Mental rotation in female fraternal twins: Evidence for intra-uterine hormone transfer?

Study of spatial abilities: The role of sex, female hormonal status and emotional context in visualizing 2D cross sections of 3D objects

Our study aimed to elucidate the relationships between both biological and sociocultural factors on the ability to visualize cross sections, with a particular focus on sex and hormonal status, as well as emotional context and gender roles. While it is recognized that sex hormones play a role in shaping spatial abilities, the mechanisms remain unclear, and the effects of hormonal contraceptives, such as oral contraceptives (OCs) and intrauterine devices (IUDs), are largely unexplored. We recruited males (n = 35) and females across different menstrual cycle phases (early follicular (NCF, n = 34); mid-luteal (NCL, n = 36)) and contraceptive methods (users of OCs, n = 27; users of hormonal IUDs, n = 31). Participants' ability to identify two-dimensional (2D) cross sections of three-dimensional (3D) solids was assessed using the Cross Section Task (CST). CST was performed after an emotion regulation task involving negative and highly negative pictures. Males outperformed NCF, NCL, and OC users, while IUD users showed comparable performance to males, suggesting a potential mitigating effect. Moreover, a multiple linear regression model for females showed that IUD users performed significantly better on the CST task than OC and NCL females, and marginally better than NCF females, after adjusting for age, emotional arousal, femininity, masculinity, and testosterone. Emotional arousal, especially following the emotion regulation task, associated with females' CST accuracy and partly mediated sex differences in the ability to visualize cross sections. Our findings advocate for further exploration of spatial performance advantages in IUD users, as the data suggest that hormonal IUD use may be related to the systemic changes in women's bodies, including the brain, potentially influencing spatial abilities. Moreover, our results highlight the importance of considering emotional factors in understanding sex differences in spatial tasks.

Sex differences persist in visuospatial mental rotation under 3D VR conditions

The classic Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotations Test (MRT) shows a male advantage for visuospatial rotation. However, MRTs that have been adapted for use with real or physical objects have found that sex differences are reduced or abolished. Previous work has also suggested that virtual 3D objects will eliminate sex differences, although this has not been demonstrated in a purely visuospatial paradigm without motor input. In the present study we sought to examine potential sex differences in mental rotation using a fully-immersive 3D VR adaptation of the original MRT that is purely visuospatial in nature. With unlimited time 23 females and 23 males completed a VR MRT designed to approximate the original Vandenberg and Kuse stimuli. Despite the immersive VR experience and lack of time pressure, we found a large male performance advantage in response accuracy, exceeding what has typically been reported for 2D MRTs. No sex differences were observed in response time. Thus, a male advantage in pure mental rotation for 2D stimuli can extend to 3D objects in VR, even when there are no time constraints.

Mental rotation with colored cube figures

Men usually outperform women in psychometric mental rotation tests with cube figures. This advantage could be pronounced due to the male stereotyped rotational objects. The present study aims to investigate whether gender differences in favor of men are absent when the stimuli are less male stereotyped. Therefore, 112 participants solved three psychometric mental rotation tests with cube figures colored in pink, blue, and grey. Men outperformed women independent of stimulus color. In the pink and the grey version of the test, participants with beliefs of spatial abilities as masculine performed better than those with feminine beliefs. The mental rotation test performance with pink figures was predicted by gender and gender stereotypes in spatial abilities. In the blue and grey version, gender and self-rated spatial abilities predicted the performance. It can be assumed that the stereotype activation by stimulus color was not sufficient to influence the performance.

Educational attainment of same-sex and opposite-sex dizygotic twins: An individual-level pooled study of 19 twin cohorts

Comparing twins from same- and opposite-sex pairs can provide information on potential sex differences in a variety of outcomes, including socioeconomic-related outcomes such as educational attainment. It has been suggested that this design can be applied to examine the putative role of intrauterine exposure to testosterone for educational attainment, but the evidence is still disputed. Thus, we established an international database of twin data from 11 countries with 88,290 individual dizygotic twins born over 100 years and tested for differences between twins from same- and opposite-sex dizygotic pairs in educational attainment. Effect sizes with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated by linear regression models after adjusting for birth year and twin study cohort. In contrast to the hypothesis, no difference was found in women (β = -0.05 educational years, 95% CI -0.11, 0.02). However, men with a same-sex co-twin were slightly more educated than men having an opposite-sex co-twin (β = 0.14 educational years, 95% CI 0.07, 0.21). No consistent differences in effect sizes were found between individual twin study cohorts representing Europe, the USA, and Australia or over the cohorts born during the 20th century, during which period the sex differences in education reversed favoring women in the latest birth cohorts. Further, no interaction was found with maternal or paternal education. Our results contradict the hypothesis that there would be differences in the intrauterine testosterone levels between same-sex and opposite-sex female twins affecting education. Our findings in men may point to social dynamics within same-sex twin pairs that may benefit men in their educational careers.

Are implicit affective evaluations related to mental rotation performance?

Conscious and unconscious emotions are related to mental rotation. In this study, we investigated if also unconscious emotional evaluations of the stimuli are related to mental rotation performance. 114 students (39 men, 75 women) solved implicit and explicit affective evaluations and a psychometric mental rotation test with cube and pellet figures. Furthermore, the use of spatial toys, the stereotyping of spatial abilities, and the self-rating in spatial abilities were registered. The mental rotation test with pellet figures was more difficult than the one with cube figures. Mental rotation performance was predicted by the self-rating of spatial abilities. For the cube figures, it was additionally predicted by the implicit affective evaluation of those figures. The results did not differ between men and women. The study provides evidence for a relation between affective emotional evaluations and mental imagery processes, although this does not hold true for all stimulus types.

