1
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Lang S, Fletcher DA, Petit AP, Luise N, Fyfe P, Zuccotto F, Porter D, Hope A, Bellany F, Kerr C, Mackenzie CJ, Wyatt PG, Gray DW. Application of an NMR/Crystallography Fragment Screening Platform for the Assessment and Rapid Discovery of New HIV-CA Binding Fragments. ChemMedChem 2024; 19:e202400025. [PMID: 38581280 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202400025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Identification and assessment of novel targets is essential to combat drug resistance in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. HIV Capsid (HIV-CA), the protein playing a major role in both the early and late stages of the viral life cycle, has emerged as an important target. We have applied an NMR fragment screening platform and identified molecules that bind to the N-terminal domain (NTD) of HIV-CA at a site close to the interface with the C-terminal domain (CTD). Using X-ray crystallography, we have been able to obtain crystal structures to identify the binding mode of these compounds. This allowed for rapid progression of the initial, weak binding, fragment starting points to compounds 37 and 38, which have 19F-pKi values of 5.3 and 5.4 respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Lang
- Cresset Discovery, New Cambridge House, Bassingbourn Road, Litlington, Cambridgeshire, SG80SSS
| | - Daniel A Fletcher
- BioAscent Discovery Ltd, Bo'Ness Road, Newhouse, Lanarkshire, ML1 5UH
| | | | - Nicola Luise
- Alira Health, Av. De Josep Tarradellas, 123, 7th Floor, 08029, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paul Fyfe
- Drug Discovery Unit, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH
| | - Fabio Zuccotto
- Vertex Pharmaceuticals (Europe) Ltd, 86-88, Jubilee Avenue, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RW
| | - David Porter
- Evotec (UK) Ltd, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Campus, 114 Innovation Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RZ
| | - Anthony Hope
- Drug Discovery Unit, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH
| | - Fiona Bellany
- Drug Discovery Unit, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH
| | - Catrina Kerr
- Drug Discovery Unit, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH
| | | | - Paul G Wyatt
- Sitala Bio Ltd, Unit D6, Grain House Mill Court, Great Shelford, Cambridge, CB22 5LD
| | - David W Gray
- Drug Discovery Unit, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH
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Tendulkar CP, Dessai PG, Mamle Desai S, Kadam A. Docking, Synthesis and Evaluation of 4-hydroxy-1-phenyl-2(1H)-quinolone Derivatives as Anticancer Agents. Curr Drug Discov Technol 2024; 21:e190723218893. [PMID: 37469155 DOI: 10.2174/1570163820666230719110932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The estimated number of cancer cases in India for the year 2022 was found to be 14,61,427. The development of chemotherapeutic agents has reduced the mortality rate, however, they have high toxicity which is a disadvantage. Many researchers have found out that quinolin-2- one possesses anticancer activity, with this background we thought of synthesizing the quinolin-2-one derivatives. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to carry out docking, synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of 2-(2- (4-Hydroxy-2-oxoquinolin-1(2H)-yl)phenyl/ substituted phenyl)-3-(phenylamino) thiazolidon-4-one derivatives (IVa-g) as an anticancer agent. METHOD Diphenylamine and malonic acid treated with phosphoryl chloride gave compound I, which on formylation afforded compound II, which on reaction with various substituted aromatic phenylhydrazine derivatives gave compounds IIIa-g, which on further reaction with thioglycolic acid and anhydrous zinc chloride yielded the compounds IVa-g. RESULT Among all the synthesized novel derivatives, compounds IV a-d showed 50% lysis in the IC50 range of 25-50μg for the A549 cell line, and compounds IVa, and IVb showed 50% lysis in the IC50 range of 25-50μg for the MDA-MB cell line. The compound, 3-((4-fluorophenyl)amino)-2-(2-(4- hydroxy-2-oxoquinolin-1(2H)-yl)phenyl)thiazolidin-4-one (IVg) was found to be the most active against both the cell line, A549 and MDA-MB with IC50 value of 0.0298μmol and 0.0338μmol respectively. The docking results revealed that the synthesized compounds exhibited well-conserved hydrogen bonding with one or more amino acid residues in the active pocket of EGFR tyrosine kinase domain with 4-anilinoquinazoline inhibitor erlotinib (PDB ID:1M17). Compound IVg showed the highest MolDock score of -137.813 compared to the standard drug Imatinib having a MolDock score of -119.354. CONCLUSION Compound IVg showed the highest MolDock score and was also found to be most potent against both the cell line, A549, and MDA-MB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaitali Prabhu Tendulkar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, P.E.S's Rajaram and Tarabai Bandekar College of Pharmacy, Farmagudi, Ponda-Goa, 403401, India
| | - Prachita Gauns Dessai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, P.E.S's Rajaram and Tarabai Bandekar College of Pharmacy, Farmagudi, Ponda-Goa, 403401, India
| | - Shivlingrao Mamle Desai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, P.E.S's Rajaram and Tarabai Bandekar College of Pharmacy, Farmagudi, Ponda-Goa, 403401, India
| | - Amrita Kadam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, P.E.S's Rajaram and Tarabai Bandekar College of Pharmacy, Farmagudi, Ponda-Goa, 403401, India
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3
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Zhao S, Zhang X, da Silva-Júnior EF, Zhan P, Liu X. Computer-aided drug design in seeking viral capsid modulators. Drug Discov Today 2023; 28:103581. [PMID: 37030533 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2023.103581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
Abstract
Approved or licensed antiviral drugs have limited applications because of their drug resistance and severe adverse effects. By contrast, by stabilizing or destroying the viral capsid, compounds known as capsid modulators prevent viral replication by acting on new targets and, therefore, overcoming the problem of clinical drug resistance. For example. computer-aided drug design (CADD) methods, using strategies based on structures of biological targets (structure-based drug design; SBDD), such as docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and virtual screening (VS), have provided opportunities for fast and effective development of viral capsid modulators. In this review, we summarize the application of CADD in the discovery, optimization, and mechanism prediction of capsid-targeting small molecules, providing new insights into antiviral drug discovery modalities. Teaser: Computer-aided drug design will accelerate the development of viral capsid regulators, which brings new hope for the treatment of refractory viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shujie Zhao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xujie Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Edeildo Ferreira da Silva-Júnior
- Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Federal University of Alagoas, Lourival Melo Mota Avenue, 57072-970 Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil.
| | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, PR China.
| | - Xinyong Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, PR China.
