PAI compared to healthy women. Desire seems to be the most impaired aspect of sexual function. Moreover, sexual dysfunction in this population seems to be related to sexual distress and cortisol levels.

Differences in the number of oxytocin, vasopressin, and tyrosine hydroxylase cells in brain regions associated with mating among great, midday, and Mongolian gerbils

Neurotransmitters, such as oxytocin (OT), vasopressin (AVP), and dopamine (DA), within the mesolimbic system have deeply conserved roles in regulating mating-related behaviors. However, comparative studies among monogamous and polygamous animals focus mainly on Microtus; very little research has been done in gerbils. Here, we measured body weight, body length, tail length, serum hormone concentrations, and the immunoreactive (ir)-cells of OT, AVP, and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the brain of the polygamous great gerbil (Rhombomys opimus), midday gerbil (Meriones meridianus), and monogamous Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus). Body weight, body length, tail length, and serum AVP concentrations were greater in the great gerbil than in the midday gerbil and Mongolian gerbil. The number of OT and AVP cells in the para ventricular nucleus (PVN) and supra optic nucleus (SON) of the hypothalamus were greater in the Mongolian gerbil than in the great gerbil and midday gerbil. Similarly, the number of TH cells in the PVN, medial preoptic area (MPOA), and ventral tegmental area (VTA) was greater in the Mongolian gerbil than in the great gerbil and midday gerbil. To summarize, the number of OT and AVP cells in the PVN and SON and TH cells in the PVN, MPOA, and VTA in the monogamous Mongolian gerbil are greater than those in the great gerbil and midday gerbil.

The Influence of an Attachment-Related Stimulus on Oxytocin Reactivity in Poly-Drug Users Undergoing Maintenance Therapy Compared to Healthy Controls

BACKGROUND

Substance use disorders (SUDs) have been described as a dysfunctional way to compensate for deficiencies in that person's underlying attachment system. Furthermore, the neuropeptide oxytocin (OT), which is a critical component of the neurobiology of the attachment system, has been shown to effectively reduce addictive behavior and therefore has been discussed as a potential medication in SUD treatment. This study investigates variation in peripheral OT plasma levels as a function of exposure to an attachment-related stimulus in SUD patients compared to healthy controls (HCs).

METHODS

A total sample of 48 men, 24 inpatients in maintenance treatment who were diagnosed with poly-drug use disorder (PUD) and 24 HC, was investigated. A 15-min exposure to the Adult Attachment Projective Picture System (AAP) was used as an attachment-related stimulus and coded for attachment status. Blood samples before and after the AAP-assessment were taken and assayed for OT levels. Variation in baselines level of OT was examined in relation to the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST), the Adult Attachment-Scale (AAS), and the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI).

RESULTS

Following the AAP stimulus controls showed no significant difference in OT levels elevation from baseline compared to the PUD group's OT levels. Furthermore, in the PUD group only OT-baseline-levels may be negatively associated with the AAS subscale "Comfort with Closeness" and "Anxiety" and lifetime substance use.

DISCUSSION

Our results suggest that peripheral OT levels in poly-drug users undergoing maintenance treatment are not significantly different in responsiveness to an attachment related stimulus compared to HC. With regard to non-significant tendencies observed in this study which hint toward decreased OT-reactivity in the PUD group, further research is needed to explore this hypothesis with increased statistical power.

Associations between oxytocin and cortisol reactivity and recovery in response to psychological stress and sexual arousal

Previous research suggests a dynamic regulatory relationship between oxytocin and cortisol, but the specific nature of this relationship and its context-specificity have not been fully specified. In the present study, we repeatedly assessed both salivary oxytocin and salivary cortisol during two experimental sessions (one inducing sexual arousal and one inducing psychological stress), conducted two weeks apart with the same group of 63 female participants. Baseline cortisol and baseline oxytocin were significantly correlated in both sessions. Cortisol levels showed significantly different patterns of change during the stress assessment than during the sexual arousal assessment, but oxytocin showed similar patterns of change across both assessments. Greater cortisol stress reactivity predicted higher oxytocin levels immediately after the stressor, but a different pattern emerged during the arousal assessment: Greater oxytocin arousal reactivity predicted attenuated post-arousal reductions in cortisol. For both cortisol and oxytocin, individual differences in women's reactivity to sexual arousal did not predict their reactivity to psychological stress. These findings contribute new insights regarding associations between cortisol and oxytocin reactivity and recovery in different psychological contexts.