The Mental Rotation Ability of Expert Basketball Players: Identifying On-Court Plays

Purpose: The purpose was (1) to test a new version of a mental rotation task (MRT), which assesses mental rotation abilities of men and women for sport-specific items, and (2) to investigate potential differences in MRT performance, which are based on athletic expertise. Methods: Eighty-eight basketball experts (42 females) and 123 novices (64 females) were tested with a paper-and-pencil version of the "Mental Rotation Task-Basketball (MRT-BB)", which is similar to the original MRT. Instead of three-dimensional cubes, six different basketball plays were used as stimuli. The criterion stimulus of the 24 items was always displayed in an upright orientation (basket on top), located on the left side of the sheet. In addition, two "correct" alternatives (one stimulus rotated by 90° to the left or right and one by 180°) and two "incorrect" alternatives (either rotated mirror-images of the criterion stimulus or rotated images of a different play) were displayed in different positions of the same row. The task was to identify the "correct" alternatives. Results: Results demonstrated (a) an effect of sex, with more items solved for male participants as compared to female participants, and (b) an effect of expertise, with better performance of expert players than of novices. Conclusions: Male and female basketball experts show better mental rotation skills for sport-specific stimulus material. The MRT-BB extends standard tests of mental rotation to sport-specific stimulus material and can be used to test the sport-specific mental rotation skills of basketball players.

Cord blood androgen levels of females from same sex and opposite sex twins - A pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Opposite-sex twins have shown behavioural and reproductive differences between females and males. These differences may be determined by higher intrauterine levels of androgens among females that were exposed to a male co-twin. The aim of this study was to compare cord blood androgen levels in females from same-sex and opposite-sex twins.

DESIGN

A prospective study. In this pilot study, we compared cord blood androgens (DHEA-S, Δ-4 androstenedione, total testosterone-TT) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels in 20 females from same sex and 20 females from opposite-sex dichorionic diamniotic twins. We used generalized estimating equation (GEE) modelling to assess differences in cord blood androgens between females from same-sex twin pregnancies and females from opposite-sex twin pregnancies.

PATIENTS

Twenty opposite-sex twin pairs (female-male twins) and 20 same-sex twin pairs (female-female).

MEASUREMENTS

Cord blood total testosterone, Δ-4 androstenedione, DHEA-S and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels.

RESULTS

No difference in the levels of androgens as Δ-4 androstenedione, total testosterone and SHBG was identified between females that were exposed to a female co-twin compared with females that were exposed to a male co-twin. DHEA-S levels were significantly lower among females from opposite-sex twins compared with females from same-sex twins.

CONCLUSIONS

Our preliminary data do not support the hypothesis that females exposed to male co-twins are exposed to higher levels of androgens in utero compared with females exposed to female co-twins. Further studies are needed to explain the reported behavioural and reproductive differences among opposite-sex twins.

Epigenetic consequences of hormonal interactions between opposite-sex twin fetuses

Previous studies reported inconsistent evidence about some phenotypic traits of females in human opposite-sex twins (opposite-sex females [OSF]) being distinct from females in same-sex twins (SSF). Comparatively, less evidence showed significant differences between males in OS twins (opposite-sex males [OSM]) and males in same-sex twins (SSM). The twin testosterone transfer hypothesis suggests that prenatal exposure of testosterone in utero may be a possible explanation for the differential traits in OSF; however, the underlying mechanism is unknown. Here, we investigated the potential epigenetic effects of hormone interactions and their correlation to the observed phenotypic traits. In the study, DNA methylomic data from 54 newborn twins and histone modification data (H3K4me3, H3K4me1, H3K27me3, and H3K27ac) from 14 newborn twins, including same-sex females (SSF), OS twins, and same-sex males (SSM) were generated. We found that OSF were clearly distinguishable from SSF by DNA methylome, while OSM were distinguishable from SSM by H3K4me1 and H3K4me3. To be more specific, compared to SSF, OSF showed a stronger correlation to males (OSM and SSM) in genome-wide DNA methylation. Further, the DNA methylomic differences between OSF and SSF were linked to the process involving cognitive functions and nervous system regulation. The differential H3K4me3 between OSM and SSM was linked to immune responses. These findings provide epigenetic evidence for the twin testosterone transfer hypothesis and offer novel insights on how prenatal hormone exposure in utero may be linked to the reported differential traits of OS twins.

Does spatial awareness training affect anatomy learning in medical students?

Spatial ability (SA) is the cognitive capacity to understand and mentally manipulate concepts of objects, remembering relationships among their parts and those of their surroundings. Spatial ability provides a learning advantage in science and may be useful in anatomy and technical skills in health care. This study aimed to assess the relationship between SA and anatomy scores in first- and second-year medical students. The training sessions focused on the analysis of the spatial component of objects' structure and their interaction as applied to medicine; SA was tested using the Visualization of Rotation (ROT) test. The intervention group (n = 29) received training and their pre- and post-training scores for the SA tests were compared to a control group (n = 75). Both groups improved their mean scores in the follow-up SA test (P < 0.010). There was no significant difference in SA scores between the groups for either SA test (P = 0.31, P = 0.90). The SA scores for female students were significantly lower than for male students, both at baseline and follow-up (P < 0.010). Anatomy training and assessment were administered by the anatomy department of the medical school, and examination scores were not significantly different between the two groups post-intervention (P = 0.33). However, participants with scores in the bottom quartile for SA performed worse in the anatomy questions (P < 0.001). Spatial awareness training did not improve SA or anatomy scores; however, SA may identify students who may benefit from additional academic support.