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4
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Dube PS, Legoabe LJ, Beteck RM. Quinolone: a versatile therapeutic compound class. Mol Divers 2022:10.1007/s11030-022-10581-8. [PMID: 36527518 PMCID: PMC9758687 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-022-10581-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of nalidixic acid is one pinnacle in medicinal chemistry, which opened a new area of research that has led to the discovery of several life-saving antimicrobial agents (generally referred to as fluoroquinolones) for over decades. Although fluoroquinolones are frequently encountered in the literature, the utility of quinolone compounds extends far beyond the applications of fluoroquinolones. Quinolone-based compounds have been reported for activity against malaria, tuberculosis, fungal and helminth infections, etc. Hence, the quinolone scaffold is of great interest to several researchers in diverse disciplines. This article highlights the versatility of the quinolone pharmacophore as a therapeutic agent beyond the fluoroquinolone profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phelelisiwe S. Dube
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520 South Africa
| | - Lesetja J. Legoabe
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520 South Africa
| | - Richard M. Beteck
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520 South Africa
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5
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Domínguez-Zotes S, Valbuena A, Mateu MG. Antiviral compounds modulate elasticity, strength and material fatigue of a virus capsid framework. Biophys J 2022; 121:919-931. [PMID: 35151634 PMCID: PMC8943814 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2022.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates whether the biochemical and antiviral effects of organic compounds that bind different sites in the mature human immunodeficiency virus capsid may be related to the modulation of different mechanical properties of the protein lattice from which the capsid is built. Mechanical force was used as a probe to quantify, in atomic force microscopy experiments at physiological pH and ionic strength, ligand-mediated changes in capsid lattice elasticity, breathing, strength against local dislocation by mechanical stress, and resistance to material fatigue. The results indicate that the effects of the tested compounds on assembly or biochemical stability can be linked, from a physics-based perspective, to their interference with the mechanical behavior of the viral capsid framework. The antivirals CAP-1 and CAI-55 increased the intrinsic elasticity and breathing of the capsid protein lattice and may entropically decrease the probability of the capsid protein to assemble into a functionally competent conformation. Antiviral PF74 increased the resistance of the capsid protein lattice to disruption by mechanical stress and material fatigue and may enthalpically strengthen the basal capsid lattice against breakage and disintegration. This study provides proof of concept that the interrogation of the mechanical properties of the nanostructured protein material that makes a virus capsid may provide fundamental insights into the biophysical action of capsid-binding antiviral agents. The implications for drug design by specifically targeting the biomechanics of viruses are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santos Domínguez-Zotes
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Valbuena
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Mauricio G Mateu
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain.
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6
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Targeting the Virus Capsid as a Tool to Fight RNA Viruses. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020174. [PMID: 35215767 PMCID: PMC8879806 DOI: 10.3390/v14020174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Several strategies have been developed to fight viral infections, not only in humans but also in animals and plants. Some of them are based on the development of efficient vaccines, to target the virus by developed antibodies, others focus on finding antiviral compounds with activities that inhibit selected virus replication steps. Currently, there is an increasing number of antiviral drugs on the market; however, some have unpleasant side effects, are toxic to cells, or the viruses quickly develop resistance to them. As the current situation shows, the combination of multiple antiviral strategies or the combination of the use of various compounds within one strategy is very important. The most desirable are combinations of drugs that inhibit different steps in the virus life cycle. This is an important issue especially for RNA viruses, which replicate their genomes using error-prone RNA polymerases and rapidly develop mutants resistant to applied antiviral compounds. Here, we focus on compounds targeting viral structural capsid proteins, thereby inhibiting virus assembly or disassembly, virus binding to cellular receptors, or acting by inhibiting other virus replication mechanisms. This review is an update of existing papers on a similar topic, by focusing on the most recent advances in the rapidly evolving research of compounds targeting capsid proteins of RNA viruses.