Social Monogamy in Nonhuman Primates: Phylogeny, Phenotype, and Physiology

Monogamy as a social system has been both a scientific puzzle and a sociocultural issue for decades. In this review, we examine social monogamy from a comparative perspective with a focus on primates, our closest genetic relatives. We break down monogamy into component elements, including pair-bonding and partner preference, mate guarding or jealousy, social attachment, and biparental care. Our survey of primates shows that not all features are present in species classified as socially monogamous, in the same way that human monogamous relationships may not include all elements-a perspective we refer to as "monogamy à la carte." Our review includes a survey of the neurobiological correlates of social monogamy in primates, exploring unique or common pathways for the elemental components of monogamy. This compilation reveals that the components of monogamy are modulated by a suite of androgenic steroids, glucocorticoid hormones, the nonapeptide hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, and other neurotransmitter systems (e.g., dopamine and opioids). We propose that efforts to understand the biological underpinnings of complex human and animal sociosexual relationships will be well served by exploring individual phenotypic traits, as opposed to pursuing these questions with the assumption that monogamy is a unitary trait or a species-specific characteristic.

Oxytocin facilitates reciprocity in social communication

Synchrony in social groups may confer significant evolutionary advantages by improving group cohesion and social interaction. However, the neurobiological mechanisms translating social synchrony into refined social information transmission between interacting individuals are still elusive. In two successively conducted experiments involving a total of 306 healthy volunteers, we explored the involvement of the neuropeptide oxytocin (OXT) in reciprocal social interaction. First, we show that synchronous social interactions evoke heightened endogenous OXT release in dyadic partners. In a second step, we examined the consequences of elevated OXT concentrations on emotion transmission by intranasally administering synthetic OXT before recording emotional expressions. Intriguingly, our data demonstrate that the subjects’ facial and vocal expressiveness of fear and happiness is enhanced after OXT compared with placebo administration. Collectively, our findings point to a central role of social synchrony in facilitating reciprocal communication between individuals via heightened OXT signaling. Elevated OXT concentrations among synchronized individuals seem to augment the partners’ emotional expressiveness, thereby contributing to improved transmission of emotional information in social communication.

How does maternal oxytocin influence children's mental health problem and maternal mental health problem?

This study aims to explore the interrelationship among maternal oxytocin (OT) responsiveness, maternal mental health, maternal parenting behavior, and mental health of children under a free-play interaction. 61 mother-child dyads were recruited for the study. Maternal mental health problem and parenting self-efficacy were measured using self-reported questionnaires. The mental health problems of children were also evaluated using a mother-reported questionnaire. Furthermore, salivary OT was collected before and after a standardized 10min free-play interaction. Parenting behaviors, including eye gaze and touch, were measured during the free-play interaction. Maternal OT responsiveness was significantly associated with less maternal mental health problem, touch frequency, and mental health problem of children but not with parenting self-efficacy. In the multivariate linear regression analysis that considers maternal OT responsiveness and maternal and children's mental health problems, maternal OT responsiveness was not associated with the mental health problems of children. This result suggested that maternal mental health problem played a mediational role between maternal OT responsiveness and the mental health problem of children. Results supported the assertion that maternal OT responsiveness contributed to the increased risk of maternal mental health problems and, subsequently, the risk of mental health problems of their children.