Dementia risk in women higher in same-sex than opposite-sex twins

INTRODUCTION

Hormones may be one possible mechanism underlying sex differences in dementia incidence. We examined whether presumed differential prenatal hormone milieu is related to dementia risk by comparing dementia rates in same- and opposite-sex dizygotic twin pairs in male and female twins.

METHODS

The sample comprised 43,254 individuals from dizygotic twin pairs aged 60 and older from the Swedish Twin Registry. Survival analyses were conducted separately for females and males.

RESULTS

Female twins from opposite-sex pairs had significantly lower dementia risk than female twins from same-sex pairs, but the differences emerged only after age 70 (hazard ratio = 0.64, P = 0.004). Results were not explained by postnatal risk factors for dementia, and no interaction between twin type and apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 was found. Male twins from same-sex versus opposite-sex pairs did not differ significantly.

DISCUSSION

The results suggest that relatively masculine prenatal hormone milieus correlate with lower dementia risk in females.

Motion corrected MRI differentiates male and female human brain growth trajectories from mid-gestation

It is of considerable scientific, medical, and societal interest to understand the developmental origins of differences between male and female brains. Here we report the use of advances in MR imaging and analysis to accurately measure global, lobe and millimetre scale growth trajectory patterns over 18 gestational weeks in normal pregnancies with repeated measures. Statistical modelling of absolute growth trajectories revealed underlying differences in many measures, potentially reflecting overall body size differences. However, models of relative growth accounting for global measures revealed a complex temporal form, with strikingly similar cortical development in males and females at lobe scales. In contrast, local cortical growth patterns and larger scale white matter volume and surface measures differed significantly between male and female. Many proportional differences were maintained during neurogenesis and over 18 weeks of growth. These indicate sex related sculpting of neuroanatomy begins early in development, before cortical folding, potentially influencing postnatal development.

The Effect of Twin Sex on Menstrual Characteristics

Background and objectives: The purpose of this project is to evaluate the association between twin sex discordance and menstrual characteristics. We hypothesize that sharing the uterus with a male twin can change ovulation programming, hence changing the menstrual cycle characteristics during adulthood. This project could be novel in discovering new physiological mechanisms of hormone exposure and menstrual cycles. Materials and methods: This is a cross-sectional study. We asked females from sex-concordant (n = 1290) and sex-discordant (n = 168) twin pairs in the Washington State Twin Registry about characteristics of menstrual cycles. Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) analysis was used to compare groups. The main outcome measures included the amount of bleeding, duration of menstruation, the timing of menstruation, length of menstruation, and a number of periods per year. Results: We found a statistically significant association between the amount of menstrual period bleeding and twin sex discordance (0.42 (95% CI 0.18–0.94)). However, twin sex discordance was not associated with period duration, length of menstrual cycle, cycle regularity, or a number of periods per year. Conclusions: Twin sex discordance is not a predictor of clinical characteristics of menstruation during adulthood except for the amount of bleeding. Future studies should focus on the impact of male hormones on the amount of bleeding during menstruation.

Sex differences in cognition and aging and the influence of sex hormones

Sex differences in cognitive functioning have been consistently reported in some cognitive tasks, with varying effect sizes. The most consistent findings in healthy adults are sex differences in the areas of mental rotation and aspects of attention and verbal memory. Sex differences in the vulnerability and manifestation of several psychiatric and neurologic diseases that involve cognitive disruption provide strong justification to continue investigating the social and biologic influences that underpin sex differences in cognitive functioning across health and disease. The biologic influences are thought to include genetic and epigenetic factors, sex chromosomes, and sex hormones. Sex steroid hormones that regulate reproductive function have multiple effects on the development, maintenance, and function of the brain, including significant effects on cognitive functioning. The aim of the current chapter is to provide a theoretical review of sex differences across different cognitive domains in adulthood and aging, as well as provide an overview on the role of sex hormones in cognitive function and cognitive decline.

Sex Hormones as Cognitive Enhancers?

Understanding the differences in the way women and men think has made headway thanks to experiments showing how sex hormones influence cognitive capacities. Masculine and feminine sex hormones (androgens and estrogens, respectively) affect cognition in different ways and may account for some of the gender differences in cognitive abilities, allowing men and women to perform better in certain cognitive tests. In this opinion article, we discuss studies addressing differences in cognitive functions between males and females and the underlying neural substrates, as well as the effects of sex hormone supplementation. Even though some studies on patients receiving exogenous sex hormones showed gender differences that emerge at group levels on a few cognitive tasks, it is not yet clear whether these differences can be partially attributed to hormonal causes. Supplementation of female estrogen can enhance verbal skills, whereas masculine androgen can increase performance in mathematical and visuospatial tasks. Studies of the administration of exogenous sex hormones have allowed further insight into the use of sex hormones as possible cognitive enhancers.