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7
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Joon S, Singla RK, Shen B. In Silico Drug Discovery for Treatment of Virus Diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2022; 1368:73-93. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-8969-7_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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8
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Bokosi FRB, Beteck RM, Jordaan A, Seldon R, Warner DF, Tshiwawa T, Lobb K, Khanye SD. Arylquinolinecarboxamides: Synthesis,
in vitro
and
in silico
studies against
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
. J Heterocycl Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.4340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fostino R. B. Bokosi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa
| | - Richard M. Beteck
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences North‐West University Potchefstroom South Africa
| | - Audrey Jordaan
- SAMRC/NHLS/UCT Molecular Mycobacteriology Research Unit, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa
| | - Ronnet Seldon
- SAMRC Drug Discovery and Development Unit University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa
| | - Digby F. Warner
- SAMRC/NHLS/UCT Molecular Mycobacteriology Research Unit, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa
- Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa
| | | | - Kevin Lobb
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa
| | - Setshaba D. Khanye
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa
- Centre for Chemico‐ and Biomedicinal Research Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa
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9
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Sun L, Huang T, Dick A, Meuser ME, Zalloum WA, Chen CH, Ding X, Gao P, Cocklin S, Lee KH, Zhan P, Liu X. Design, synthesis and structure-activity relationships of 4-phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole phenylalanine derivatives as novel HIV-1 capsid inhibitors with promising antiviral activities. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 190:112085. [PMID: 32066010 PMCID: PMC7053825 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
HIV-1 CA is involved in different stages of the viral replication cycle, performing essential roles in both early (uncoating, reverse transcription, nuclear import, integration) and late events (assembly). Recent efforts have demonstrated HIV-1 CA protein as a prospective therapeutic target for the development of new antivirals. The most extensively studied CA inhibitor, PF-3450074 (PF-74, discovered by Pfizer), that targets an inter-protomer pocket within the CA hexamer. Herein we reported the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of a series of 4-phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole phenylalanine derivatives as HIV-1 CA inhibitors based on PF-74 scaffold. Most of the analogues demonstrated potent antiviral activities, among them, the anti-HIV-1 activity of 6a-9 (EC50 = 3.13 μM) is particularly prominent. The SPR binding assay of selected compounds (6a-9, 6a-10, 5b) suggested direct and effective interaction with recombinant CA proteins. The mechanism of action studies also demonstrated that 6a-9 displays the effects in both the early and late stages of HIV-1 replication. To explore the potential binding mode of the here presented analogues, 6a-9 was analyzed by MD simulation to predict its binding to the active site of HIV-1 CA monomer. In conclusion, this novel series of antivirals can serve as a starting point for the development of a new generation of HIV-1 treatment regimen and highlights the potentiality of CA as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Tianguang Huang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Alexej Dick
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Megan E Meuser
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Waleed A Zalloum
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Science, American University of Madaba, P.O Box 2882, Amman, 11821, Jordan
| | - Chin-Ho Chen
- Duke University Medical Center, Box 2926, Surgical Oncology Research Facility, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Xiao Ding
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Ping Gao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Simon Cocklin
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Kuo-Hsiung Lee
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
| | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China.
| | - Xinyong Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China.
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10
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Zhang DW, Luo RH, Xu L, Yang LM, Xu XS, Zheng YT, Luo H. Natural-product-library-based screening for discovery of capsid C-terminal domain targeted HIV-1 inhibitors. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55:105926. [PMID: 32092396 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) can effectively suppress replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and limit disease progression. However, ART is unable to eradicate the virus, and the requirement for lifelong treatment may have side effects and may lead to the development of resistance. New approaches to prevent and treat HIV-1 infection should therefore be developed. HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein is an unexploited but attractive target for antiviral drug development. The hydrophobic cavity of the C-terminal domain of CA (CA CTD) has been validated as a potential target for antiviral drugs. Binding of compounds to this conserved non-polar groove in CA CTD allosterically disrupts the CA assembly. This study screened 2080 natural products to identify potential antiviral agents for further development to combat HIV-1 infection. From the primary screen at a fixed concentration of 50 µM, 16 compounds were found to be effective against this target. Six compounds observed in the primary screen were confirmed in dose-response experiments, and were tested against HIV-1-induced cytopathic effects. Two compounds were found to inhibit HIV-1 replication, and the most active compound - rubranol - inhibited viral replication at a moderate micromolar concentration (EC50 = 15.85 μM). The binding modes of rubranol and hirsutanonol to CA CTD were analysed by molecular docking, providing insight for the design of drugs targeting HIV-1 CA. This study reports, for the first time, identification of natural products that showed potential as anti-HIV-1 agents by targeting the conserved hydrophobic cavity of HIV-1 CA CTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Wei Zhang
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, China
| | - Rong-Hua Luo
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Peptides of Yunnan Province/Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, the National Kunming High Level Biosafety Research Center for Nonhuman Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Lei Xu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, China
| | - Liu-Meng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Peptides of Yunnan Province/Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, the National Kunming High Level Biosafety Research Center for Nonhuman Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiao-Shuang Xu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, China
| | - Yong-Tang Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Peptides of Yunnan Province/Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, the National Kunming High Level Biosafety Research Center for Nonhuman Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
| | - Heng Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China.