Associations Between Vocal Symptoms and Genetic Variants in the Oxytocin Receptor and Arginine Vasopressin 1A Receptor Gene

PURPOSE

Oxytocin and arginine vasopressin are associated with different aspects of the stress response. As stress is regarded as a risk factor for vocal symptoms, we wanted to explore the association between the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and arginine vasopressin 1A receptor gene (AVPR1A) single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and vocal symptoms. We also wanted to explore whether such effects might be mediated by cortisol because oxytocin and vasopressin are associated with cortisol levels.

METHOD

A population-based sample (N = 657) of Finnish twins (born 1961-1989) completed a web questionnaire on the occurrence of vocal symptoms. A total of 170 participants submitted saliva samples for hormone analysis. A total of 20 OXTR and AVPR1A SNPs were analyzed.

RESULTS

Three OXTR polymorphisms (rs2270465, rs2268493, rs7632287) and 2 AVPR1A polymorphisms (rs1587097, rs1042615) showed nominal effects (p < .05) on vocal symptoms, of which 1 (rs1587097) remained significant after correcting for multiple testing (p = .003). We found potential mediation of the effect of the OXTR rs2268493 polymorphism on vocal symptoms through levels of cortisol.

CONCLUSIONS

The associations between variants of OXTR and AVPR1A and vocal symptoms indicate that oxytocin and vasopressin might influence vocal symptoms. The effect of oxytocin seems to be partly mediated through cortisol actions.

Boosting recovery rather than buffering reactivity: Higher stress-induced oxytocin secretion is associated with increased cortisol reactivity and faster vagal recovery after acute psychosocial stress

Animal models and human studies using paradigms designed to stimulate endogenous oxytocin release suggest a stress-buffering role of oxytocin. We here examined the involvement of stress-induced peripheral oxytocin secretion in reactivity and recovery phases of the human psychosocial stress response. Healthy male and female participants (N=114) were subjected to a standardized laboratory stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test. In addition to plasma oxytocin, cortisol was assessed as a marker of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA-) axis activity, alpha-amylase and heart rate as markers of sympathetic activity, high frequency heart rate variability as a marker of vagal tone and self-rated anxiety as an indicator of subjective stress experience. On average, oxytocin levels increased by 51% following psychosocial stress. The stress-induced oxytocin secretion, however, did not reduce stress reactivity. To the contrary, higher oxytocin secretion was associated with greater cortisol reactivity and peak cortisol levels in both sexes. In the second phase of the stress response the opposite pattern was observed, with higher oxytocin secretion associated with faster vagal recovery. We suggest that after an early stage of oxytocin and HPA-axis co-activation, the stress-reducing action of oxytocin unfolds. Due to the time lag it manifests as a recovery-boosting rather than a reactivity-buffering effect. By reinforcing parasympathetic autonomic activity, specifically during stress recovery, oxytocin may provide an important protective function against the health-compromising effects of sustained stress.

Marmosets treated with oxytocin are more socially attractive to their long-term mate

Adult male-female bonds are partly characterized by initiating and maintaining close proximity with a social partner, as well as engaging in high levels of affiliative and sociosexual behavior. Oxytocin (OXT), a neuromodulatory nonapeptide, plays a critical role in the facilitation of social bonding and prosocial behavior toward a social partner (Feldman, 2012). However, less attention has been given to whether augmentation of OXT levels in an individual alters others' perceptions and behavior toward an OXT-treated social partner. We examined social dynamics in well-established male-female pairs of marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) in which one member of the pair was administered an intranasal OXT agonist, an OXT antagonist (OXTA), or saline. OXT treatment did not alter the expression of affiliative toward an untreated partner. However, OXT did significantly influence the expression of proximity and grooming behavior with a treated partner, as a function of OXT treatment and sex. Female interest in initiating and maintaining proximity with a pair-mate was altered by OXT treatment. Untreated female marmosets departed from their saline-treated partner more frequently than they approached them, as indicated by a low proximity index score. However, when males received an intranasal OXT agonist they had a significantly increased proximity index score relative to saline, indicating that their untreated partner approached them more often than they departed from them). Saline-treated females initiated and received equivalent levels of grooming behavior. However, when female marmosets were treated with an OXT agonist their untreated partner groomed them proportionately more often, for a greater total duration, and for more time per bout, than they initiated grooming behavior. These results suggest that intranasal OXT altered male and female marmosets' stimulus properties in such a way as to increase the amount of grooming behavior that females received from their long-term mate, as well as increase female interest in initiating and maintaining proximity with their long-term mate. Furthermore, these results support the notion that central OXT activity plays an important neuromodulatory role in the maintenance of long-lasting male-female relationships.