Opposite-sex and same-sex twin studies of physiological, cognitive and behavioral traits

A scientific interest in opposite-sex (OS) twins comes from animal studies showing hormone transfer between fetuses in utero. A parallel effect in humans may occur, especially for OS females who may be exposed to androgens, in particular testosterone, from the male co-twin. Conversely, OS males may be exposed to lower levels of prenatal testosterone than do same-sex (SS) males. In this special issue, we reviewed published studies investigating potential differences between OS and SS twins in physiological, cognitive and behavioral traits focusing on the Twin Testosterone Transfer (TTT) hypothesis. Sixty articles fulfilled the eligibility criteria including 23 studies published since the review by Tapp et al. (2011). In general, studies of cognition are conflicting, but it is the phenotype for which most support for the TTT hypothesis is found. Less consistent evidence has been found regarding physiological and behavioral traits. We hope that this special issue will stimulate a discussion about how an investigation of the TTT hypothesis should continue in future research.

Sex specific relationships between infants' mental rotation ability and amiotic sex hormones

Sex differences in mental rotation, robust in adults, have recently been reported for infants' looking times although the pattern of results is not completely conclusive. In this context, organizational effects of gonadal steroids affecting the neural circuitry underlying spatial cognition could be (partly) responsible for the early sex difference. In the present study testosterone and estradiol levels measured in amniotic fluid via ultra performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry were used to examine the role of prenatal sex hormones on infants' looking times during mental rotation. N = 208 six-month-old infants participated in an expectation of violation task with 3D cube figures. Mental rotation was defined as the difference in looking times for familiar versus mirrored cube figures whereas vigilance was defined as the sum of both looking times. Sex differences were absent for mental rotation as well as for vigilance. Most importantly, however, for boys mental rotation but not vigilance was correlated with prenatal testosterone but not with estradiol. For girls mental rotation but not vigilance was correlated with prenatal estradiol but not with testosterone although it has to be noted that the testosterone values for girls suffered from a floor effect. Only 5% of the within-sex variance was due to prenatal sex hormones indicating small effects. These findings extend our knowledge concerning organizational effects of prenatal sex hormones on the brain circuitry underlying spatial cognition.

Catecholaminergic effects on inhibitory control depend on the interplay of prior task experience and working memory demands

BACKGROUND

Catecholamines affect response inhibition, but the effects of methylphenidate on inhibitory control in healthy subjects are heterogenous. Theoretical considerations suggest that working memory demands and learning/familiarization processes are important factors to consider regarding catecholaminergic effects on response inhibition.

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of working memory demands and familiarization for methylphenidate effects on response inhibition.

METHODS

Twenty-eight healthy adults received a single dose of methylphenidate (0.5 mg/kg) or placebo in a randomised, double-blind, crossover study design. The subjects were tested using a working memory-modulated response inhibition paradigm that combined a Go/Nogo task with a mental rotation task.

RESULTS

Methylphenidate effects were largest in the most challenging mental rotation condition. The direction of effects depended on the extent of the participants' task experience. When performing the task for the first time, methylphenidate impaired response inhibition performance in the most challenging mental rotation condition, as reflected by an increased false alarm rate. In sharp contrast to this, methylphenidate seemed to improve response execution performance in the most challenging condition when performing the task for the second time as reflected by reaction times on Go trials.

CONCLUSION

Effects of catecholamines on inhibitory control processes depend on the interplay of two factors: (a) working memory demands, and (b) learning or familiarization with a task. It seems that the net effect of increases in gain control and decreases in working memory processes determines the methylphenidate effect on response inhibition. Hence, crossover study designs likely underestimate methylphenidate effects on cognitive functions.

Mental Rotation Test Performance in Brazilian and German Adolescents: The Role of Sex, Processing Speed, and Physical Activity in Two Different Cultures

It was the main goal of this study to investigate performance on the mental rotation test (MRT) in Brazilian and German adolescents. Mental rotation is the ability to mentally transform a three-dimensional stimulus in mind and relates to science education. 60 German and 60 Brazilian adolescents (76 males and 44 females, 11–17 years) completed the Mental Rotation Test, a physical activity and media use questionnaire and a Number Connection Test. The result showed no difference between Brazilian and German adolescents in the cognitive processing speed measurement. German adolescents are more active and show a less media use compared to the Brazilian adolescents. Furthermore, German adolescents demonstrate a better MRT performance than Brazilian ones, as well as boys show a better performance than girls do. A multiple regression analysis indicated that the MRT performance could be predicted by nationality, sex, and cognitive processing speed. Since cognitive processing speed did not differ between Brazilian and German adolescents, the worse MRT performance of the Brazilian adolescents could be explained by different educational systems. Further studies have to follow which investigate the reasons for the different nations in more detail.

Evidence that prenatal testosterone transfer from male twins reduces the fertility and socioeconomic success of their female co-twins

During sensitive periods in utero, gonadal steroids help organize biological sex differences in humans and other mammals. In litter-bearing species, chromosomal females passively exposed to prenatal testosterone from male littermates exhibit altered physical and behavioral traits as adults. The consequences of such effects are less well understood in humans, but recent near-doubling of twinning rates in many countries since 1980, secondary to advanced maternal age and increased reliance on in vitro fertilization, means that an increasing subset of females in many populations may be exposed to prenatal testosterone from their male co-twin. Here we use data on all births in Norway (n = 728,842, including 13,800 twins) between 1967 and 1978 to show that females exposed in utero to a male co-twin have a decreased probability of graduating from high school (15.2%), completing college (3.9%), and being married (11.7%), and have lower fertility (5.8%) and life-cycle earnings (8.6%). These relationships remain unchanged among the subsets of 583 and 239 females whose male co-twin died during the first postnatal year and first 28 days of life, respectively, supporting the interpretation that they are due primarily to prenatal exposure rather than to postnatal socialization effects of being raised with a male sibling. Our findings provide empirical evidence, using objectively measured nation-level data, that human females exposed prenatally to a male co-twin experience long-term changes in marriage, fertility, and human capital. These findings support the hypothesis of in utero testosterone transfer between twins, which is likely affecting a small but growing subset of females worldwide.