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Maeda K, Das D, Kobayakawa T, Tamamura H, Takeuchi H. Discovery and Development of Anti-HIV Therapeutic Agents: Progress Towards Improved HIV Medication. Curr Top Med Chem 2019; 19:1621-1649. [PMID: 31424371 PMCID: PMC7132033 DOI: 10.2174/1568026619666190712204603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The history of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS therapy, which spans over 30 years, is one of the most dramatic stories of science and medicine leading to the treatment of a disease. Since the advent of the first AIDS drug, AZT or zidovudine, a number of agents acting on different drug targets, such as HIV enzymes (e.g. reverse transcriptase, protease, and integrase) and host cell factors critical for HIV infection (e.g. CD4 and CCR5), have been added to our armamentarium to combat HIV/AIDS. In this review article, we first discuss the history of the development of anti-HIV drugs, during which several problems such as drug-induced side effects and the emergence of drug-resistant viruses became apparent and had to be overcome. Nowadays, the success of Combination Antiretroviral Therapy (cART), combined with recently-developed powerful but nonetheless less toxic drugs has transformed HIV/AIDS from an inevitably fatal disease into a manageable chronic infection. However, even with such potent cART, it is impossible to eradicate HIV because none of the currently available HIV drugs are effective in eliminating occult “dormant” HIV cell reservoirs. A number of novel unique treatment approaches that should drastically improve the quality of life (QOL) of patients or might actually be able to eliminate HIV altogether have also been discussed later in the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Maeda
- National Center for Global Health and Medicine (NCGM) Research Institute, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan
| | - Debananda Das
- Experimental Retrovirology Section, HIV and AIDS Malignancy Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health (NCI/NIH), Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Takuya Kobayakawa
- Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo 101-0062, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Tamamura
- Department of Molecular Virology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Takeuchi
- Department of Molecular Virology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
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12
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McArthur C, Gallazzi F, Quinn TP, Singh K. HIV Capsid Inhibitors Beyond PF74. Diseases 2019; 7:diseases7040056. [PMID: 31671622 PMCID: PMC6956309 DOI: 10.3390/diseases7040056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) capsid plays important roles at multiple stages of viral replication. At the initial stages, controlled uncoating (disassembly) of the capsid ensures efficient reverse transcription of the single-stranded RNA genome, into the double-stranded DNA. Whereas at later stages, a proper assembly of capsid ensures the formation of a mature infectious virus particle. Hence, the inhibition of capsid assembly and/or disassembly has been recognized as a potential therapeutic strategy, and several capsid inhibitors have been reported. Of these, PF-3450074 (PF74) has been extensively studied. Recently reported GS-CA inhibitors (GS-CA1 and GS-6207), have shown a strong potential and appear to contain a PF74 scaffold. The location of resistance mutations and the results of structural studies further suggest that GS-CA compounds and PF74 share the same binding pocket, which is located between capsid monomers. Additionally, phenylalanine derivatives containing the PF74 scaffold show slightly enhanced capsid inhibiting activity. A comparison of capsid structures in complex with host factors and PF74, reveals the presence of common chemical entities at topologically equivalent positions. Here we present the status of capsid inhibitors that contain PF74 scaffolds and propose that the PF74 scaffold may be used to develop strong and safe capsid inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole McArthur
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Missouri, Kansas, MO 64108, USA.
- Kansas City School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Kansas, MO 64108, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Truman Medical Center, Kansas, MO, 64108, USA.
| | - Fabio Gallazzi
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
| | - Thomas P Quinn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
| | - Kamal Singh
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
- Division of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, 14186 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Recent advances in the synthetic and medicinal perspective of quinolones: A review. Bioorg Chem 2019; 92:103291. [PMID: 31561107 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In the modern scenario, the quinolone scaffold has emerged as a very potent motif considering its clinical significance. Quinolones possess wide range of pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, carbonic anhydrase inhibitory and diuretic activity etc. The versatile synthetic approaches have been successfully applied and several of the resulted synthesized compounds exhibit fascinating biological activities in numerous fields. This has prompted to discover quinolone-based analogues among the researchers due to its great diversity in biological activities. In the past few years, various new, efficient and convenient synthetic approaches (including green chemistry and microwave-assisted synthesis) have been designed and developed to synthesize diverse quinolone-based scaffolds which represent a growing area of interest in academic and industry as well as to explore their biological activities. In this review, an attempt has been made by the authors to summarize (1) One of the most comprehensive listings of quinolone-based drugs or agents in the market or under various stages of clinical development; (2) Recent advances in the synthetic strategies for quinolone derivatives as well as their biological implications including insight of mechanistic studies. (3) Further, the biological data is correlated with structure-activity relationship studies to provide an insight into the rational design of more active agents.
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14
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Wang R, Xu K, Shi W. Quinolone derivatives: Potential anti‐HIV agent—development and application. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2019; 352:e1900045. [DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201900045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruo Wang
- College of ChemistryFuzhou University Fuzhou Fujian People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Xu
- College of ChemistryFuzhou University Fuzhou Fujian People's Republic of China
| | - Weixiong Shi
- College of ChemistryFuzhou University Fuzhou Fujian People's Republic of China
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15
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Zhang DW, Luo RH, Xu L, Yang LM, Xu XS, Bedwell GJ, Engelman AN, Zheng YT, Chang S. A HTRF based competitive binding assay for screening specific inhibitors of HIV-1 capsid assembly targeting the C-Terminal domain of capsid. Antiviral Res 2019; 169:104544. [PMID: 31254557 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2019.104544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Due to its multifaceted essential roles in virus replication and extreme genetic fragility, the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) capsid (CA) protein is a valued therapeutic target. However, CA is as yet unexploited clinically, as there are no antiviral agents that target it currently on the market. To facilitate the identification of potential HIV-1 CA inhibitors, we established a homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF) assay to screen for small molecules that target a biologically active and specific binding pocket in the C-terminal domain of HIV-1 CA (CA CTD). The assay, which is based on competition of small molecules for the binding of a known CA inhibitor (CAI) to the CA CTD, exhibited a signal-to-background ratio (S/B) > 10 and a Z' value > 0.9. In a pilot screen of three kinase inhibitor libraries containing 464 compounds, we identified one compound, TX-1918, as a low micromolecular inhibitor of the HIV-1 CA CTD-CAI interaction (IC50 = 3.81 μM) that also inhibited viral replication at moderate micromolar concentration (EC50 = 15.16 μM) and inhibited CA assembly in vitro. Based on the structure of TX-1918, an additional compound with an antiviral EC50 of 6.57 μM and cellular cytotoxicity CC50 of 102.55 μM was obtained from a compound similarity search. Thus, the HTRF-based assay has properties that are suitable for screening large compound libraries to identify novel anti-HIV-1 inhibitors targeting the CA CTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Wei Zhang
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, 213001, China; Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Rong-Hua Luo
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, The National Kunming High Level Biosafety Research Center for Nonhuman Primate, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, China
| | - Lei Xu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, 213001, China
| | - Liu-Meng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, The National Kunming High Level Biosafety Research Center for Nonhuman Primate, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, China
| | - Xiao-Shuang Xu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, 213001, China
| | - Gregory J Bedwell
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Alan N Engelman
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Yong-Tang Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, The National Kunming High Level Biosafety Research Center for Nonhuman Primate, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, China.
| | - Shan Chang
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, 213001, China.