Changes in social functioning and circulating oxytocin and vasopressin following the migration to a new country

Prior studies have reported associations between plasma oxytocin and vasopressin and markers of social functioning. However, because most human studies have used cross-sectional designs, it is unclear whether plasma oxytocin and vasopressin influences social functioning or whether social functioning modulates the production and peripheral release of these peptides. In order to address this question, we followed individuals who experienced major changes in social functioning subsequent to the migration to a new country. In this study, 59 new international students were recruited shortly after arrival in the host country and reassessed 2 and 5 months later. At each assessment participants provided information on their current social functioning and blood samples for oxytocin and vasopressin analysis. Results indicated that changes in social functioning were not related to changes in plasma oxytocin. Instead, baseline oxytocin predicted changes in social relationship satisfaction, social support, and loneliness over time. In contrast, plasma vasopressin changed as a function of social integration. Baseline vasopressin was not related to changes in social functioning over time. These results emphasize the different roles of plasma oxytocin and vasopressin in responses to changes in social functioning in humans.

Oxytocin has therapeutic effects on cancer, a hypothesis

Oxytocin (OT) is the first peptide hormone structurally assessed and chemically synthesized in biologically active form. This hormone acts as an important factor in a human reproductive system particularly during pregnancy and lactation in women. So far, different therapeutic roles for OT have been identified as a spectrum from central and peripheral actions on male and female reproductive systems, circulatory system, musculoskeletal system, etc. Some in vitro and in vivo studies also revealed that OT is responsible for bivariate biological functions involved in cancer as following. By activating OT receptor in tumoral cells, OT enacts as a growth regulator, whether activator or inhibitor. Regarding the increase of OT in some conditions such as breastfeeding, exercise, and multiparity, we can relate the effect of these conditions on cancer with OT effects. Based on this hypothesis, we present a review on the effects of this neuropeptide on various types of cancer and also the influence of these conditions on the same cancer.

The role of oxytocin in familiarization-habituation responses to social novelty

Stress or arousal responses to novel social contexts ease off when individuals get familiar with the social context. In the present study we investigated whether oxytocin is involved in this process of familiarization-habituation as oxytocin is known to increase trust and decrease anxiety. Fifty-nine healthy female subjects took part in the same experimental procedure in two sessions separated by 4 weeks. In the first (novelty) session state trust scores were significantly positively correlated with salivary oxytocin levels while in the second (familiarity) session state trust scores were significantly negatively correlated with salivary oxytocin levels. In a path model oxytocin was associated with increased trust in the novelty session and trust was associated with decreased oxytocin levels in the familiarity session. The results are consistent with the idea that oxytocin decreases stress-to-novelty responses by promoting familiarization to novel social contexts.