Nonverbal cognition across genetic and environmentally informative kinships: The case for opposite-sex twin pairs and virtual twins

The extent to which prenatal intrauterine testosterone affects cognitive development in females has been of interest. Previous twin research has, however, been limited in its attempts to disentangle prenatal and psychosocial environmental factors influencing cognitive development. The current study applied a novel approach to addressing this concern. Specifically, the nonverbal cognitive performances of female opposite-sex dizygotic co-twins (DZOSfs) and female opposite-sex virtual co-twins (same-age unrelated siblings or VTOSfs) were compared to separate the biological and environmental influences on the nonverbal IQ score and its component subtests. The DZOSf twins showed a trend toward outperforming the younger VTOSf twins on the Block Design subtest only. Using these biologically and environmentally informative kinships offers a novel approach to understanding sex differences in nonverbal cognition. Including VTOSfs as a comparison group creates an experimental design that eliminates confounds and spurious associations left unaddressed in prior twin research.

Prenatal testosterone does not explain sex differences in spatial ability

The most consistent sex differences in cognition are found for spatial ability, in which males, on average, outperform females. Utilizing a twin design, two studies have shown that females with male co-twins perform better than females with female co-twins on a mental rotation task. According to the Twin Testosterone Transfer hypothesis (TTT) this advantage is due to in-uterine transmission of testosterone from males to females. The present study tested the TTT across 14 different spatial ability measures, including mental rotation tasks, in a large sample of 19–21-year-old twins. Males performed significantly better than females on all spatial tasks, with effect sizes ranging from η² = 0.02 to η² = 0.16. Females with a male co-twin outperformed females with a female co-twin in two of the tasks. The effect sizes for both differences were negligible (η² < 0.02). Contrary to the previous studies, our results gave no indication that prenatally transferred testosterone, from a male to a female twin, influences sex differences in spatial ability.

Sex Differences and the Influence of Sex Hormones on Cognition through Adulthood and the Aging Process

Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis that regulate reproductive function have multiple effects on the development, maintenance and function of the brain. Sex differences in cognitive functioning have been reported in both health and disease, which may be partly attributed to sex hormones. The aim of the current paper was to provide a theoretical review of how sex hormones influence cognitive functioning across the lifespan as well as provide an overview of the literature on sex differences and the role of sex hormones in cognitive decline, specifically in relation to Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A summary of current hormone and sex-based interventions for enhancing cognitive functioning and/or reducing the risk of Alzheimer’s disease is also provided.

Looking behind the score: Skill structure explains sex differences in skilled video game performance

Some have explained large sex differences in visuospatial abilities by genetic adaptations to different roles in primitive hunter-gatherer societies and the interaction of innate biological differences and environmental factors. We explored the extent to which variations in behavior and acquired skills can provide alternative accounts for sex differences in the performance of a complex spatially-demanding video game (Space Fortress). Men and women with limited video game experience were given 30 hours of training, and latent curve analyses examined the development of their ship control performance and behavior. Men had significantly better control performance than women before and after training, but differences diminished substantially over the training period. An analysis of participants’ joystick behaviors revealed that initially men and women relied on different patterns of control behaviors, but changes in these behaviors over time accounted for the reduced sex differences in performance. When we controlled for these differences in behavior, sex effects after training were no longer significant. Finally, examining the development of control performance and control behaviors of men and women categorized as initially high and low performers revealed the lower-performing women may have been controlling their ship using an approach that was very different from the men and higher-performing women. The potential problems of analyzing men and women’s spatial performance as homogenous groups are discussed, as well as how these issues may account for sex differences in skilled video game performance and perhaps other domains involving spatial abilities.

Gender differences in mental rotation strategy depend on degree of autistic traits

Participants with low, medium, and high autistic traits completed a mental rotation task while their eye movements were recorded. Men were more accurate than women (F(1, 102) = 4.36, P = 0.04, η²_p  = 0.04), but there were no group differences in reaction time. In terms of eye movements, all participants tended to rely on top corners of cube figures for most angles of rotation, and bottom corners of cube figures for 0 and 90 degree rotations (duration: F(8, 816) = 21.70, P < 0.001, η²_p  = 0.18; count: F(8, 816) = 24.42, P < 0.001, η²_p  = 0.19) suggesting a shift in strategy with rotation angle. Eye movements to corners of cube figures also varied by autistic traits group and gender (duration: F(4, 204) = 2.44, P = 0.05, η²_p  = 0.05; count: F(4, 204) = 2.47, P = 0.05, η²_p  = 0.05). Participants with low and medium autistic traits tended to rely more often on the top corners, whereas women with high autistic traits relied on both the top and bottom corners and men with high autistic traits relied on all corners equally. These results suggest mental rotation strategies may vary by both gender and autistic traits. Autism Res 2018, 11: 1024-1037. © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

LAY SUMMARY

The current study looked at eye movements to assess adults' strategies when mentally rotating three-dimensional cube figures. Adults with varying levels of autistic traits differ in their mental rotation strategies. In addition, gender differences in strategies are observed in adults with the highest level of autistic traits.