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16
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Singh K, Gallazzi F, Hill KJ, Burke DH, Lange MJ, Quinn TP, Neogi U, Sönnerborg A. GS-CA Compounds: First-In-Class HIV-1 Capsid Inhibitors Covering Multiple Grounds. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1227. [PMID: 31312185 PMCID: PMC6613529 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently reported HIV-1 capsid (CA) inhibitors GS-CA1 and GS-6207 (an analog of GS-CA1) are first-in-class compounds with long-acting potential. Reportedly, both compounds have greater potency than currently approved anti-HIV drugs. Due to the limited access to experimental data and the compounds themselves, a detailed mechanism of their inhibition is yet to be delineated. Using crystal structures of capsid-hexamers bound to well-studied capsid inhibitor PF74 and molecular modeling, we predict that GS-CA compounds bind in the pocket that is shared by previously reported CA inhibitors and host factors. Additionally, comparative modeling suggests that GS-CA compounds have unique structural features contributing to interactions with capsid. To test their proposed binding mode, we also report the design of a cyclic peptide combining structural units from GS-CA compounds, host factors, and previously reported capsid inhibitors. This peptide (Pep-1) binds CA-hexamer with a docking score comparable to GS-CA compounds. Affinity determination by MicroScale thermophoresis (MST) assays showed that CA binds Pep-1 with a ~7-fold better affinity than well-studied capsid inhibitor PF74, suggesting that it can be developed as a possible CA inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamal Singh
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Division of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fabio Gallazzi
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Kyle J Hill
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Donald H Burke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Margaret J Lange
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Thomas P Quinn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Ujjwal Neogi
- Division of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Sönnerborg
- Division of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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17
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Karim HAA, Rungrotmongkol T, Zain SM, Rahman NA, Tayapiwattana C, Lee V. Designed antiviral ankyrin – A computational approach to combat HIV-1 via intracellular pathway by targeting the viral capsid of HIV-1. J Mol Liq 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2018.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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18
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Khanam R, Kumar R, Hejazi II, Shahabuddin S, Meena R, Rajamani P, Yadav N, Bhat AI, Athar F. New N-benzhydrylpiperazine/1,3,4-oxadiazoles conjugates inhibit the proliferation, migration, and induce apoptosis in HeLa cancer cells via oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial pathway. J Cell Biochem 2019; 120:1651-1666. [PMID: 30206975 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.27472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
N-benzhydrylpiperazine and 1,3,4-oxadiazoles are pharmacologically active scaffolds which exhibits significant inhibitory growth effects against various cancer cells, however, antiproliferation effects and the underlying mechanism for inducing apoptosis for aforementioned scaffolds addressing HeLa cancer cells remains uncertain. In this study, N-benzhydrylpiperazine clubbed with 1,3,4-oxadiazoles (4a-4h) were synthesized, subsequently characterized using high resolution spectroscopic techniques and eventually evaluated for their antiproliferation potential by inducing apoptosis in HeLa cancer cells. The MTT assay screening results revealed that among all, compound 4d ( N-benzhydryl-4-((5-(4-aminophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)methyl)piperazine) in particular, exhibited IC 50 value of 28.13 ± 0.21 μg/mL and significantly inhibited the proliferation of HeLa cancer cells in concentration-dependent manner. The in vitro anticancer assays for treated HeLa cells resulted in alterations in the cell morphology, reduction in colony formation, and inhibition of cell migration in concentration-dependent treatment. Furthermore, G2/M phase arrest, variations in the nuclear morphology, degradation of chromosomal DNA confirmed the ongoing apoptosis in treated HeLa cells. Increase in the expression of cytochrome C and caspase-3 confirmed the involvement of intrinsic mitochondrial pathway regulating the cell death. Also, elevation in reactive oxygen species level and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential signified that compound 4d induced apoptosis in HeLa cells by generating the oxidative stress. Therefore, compound 4d may act as a potent chemotherapeutic agent against human cervical cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rashmin Khanam
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
| | - Raj Kumar
- School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Iram Iqbal Hejazi
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
| | - Syed Shahabuddin
- Research Centre for Nano-Materials and Energy Technology (RCNMET), School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ramovatar Meena
- School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Paulraj Rajamani
- School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Nitin Yadav
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
| | - Asif Iqbal Bhat
- Department of Chemistry, Sri Pratap College, Cluster University, Srinagar, India
| | - Fareeda Athar
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
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19
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Bobtaina E, Gurdal EE, Durmaz I, Atalay RC, Yarim M. Synthesis and Cytotoxicity Studies on Novel Piperazinylacetamides. LETT DRUG DES DISCOV 2018. [DOI: 10.2174/1570180815666180501124009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:
In this study, nine novel compounds, bearing N-[2-(4-substituted
piperazine-1-yl)acetyl]-N’-[bis-(4-fluorophenyl)methyl]piperazine structures were synthesized.
Methods:
Their cytotoxic properties were evaluated in vitro by NCI-60 Sulforhodamine B
(SRB) assay against human cancer cell lines: Huh7 (hepatocellular), MCF7 (breast) and HCT116
(colorectal).