Hypothalamic expression of Peg3 gene is associated with maternal care differences between SM/J and LG/J mouse strains

Maternal care is essential in mammals, and variations in the environment provided by mothers may directly influence the viability of newborns and emotional behavior later in life. A previous study investigated genetic variations associated with maternal care in an intercross of LG/J and SM/J inbred mouse strains and identified two single-locus QTLs (quantitative trait loci). Here, we selected three candidate genes located within these QTLs intervals; Oxt on chromosome 2, and FosB and Peg3 on chromosome 7 and tested their association with maternal care. LG/J females showed impaired postpartum nest building and pup retrieval, a one-day delay in milk ejection, reduced exploratory activity, and higher anxiety-like behavior when compared to SM/J females. The nucleotide sequences of Oxt and FosB were similar between strains, as were their hypothalamic expression levels. Conversely, Peg3 nucleotide sequences showed four nonsynonymous replacement substitutions on LG/J dams, T11062G, G13744A, A13808G, and G13813A, and a 30 base pair (10 aa) in tandem repeat in the coding region with three copies in SM/J and five copies in LG/J. Maternal care impaired LG/J mothers express 37% lower Peg3 mRNA levels in the hypothalamus on the second postpartum day. We also found an association of the Peg3 repeat-variant and poor maternal care in F(2) heterozygote females derived from a LG/J × SM/J intercross. These results may suggest that the maternally imprinted Peg3 gene is responsible for the single-locus QTL on chromosome 7 that has been shown to influence maternal care in these strains. Furthermore, these data provide additional support for an epigenetic regulation of maternal behavior.

Cortisol-induced increases of plasma oxytocin levels predict decreased immediate free recall of unpleasant words

Cortisol and oxytocin have been shown to interact in both the regulation of stress responses and in memory function. In the present study we administered cortisol to 35 healthy female subjects in a within-subject double-blind placebo-controlled design, while measuring oxytocin levels, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels, and free recall of pleasant and of unpleasant words. We found that cortisol administration suppressed ACTH levels and (1) induced a decrease in oxytocin associated with ACTH suppression and (2) an increase in oxytocin that was independent from ACTH suppression. This cortisol-induced increase in plasma oxytocin was associated with a selective decrease in immediate free recall of unpleasant words from primacy positions. The present results add to evidence that cortisol-induced increases in oxytocin could mediate some of the effects of stress and cortisol on memory, and possibly play a role in the regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal stress response. This mechanism could significantly impact affective and social behaviors, in particular during times of stress.

The influence of depressive symptomatology and perceived stress on plasma and salivary oxytocin before, during and after a support enhancement intervention

Oxytocin (OT) activity increases in response to stress as well as to warm social contact. Subclinical depression is associated with higher stress but less reward from social contacts. The present investigation was intended to examine whether husbands and wives with high depressive symptomatology scores have increased plasma and salivary OT that may be mediated partly by higher perceived stress, and also to assess whether an intervention to convey partner support through "warm touch" may reduce effects of depressive symptoms on OT. In this study, 34 healthy married couples (n=68) ages 20-39 provided self reports of depressive symptoms (CESD) and stress (Perceived Stress Scale) before being randomly assigned to a 4-week intervention study enhancing partner support through "warm touch", or to a "behavior monitoring" control group. Plasma oxytocin levels were obtained pre- and post-intervention, while salivary oxytocin was taken at home during week 1 and week 4. Results revealed that subjects with higher depressive symptoms scores had higher plasma OT levels at pre-intervention, and higher salivary OT levels at home during week 1 (p<.05). Plasma OT results were moderated by gender such that plasma OT levels were highest among females high in depressive symptomology. Higher perceived stress was also linked to both higher depressive symptomatology (r=+65, p<.0001) and plasma OT (p< .05) and a significant mediator. During the intervention, salivary OT remained elevated among subjects high in depressive symptomatology in the control group but not the intervention group. At post-intervention, plasma OT levels in subjects with vs. without depressive symptomatology no longer differed. Results indicate that subclinical depression is associated with elevated plasma and salivary OT levels, which may be mediated in part by increased stress. OT differences linked to subclinical depression were minimized by the warm touch intervention.