Does the sex of one's co-twin affect height and BMI in adulthood? A study of dizygotic adult twins from 31 cohorts

Background

The comparison of traits in twins from opposite-sex (OS) and same-sex (SS) dizygotic twin pairs is considered a proxy measure of prenatal hormone exposure. To examine possible prenatal hormonal influences on anthropometric traits, we compared mean height, body mass index (BMI), and the prevalence of being overweight or obese between men and women from OS and SS dizygotic twin pairs.

Methods

The data were derived from the COllaborative project of Development of Anthropometrical measures in Twins (CODATwins) database, and included 68,494 SS and 53,808 OS dizygotic twin individuals above the age of 20 years from 31 twin cohorts representing 19 countries. Zygosity was determined by questionnaires or DNA genotyping depending on the study. Multiple regression and logistic regression models adjusted for cohort, age, and birth year with the twin type as a predictor were carried out to compare height and BMI in twins from OS pairs with those from SS pairs and to calculate the adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for being overweight or obese.

Results

OS females were, on average, 0.31 cm (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.20, 0.41) taller than SS females. OS males were also, on average, taller than SS males, but this difference was only 0.14 cm (95% CI 0.02, 0.27). Mean BMI and the prevalence of overweight or obesity did not differ between males and females from SS and OS twin pairs. The statistically significant differences between OS and SS twins for height were small and appeared to reflect our large sample size rather than meaningful differences of public health relevance.

Conclusions

We found no evidence to support the hypothesis that prenatal hormonal exposure or postnatal socialization (i.e., having grown up with a twin of the opposite sex) has a major impact on height and BMI in adulthood.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13293-017-0134-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The norepinephrine system affects specific neurophysiological subprocesses in the modulation of inhibitory control by working memory demands

Inhibitory control processes are known to be modulated by working memory demands. However, the neurobiological mechanisms behind these modulations are inconclusive. One important system to consider in this regard is the locus coeruleus (LC) norepinephrine (NE) system. In the current study the role of the LC-NE system by means of pupil diameter recordings that are integrated with neurophysiological (EEG) and source localization data were examined. A combined mental-rotation Go/Nogo task was used. The results show that increases in working memory load complicate response inhibition processes. On a neurophysiological level these effects were reflected by specific modulations in event-related potentials (ERPs) reflecting motor inhibition processes (i.e., Nogo-P3). Attentional selection processes (reflected by the P1 and N1) as well as pre-motor inhibition or conflict monitoring processes (reflected by the Nogo-N2) were not affected. Activity of the LC-NE systems, as indexed by the pupil diameter data, predicted neurophysiological processes selectively in the Nogo-P3 time range. Source localization analyses suggest that this modulation occurs in the right middle and inferior frontal gyrus. The study provides evidence that the LC-NE system is an important neurobiological system modulating the effects of working memory load on response inhibition processes. More specifically, it modulates a subset of dissociable cognitive processes that are related to prefrontal cortical regions. Hum Brain Mapp 38:68-81, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

How Early Hormones Shape Gender Development

Many important psychological characteristics show sex differences, and are influenced by sex hormones at different developmental periods. We focus on the role of sex hormones in early development, particularly the differential effects of prenatal androgens on aspects of gender development. Increasing evidence confirms that prenatal androgens have facilitative effects on male-typed activity interests and engagement (including child toy preferences and adult careers), and spatial abilities, but relatively minimal effects on gender identity. Recent emphasis has been directed to the psychological mechanisms underlying these effects (including sex differences in propulsive movement, and androgen effects on interest in people versus things), and neural substrates of androgen effects (including regional brain volumes, and neural responses to mental rotation, sexually arousing stimuli, emotion, and reward). Ongoing and planned work is focused on understanding the ways in which hormones act jointly with the social environment across time to produce varying trajectories of gender development, and clarifying mechanisms by which androgens affect behaviors. Such work will be facilitated by applying lessons from other species, and by expanding methodology. Understanding hormonal influences on gender development enhances knowledge of psychological development generally, and has important implications for basic and applied questions, including sex differences in psychopathology, women's underrepresentation in science and math, and clinical care of individuals with variations in gender expression.

Differences in Religiousness in Opposite-Sex and Same-Sex Twins in a Secular Society

Sex differences in religion are well known, with females generally being more religious than males, and shared environmental factors have been suggested to have a large influence on religiousness. Twins from opposite-sex (OS) and same-sex (SS) pairs may differ because of a dissimilar psycho-social rearing environment and/or because of different exposures to hormones in utero. We hypothesized that OS females may display more masculine patterns of religiousness and, vice versa, that OS males may display more feminine patterns. We used a web-based survey conducted in Denmark, which is a secular society. The survey included 2,997 twins aged 20-40 years, identified through the population-based Danish Twin Registry. We applied la Cour and Hvidt's adaptation of Fishman's three conceptual dimensions of meaning: Cognition, Practice, and Importance, and we used Pargament's measure of religious coping (RCOPE) for the assessment of positive and negative religious coping patterns. Differences between OS and SS twins were investigated using logistic regression for each sex. The analyses were adjusted for dependence within twin pairs. No significant differences in religiousness and religious coping were found for OS and SS twins except that more OS than SS females were members of the Danish National Evangelical Lutheran Church and fewer OS than SS females were Catholic, Muslim, or belonged to other religious denominations. Moreover, OS males at age 12 had higher rates of church attendance than did SS males. This study did not provide evidence for masculinization of female twins with male co-twins with regard to religiousness. Nor did it show any significant differences between OS and SS males except from higher rates of church attendance in childhood among males with female co-twins.