Results and Conclusion:
According to the activity data, most of the compounds are more cytotoxic
than 5-fluorouracil against Huh7 and HCT116 cancer cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman Bobtaina
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Benghazi University, Belooan, Benghazi, Libya
| | - Enise Ece Gurdal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yeditepe University, 34755, Kayisdagi, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Irem Durmaz
- Bioinformatics Department, Graduate School of Informatics, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Rengul Cetin Atalay
- Bioinformatics Department, Graduate School of Informatics, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mine Yarim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yeditepe University, 34755, Kayisdagi, Istanbul, Turkey
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20
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Du X, Huang J, Nechaev AA, Yao R, Gong J, Van der Eycken EV, Pereshivko OP, Peshkov VA. Gold-catalyzed post-Ugi alkyne hydroarylation for the synthesis of 2-quinolones. Beilstein J Org Chem 2018; 14:2572-2579. [PMID: 30410618 PMCID: PMC6204774 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.14.234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of propargylamides containing an electron-rich benzene ring was prepared through the Ugi reaction of 3,5-dimethoxyaniline with various propiolic acids, aldehydes and isocyanides. Subjecting these adducts to a gold-catalyzed intramolecular alkyne hydroarylation process allowed to efficiently construct the 2-quinolone core bearing a branched substituent on the nitrogen atom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochen Du
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Dushu Lake Campus, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Jianjun Huang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Dushu Lake Campus, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Anton A Nechaev
- Laboratory for Organic & Microwave-Assisted Chemistry (LOMAC), Department of Chemistry, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ruwei Yao
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Dushu Lake Campus, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Jing Gong
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Dushu Lake Campus, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Erik V Van der Eycken
- Laboratory for Organic & Microwave-Assisted Chemistry (LOMAC), Department of Chemistry, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 6 Miklukho-Maklaya street, Moscow, 117198, Russia
| | - Olga P Pereshivko
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Dushu Lake Campus, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Vsevolod A Peshkov
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Dushu Lake Campus, Suzhou, 215123, China
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Technology, Nazarbayev University, 53 Kabanbay Batyr Ave, Block 7, Astana, 010000, Republic of Kazakhstan
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21
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Discovery of phenylalanine derivatives as potent HIV-1 capsid inhibitors from click chemistry-based compound library. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 158:478-492. [PMID: 30243152 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein plays essential roles in both early and late stages of HIV-1 replication and is considered an important, clinically unexploited therapeutic target. As such, small drug-like molecules that inhibit this critical HIV-1 protein have become a priority for several groups. Therefore, in this study we explore small molecule targeting of the CA protein, and in particular a very attractive inter-protomer pocket. We report the design, parallel synthesis, and anti-HIV-1 activity evaluation of a series of novel phenylalanine derivatives as HIV-1 CA protein inhibitors synthesized via Cu(I)-catalyzed alkyne-azide 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. We demonstrate robust inhibitory activity over a range of potencies against the HIV-1 NL4-3 reference strain. In particular, compound 13m exhibited the greatest potency and lowest toxicity within this new series with an EC50 value of 4.33 μM and CC50 value of >57.74 μM (SI > 13.33). These values are very similar to the lead compound PF-74 (EC50 = 5.95 μM, CC50 > 70.50 μM, SI > 11.85) in our assay, despite significant structural difference. Furthermore, we demonstrate via surface plasmon resonance (SPR) binding assays that 13m interacts robustly with recombinant HIV-1 CA and exhibits antiviral activity in both the early and late stages of HIV-1 replication. Overall, the novel parallel synthesis and structure-activity relationships (SARs) identified within this study set the foundation for further rational optimization and discovery of CA-targeting compounds with improved potency.
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22
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Application of the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction in the synthesis of 3-[( N -cycloalkylbenzamido)methyl]-2-quinolones as potential HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. Bioorg Chem 2017; 75:310-316. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2017.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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23
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Reddy CN, Krishna NH, Reddy VG, Alarifi A, Kamal A. Metal-Free Aerobic Oxidative C−C Bond Cleavage between the Carbonyl Carbon and the α-Carbon of α-Azido Ketones: A Novel Synthesis of N-Alkylated Benzamides. ASIAN J ORG CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ajoc.201700329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chada Narsimha Reddy
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology; CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Namballa Hari Krishna
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology; CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Hyderabad 500007 India
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research; Hyderabad 500036 India
| | - V. Ganga Reddy
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology; CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Abdullah Alarifi
- Chemistry Department; College of Science; King Saud University; Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Kamal
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology; CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology; Hyderabad 500007 India
- Chemistry Department; College of Science; King Saud University; Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research; Hyderabad 500036 India