Oxytocin and human social behavior

Despite a general consensus that oxytocin (OT) has prosocial effects, there is no clear agreement on how these effects are achieved. Human research on OT is reviewed under three broad research initiatives: attachment and trust, social memory, and fear reduction. As an organizing perspective for scholars' current knowledge, a tentative model of the causes and effects of alterations in OT level is proposed. The model must remain provisional until conceptual and methodological problems are addressed that arise from a failure to distinguish between traits and states, differing research paradigms used in relation to OT as an independent versus dependent variable, and the possibility that OT effects depend on the initial emotional state of the individual. Social and personality psychologists have important roles to play in developing more rigorous and creative research designs.

Oxytocin response to an experimental psychosocial challenge in adults exposed to traumatic experiences during childhood or adolescence

Long-term implications of the exposure to traumatizing experiences during childhood or adolescence, such as sexual abuse, or cancer, have been documented, namely the subjects' response to an acute stress in adulthood. Several indicators of the stress response have been considered (e.g. cortisol, heart rate). Oxytocin (OT) response to an acute stress of individuals exposed to trauma has not been documented. Eighty subjects (n=26 women who had experienced episodes of child abuse, n=25 men and women healthy survivors of cancer in childhood or adolescence, and 29 controls) have been submitted to a laboratory session involving an experimental stress challenge, the Trier social stress test. Overall, there was a clear OT response to the psychosocial challenge. Subjects having experienced a childhood/adolescence life-threatening illness had higher mean levels of OT than both abused and control subjects. There was a moderate negative relationship between OT and salivary cortisol. It is suggested that an acute stress stimulates OT secretion, and that the exposure to enduring life-threatening experiences in childhood/adolescence has long-lasting consequences regarding the stress system and connected functions, namely the activation of OT secretion. Better knowledge of such long-term implications is important so that to prevent dysregulations of the stress responses, which have been shown to be associated to the individual's mental health.

Der „Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire”

Zusammenfassung. Vorgestellt wird eine deutsche Adaption des „Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire” (BEQ; Gross & John, 1995 ). Das Instrument erfasst mit Hilfe von 16 Items ökonomisch drei Dimensionen der Expressivität: Negative Expressivität, Positive Expressivität und Impulsintensität. In Studie 1 (n = 385) wurden mittels konfirmatorischer Faktorenanalyse die interne faktorielle Struktur und die psychometrischen Eigenschaften für die Faktoren des BEQ bestimmt. In einer Längsschnittstudie (Studie 2) wurden die Stabilität und Validität des BEQ untersucht: Zum ersten Messzeitpunkt wurde die selbstberichtete Expressivität von 220 Probanden erhoben. Zum zweiten Messzeitpunkt (sechs Monate später) wurden neben der selbstberichteten Expressivität für jeden Probanden zwei Fremdurteile sowie globale Maße der Persönlichkeit, positive und negative Affektivität und Maße der physischen und psychischen Gesundheit erfasst. Die Dimensionen des BEQ sind zeitlich stabil und positiv mit den Fremdurteilen korreliert. Negative Expressivität und Impulsintensität sind mit Neurotizismus, negativer Affektivität, physischen Beschwerden und Depressivität verbunden. Positive Expressivität ist mit Extraversion, Offenheit und positiver Affektivität assoziiert. Frauen zeigen im Vergleich zu Männern höhere Werte in allen Dimensionen des BEQ, welche mit Alter negativ korreliert sind.

Anxiety, cortisol, and attachment predict plasma oxytocin

Oxytocin and attachment seem to interact in suppressing subjective anxiety and physiological stress responses. In this study we investigated the relationships between individual differences in trait attachment scores, state and trait anxiety, plasma cortisol, and plasma oxytocin levels in healthy premenopausal women. Attachment proved to be a strong positive predictor of oxytocin levels, which were also positively predicted by cortisol levels and state and trait anxiety. The relationship between oxytocin and state anxiety was modulated by attachment scores. The present results may help interpreting seeming contradictions in the recent literature on oxytocin, attachment, and stress in humans, by suggesting that context effects determine which relationships are found in different studies: anxiolytic effects of oxytocin in a context of partner support versus stress- or cortisol-induced oxytocin responses in a context of distress or increased cortisol.