Sex differences in visuospatial abilities persist during induced hypogonadism

BACKGROUND

Despite well-established sex differences in the performance on tests of several cognitive domains (e.g., visuospatial ability), few studies in humans have evaluated if these sex differences are evident both in the presence of circulating sex hormones and during sex steroid hormonal suppression. Sex differences identified in the relative absence of circulating levels of estradiol and testosterone suggest that differences in brain structure or function exist independent of current hormonal environment and are more likely a reflection of differing developmental exposures and/or genetic substrates.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate cognitive performance in healthy eugonadal men and women before and again during GnRH agonist-induced hypogonadism.

METHODS

Men (n=16) and women (n=15) without medical or psychiatric illness were matched for IQ. Cognitive tests were performed at baseline (when eugonadal) and after 6-8 weeks of GnRH agonist-induced gonadal suppression. The test batteries included measures of verbal and spatial memory, spatial ability, verbal fluency, motor speed/dexterity, and attention/concentration. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures models.

RESULTS

During both eugonadism and hypogonadism, men performed significantly better than women on several measures of visuospatial performance including mental rotation, line orientation, Money Road Map, Porteus maze, and complex figure drawing. Although some test performances showed an effect of hormone treatment, the majority of these differences reflected an improved performance during hypogonadism compared with baseline (and probably reflected practice effects).

CONCLUSION

The well-documented male advantage in visuospatial performance, which we observed during eugonadal conditions, was maintained in the context of short-term suppression of gonadal function in both men and women. These findings suggest that, in humans, sex differences in visuospatial performance are not merely dependent on differences in the current circulating sex steroid environment. Thus sex differences in visuospatial performance in adulthood could reflect early developmental effects of sex steroid exposure or other environmental exposures differing across the sexes as our data confirm that these differences are independent of circulating estradiol or testosterone levels in men and women.

Changes in spatial cognition and brain activity after a single dose of testosterone in healthy women

Studies have consistently shown that males perform better than females on several spatial tasks. Animal and human literature suggests that sex hormones have an important role in both establishing and maintaining this difference. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of exogenous testosterone on spatial cognition and brain activity in healthy women. A cross-sectional, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study was performed in 42 healthy young women who either received one dose of 0.5mg sublingual testosterone or placebo. They then learned a virtual environment and performed navigation tasks during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Subsequently, their knowledge of the virtual environment, self-reported navigation strategy, and mental rotation abilities were measured. The testosterone group had improved representations of the directions within the environment and performed significantly better on the mental rotation task compared to the placebo group, but navigation success and navigation strategy were similar in the two groups. Nevertheless, the testosterone group had significantly increased activity within the medial temporal lobe during successful navigation compared to the placebo group, and a positive correlation between testosterone load and medial temporal lobe activity was found. Fetal testosterone levels, measured as second-to-fourth digit length ratio, interacted significantly with parahippocampal activity and tended towards giving higher mental rotation task scores. These results demonstrated that testosterone had a limited effect pertaining specifically to spatial cognition involving 3D-visualization in healthy women, while complex behaviors such as navigation, relying more on learned strategies, were not altered despite increased neuronal activity in relevant brain regions.

Risk of Sex-Specific Cancers in Opposite-Sex and Same-Sex Twins in Denmark and Sweden

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence shows that some cancers originate in utero. It is hypothesized that elevated exposure to some steroid hormones might increase cancer risk and that hormone transfer between twin fetuses could result in different prenatal exposure to testosterone.

METHODS

This large-scale prospective twin study compared opposite-sex (OS) and same-sex (SS) twins to test the impact of intrauterine exposures on cancer risk. On the basis of the Danish and Swedish twin and cancer registries, we calculated incidence rate ratios for OS and SS twins, whereas standardized incidence ratios (SIR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated for OS/SS twins compared with the general population.

RESULTS

A total of 18,001 cancers were identified during 1943-2009. No significant differences were observed between OS and SS twins, neither for the sex-specific cancers nor for cancer at all sites. All-cause cancer was slightly reduced for OS and SS twins compared with the general population, significant for OS males (SIR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.92-0.98) and for SS males and females (SIR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.94-0.99).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that having a male co-twin-which may entail higher exposure to prenatal testosterone-does not increase the risk of sex-specific cancers in OS females. Furthermore, the study supports that twinning per se is not a risk factor of cancer.

IMPACT

Findings are reassuring, as they fail to provide evidence for the hypothesis that endocrine or other difference in the in utero milieu affects the risk of sex-specific cancers.

Spatial function in adolescents and young adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia: clinical phenotype and implications for the androgen hypothesis

Females with the classic form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency are said to perform better than unaffected female controls on tests of mental rotation or other visuospatial abilities, but findings are conflicting. We studied 31 adolescents and young adults with CAH and 19 unaffected sibling controls, who were given standardized spatial tests and tests of other sexually differentiated cognitive functions (verbal fluency, perceptual speed). The possible role of CAH subtype (salt-wasting or simple-virilizing) was evaluated. Only females with the more severe, salt-wasting form of CAH, but not females with the simple-virilizing form, performed significantly better than sex-matched sibling controls on measures of mental rotation. Subtype differences were not significant for verbal fluency or perceptual speed. Severity of prenatal genital virilization, but not postnatal age when medication was started, predicted accuracy on the Mental Rotations Test. Results are consistent with the possibility of an organizational effect of androgens in the central nervous system that impacts the development of spatial abilities. Implications for the timing of the hypothetical critical period are discussed.