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Miyazaki Y, Miyake A, Doi N, Koma T, Uchiyama T, Adachi A, Nomaguchi M. Comparison of Biochemical Properties of HIV-1 and HIV-2 Capsid Proteins. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1082. [PMID: 28659897 PMCID: PMC5469281 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Timely disassembly of viral core composed of self-assembled capsid (CA) in infected host cells is crucial for retroviral replication. Extensive in vitro studies to date on the self-assembly/disassembly mechanism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) CA have revealed its core structure and amino acid residues essential for CA–CA intermolecular interaction. However, little is known about in vitro properties of HIV-2 CA. In this study, we comparatively analyzed the polymerization properties of bacterially expressed HIV-1 and HIV-2 CA proteins. Interestingly, a much higher concentration of NaCl was required for HIV-2 CA to self-assemble than that for HIV-1 CA, but once the polymerization started, the reaction proceeded more rapidly than that observed for HIV-1 CA. Analysis of a chimeric protein revealed that N-terminal domain (NTD) is responsible for this unique property of HIV-2 CA. To further study the molecular basis for different in vitro properties of HIV-1 and HIV-2 CA proteins, we determined thermal stabilities of HIV-1 and HIV-2 CA NTD proteins at several NaCl concentrations by fluorescent-based thermal shift assays. Experimental data obtained showed that HIV-2 CA NTD was structurally more stable than HIV-1 CA NTD. Taken together, our results imply that distinct in vitro polymerization abilities of the two CA proteins are related to their structural instability/stability, which is one of the decisive factors for viral replication potential. In addition, our assay system described here may be potentially useful for searching for anti-CA antivirals against HIV-1 and HIV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Miyazaki
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical ScienceTokyo, Japan
| | - Ariko Miyake
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi UniversityYamaguchi, Japan
| | - Noya Doi
- Department of Microbiology, Tokushima University Graduate School of Medical SciencesTokushima, Japan
| | - Takaaki Koma
- Department of Microbiology, Tokushima University Graduate School of Medical SciencesTokushima, Japan
| | - Tsuneo Uchiyama
- Department of Microbiology, Tokushima University Graduate School of Medical SciencesTokushima, Japan
| | - Akio Adachi
- Department of Microbiology, Tokushima University Graduate School of Medical SciencesTokushima, Japan
| | - Masako Nomaguchi
- Department of Microbiology, Tokushima University Graduate School of Medical SciencesTokushima, Japan
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25
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Thenin-Houssier S, Valente ST. HIV-1 Capsid Inhibitors as Antiretroviral Agents. Curr HIV Res 2016; 14:270-82. [PMID: 26957201 DOI: 10.2174/1570162x14999160224103555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The infectious human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particle is characterized by a conical capsid that encloses the viral RNA genome. The capsid is essential for HIV-1 replication and plays crucial roles in both early and late stages of the viral life cycle. Early on, upon fusion of the viral and cellular membranes, the viral capsid is released into the host cell cytoplasm and dissociates in a process known as uncoating, tightly associated with the reverse transcription of the viral genome. During the late stages of viral replication, the Gag polyprotein, precursor of the capsid protein, assemble at the plasma membrane to form immature non-infectious viral particles. After a maturation step by the viral protease, the capsid assembles to form a fullerene-like conical shape characteristic of the mature infectious particle. Mutations affecting the uncoating process, or capsid assembly and maturation, have been shown to hamper viral infectivity. The key role of capsid in viral replication and the absence of approved drugs against this protein have promoted the development of antiretrovirals. Screening based on the inhibition of capsid assembly and virtual screening for molecules binding to the capsid have successfully identified a number of potential small molecule compounds. Unfortunately, none of these molecules is currently used in the clinic. CONCLUSION Here we review the discovery and the mechanism of action of the small molecules and peptides identified as capsid inhibitors, and discuss their therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Susana T Valente
- Department Immunology and Microbial Sciences, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, 3C1, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA.
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26
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Kožíšek M, Štěpánek O, Parkan K, Berenguer Albiñana C, Pávová M, Weber J, Krӓusslich HG, Konvalinka J, Machara A. Synthesis and evaluation of 2-pyridinylpyrimidines as inhibitors of HIV-1 structural protein assembly. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:3487-90. [PMID: 27353536 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Revised: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In an effort to identify an HIV-1 capsid assembly inhibitor with improved solubility and potency, we synthesized two series of pyrimidine analogues based on our earlier lead compound N-(4-(ethoxycarbonyl)phenyl)-2-(pyridine-4-yl)quinazoline-4-amine. In vitro binding experiments showed that our series of 2-pyridine-4-ylpyrimidines had IC50 values higher than 28μM. Our series of 2-pyridine-3-ylpyrimidines exhibited IC50 values ranging from 3 to 60μM. The congeners with a fluoro substituent introduced at the 4-N-phenyl moiety, along with a methyl at C-6, represent potent HIV capsid assembly inhibitors binding to the C-terminal domain of the capsid protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Kožíšek
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Gilead Sciences and IOCB Research Center, Flemingovo n. 2, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Štěpánek
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Gilead Sciences and IOCB Research Center, Flemingovo n. 2, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Kamil Parkan
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Gilead Sciences and IOCB Research Center, Flemingovo n. 2, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Carlos Berenguer Albiñana
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 8, 128 43 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Pávová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Gilead Sciences and IOCB Research Center, Flemingovo n. 2, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic; Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 691 20 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan Weber
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Gilead Sciences and IOCB Research Center, Flemingovo n. 2, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Hans-Georg Krӓusslich
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 691 20 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan Konvalinka
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Gilead Sciences and IOCB Research Center, Flemingovo n. 2, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 8, 128 43 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Aleš Machara
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 8, 128 43 Prague 2, Czech Republic.