Academic performance of opposite-sex and same-sex twins in adolescence: A Danish national cohort study

Testosterone is an important hormone in the sexual differentiation of the brain, contributing to differences in cognitive abilities between males and females. For instance, studies in clinical populations such as females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) who are exposed to high levels of androgens in utero support arguments for prenatal testosterone effects on characteristics such as visuospatial cognition and behaviour. The comparison of opposite-sex (OS) and same-sex (SS) twin pairs can be used to help establish the role of prenatal testosterone. However, although some twin studies confirm a masculinizing effect of a male co-twin regarding for instance perception and cognition it remains unclear whether intra-uterine hormone transfer exists in humans. Our aim was to test the potential influences of testosterone on academic performance in OS twins. We compared ninth-grade test scores and teacher ratings of OS (n=1812) and SS (n=4054) twins as well as of twins and singletons (n=13,900) in mathematics, physics/chemistry, Danish, and English. We found that males had significantly higher test scores in mathematics than females (.06-.15 SD), whereas females performed better in Danish (.33-.49 SD), English (.20 SD), and neatness (.45-.64 SD). However, we did not find that OS females performed better in mathematics than SS and singleton females, nor did they perform worse either in Danish or English. Scores for OS and SS males were similar in all topics. In conclusion, this study did not provide evidence for a masculinization of female twins with male co-twins with regard to academic performance in adolescence.

The influence of steroid sex hormones on the cognitive and emotional processing of visual stimuli in humans

Steroid sex hormones are responsible for some of the differences between men and women. In this article, I review evidence that steroid sex hormones impact on visual processing. Given prominent sex-differences, I focus on three topics for sex hormone effects for which there is most research available: 1. Preference and mate choice, 2. Emotion and recognition, and 3. Cerebral/perceptual asymmetries and visual-spatial abilities. For each topic, researchers have examined sex hormones and visual processing using various methods. I review indirect evidence addressing variation according to: menstrual cycle phase, pregnancy, puberty, and menopause. I further address studies of variation in testosterone and a measure of prenatal testosterone, 2D:4D, on visual processing. The most conclusive evidence, however, comes from experiments. Studies in which hormones are administrated are discussed. Overall, many studies demonstrate that sex steroids are associated with visual processing. However, findings are sometimes inconsistent, differences in methodology make strong comparisons between studies difficult, and we generally know more about activational than organizational effects.

The effect of mental rotation on changes in plasma testosterone and cortisol levels

Testosterone level has an influence on cognitive functions, especially spatial abilities. The relationship is, however, bidirectional and brain activity also affects testosterone levels. The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of an intensive 3D mental rotation task on testosterone levels in young healthy men and women. In the mental rotation task, men reached a higher top score (P=0.027) and total score (P=0.004) compared to women. In 8 out of 9 women (P=0.008) but not in men (P=0.129) testosterone levels decreased after one hour of mental rotation testing. A significant gender difference was shown (P<0.0001). In all women, plasma cortisol levels was significantly lower after testing (P=0.004). In men cortisol levels decreased in 7 out of 9 subjects (P=0.039). A significant gender difference was not found (P=0.19). No association was found in women between baseline testosterone levels and mental rotation total score (P=0.810). In men there was a positive correlation between baseline testosterone and mental rotation total score (P=0.015). A significant difference gender difference was seen in the association between testosterone and mental rotation score (P<0.05). Mental rotation stimuli caused significant changes in hormonal levels of testosterone and cortisol. A gender-specific response was detected in testosterone fluctuation.

Pubertal testosterone predicts mental rotation performance of young adult males

Robust sex differences in some spatial abilities that favor males have raised the question of whether testosterone contributes to those differences. There is some evidence for prenatal organizational effects of testosterone on male-favoring spatial abilities, but not much is known about the role of pubertal testosterone levels on adult cognitive abilities. We studied the association between pubertal testosterone (at age 14) and cognitive performance in young adulthood (at age 21-23), assessing male-favoring, female-favoring, and sex-neutral cognitive domains in a population-based sample of 130 male and 178 female twins. Pubertal testosterone was negatively associated with performance in the Mental Rotation Test in young adult men (r=-.27), while among women no significant associations between testosterone and cognitive measures were detected. The significant association among men remained after controlling for pubertal development. Confirmatory within-family comparisons with one-sided significance testing yielded a negative correlation between twin pair differences in testosterone levels and Mental Rotation Test performances in 35 male twin pairs (r=-.32): the twin brother with higher testosterone performed less well on the Mental Rotation Test. That association was evident in 18 pairs of dizygotic male twin pairs (r=-.42; analysis controlling for shared environmental effects). In contrast, the association of differences was not evident among 17 monozygotic male twin pairs (r=-.07; analysis controlling for shared genetic influences). Results suggest that pubertal testosterone levels are related specifically to male-favoring spatial ability and only among men. Within-family analyses implicated possible shared genetic effects between pubertal testosterone and mental rotation ability.

Early androgen effects on spatial and mechanical abilities: evidence from congenital adrenal hyperplasia

There is considerable controversy about the origins of sex differences in cognitive abilities, particularly the male superiority in spatial abilities. We studied effects of early androgens on spatial and mechanical abilities in adolescents and young adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). On tests of three-dimensional mental rotations, geography, and mechanical knowledge, females with CAH scored higher than their unaffected sisters, and males with CAH scored lower than their unaffected brothers. Exploratory regression analyses suggest that androgens affect spatial ability in females directly and through male-typed activity interests. Findings indicate that early androgens influence spatial and mechanical abilities, and that androgen effects on abilities may occur in part through effects on sex-typed activity interests.