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27
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Chen NY, Zhou L, Gane PJ, Opp S, Ball NJ, Nicastro G, Zufferey M, Buffone C, Luban J, Selwood D, Diaz-Griffero F, Taylor I, Fassati A. HIV-1 capsid is involved in post-nuclear entry steps. Retrovirology 2016; 13:28. [PMID: 27107820 PMCID: PMC4842275 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-016-0262-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV-1 capsid influences viral uncoating and nuclear import. Some capsid is detected in the nucleus but it is unclear if it has any function. We reported that the antibiotic Coumermycin-A1 (C-A1) inhibits HIV-1 integration and that a capsid mutation confers resistance to C-A1, suggesting that capsid might affect post-nuclear entry steps. Results Here we report that C-A1 inhibits HIV-1 integration in a capsid-dependent way. Using molecular docking, we identify an extended binding pocket delimited by two adjacent capsid monomers where C-A1 is predicted to bind. Isothermal titration calorimetry confirmed that C-A1 binds to hexameric capsid. Cyclosporine washout assays in Jurkat CD4+ T cells expressing engineered human TRIMCyp showed that C-A1 causes faster and greater escape from TRIMCyp restriction. Sub-cellular fractionation showed that small amounts of capsid accumulated in the nuclei of infected cells and C-A1 reduced the nuclear capsid. A105S and N74D capsid mutant viruses did not accumulate capsid in the nucleus, irrespective of C-A1 treatment. Depletion of Nup153, a nucleoporin located at the nuclear side of the nuclear pore that binds to HIV-1 capsid, made the virus less susceptible to TRIMCyp restriction, suggesting that Nup153 may help maintain some integrity of the viral core in the nucleus. Furthermore C-A1 increased binding of CPSF6, a nuclear protein, to capsid. Conclusions Our results indicate that capsid is involved in post-nuclear entry steps preceding integration. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12977-016-0262-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan-Yu Chen
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Cruciform Building, 90 Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, 5 Fuhsing Street, Kueishan, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
| | - Lihong Zhou
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Cruciform Building, 90 Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.,Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Science Park Road, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9RQ, UK
| | - Paul J Gane
- Medicinal Chemistry Group, University College London, Cruciform Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.,Chemical Computing Group, St. John's Innovation Centre, Cowley Road, Cambridge, CB4 0WS, UK
| | - Silvana Opp
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Neil J Ball
- Mill Hill Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London, NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Giuseppe Nicastro
- Mill Hill Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London, NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Madeleine Zufferey
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, CH-1211, Geneva, Switzerland.,Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 373 Plantation Street, Biotech 2, Suite 319, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Cindy Buffone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Jeremy Luban
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, CH-1211, Geneva, Switzerland.,Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 373 Plantation Street, Biotech 2, Suite 319, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 373 Plantation Street, Biotech 2, Suite 319, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - David Selwood
- Medicinal Chemistry Group, University College London, Cruciform Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Felipe Diaz-Griffero
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Ian Taylor
- Mill Hill Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London, NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Ariberto Fassati
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Cruciform Building, 90 Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
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28
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Ali SA, Teow SY, Omar TC, Khoo ASB, Choon TS, Yusoff NM. A Cell Internalizing Antibody Targeting Capsid Protein (p24) Inhibits the Replication of HIV-1 in T Cells Lines and PBMCs: A Proof of Concept Study. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0145986. [PMID: 26741963 PMCID: PMC4711802 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
There remains a need for newer therapeutic approaches to combat HIV/AIDS. Viral capsid protein p24 plays important roles in HIV pathogenesis. Peptides and small molecule inhibitors targeting p24 have shown to inhibit virus replication in treated cell. High specificity and biological stability of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) make them an attractive contender for in vivo treatments. However, mAbs do not enter into cells, thus are restricted to target surface molecules. This also makes targeting intracellular HIV-1 p24 a challenge. A mAb specific to p24 that can internalize into the HIV-infected cells is hypothesized to inhibit the virus replication. We selected a mAb that has previously shown to inhibit p24 polymerization in an in vitro assay and chemically conjugated it with cell penetrating peptides (CPP) to generate cell internalizing anti-p24 mAbs. Out of 8 CPPs tested, κFGF-MTS -conjugated mAbs internalized T cells most efficiently. At nontoxic concentration, the κFGF-MTS-anti-p24-mAbs reduced the HIV-1 replication up to 73 and 49% in T-lymphocyte and PBMCs respectively. Marked inhibition of HIV-1 replication in relevant cells by κFGF-MTS-anti-p24-mAbs represents a viable strategy to target HIV proteins present inside the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed A. Ali
- Oncological and Radiological Sciences, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200, Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- * E-mail:
| | - Sin-Yeang Teow
- Oncological and Radiological Sciences, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200, Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Tasyriq Che Omar
- Oncological and Radiological Sciences, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200, Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Alan Soo-Beng Khoo
- Institute for Medical Research, Jalan Pahang, 50588, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Tan Soo Choon
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Narazah Mohd Yusoff
- Regenerative Medicine, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200, Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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29
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Xu JP, Branson JD, Lawrence R, Cocklin S. Identification of a small molecule HIV-1 inhibitor that targets the capsid hexamer. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2015; 26:824-828. [PMID: 26747394 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.12.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The HIV-1 CA protein is an attractive therapeutic target for the development of new antivirals. An inter-protomer pocket within the hexamer configuration of the CA, which is a binding site for key host dependency factors, is an especially appealing region for small molecule targeting. Using a field-based pharmacophore derived from an inhibitor known to interact with this region, coupled to biochemical and biological assessment, we have identified a new compound that inhibits HIV-1 infection and that targets the assembled CA hexamer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy P Xu
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Rooms 10302-10306, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Branson
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Rooms 10302-10306, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Rae Lawrence
- Cresset, New Cambridge House, Bassingbourn Road, Litlington, Cambridgeshire SG8 0SS, UK
| | - Simon Cocklin
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Rooms 10302-10306, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA.
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30
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Lampel A, Bram Y, Ezer A, Shaltiel-Kario R, Saad JS, Bacharach E, Gazit E. Targeting the Early Step of Building Block Organization in Viral Capsid Assembly. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:1785-90. [PMID: 25997366 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Viral assembly, similar to other self-organizing protein systems, relies upon early building blocks, which associate into the late supramolecular structures. An initial and crucial event during HIV-1 core assembly is the dimerization of the capsid protein C-terminal domain, which stabilizes the viral capsid lattice. Thus, monitoring and manipulating this stage is desirable both from mechanistic as well as clinical perspectives. Here, we developed a fluorescent-based method for the detection and visualization of these early capsid interactions. We detected strong dimeric interactions, which were influenced by mutations in the capsid protein. We utilized this assay for potential assembly inhibitors screening, which resulted in the identification of a leading compound that hinders the assembly of capsid protein in vitro. Moreover, a derivative of the compound impaired virus production and infectivity in cell cultures. These findings demonstrate that the described assay efficiently detects the very first association events in HIV-1 capsid formation and emphasize the significance of targeting early intermolecular interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayala Lampel
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty
of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Yaron Bram
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty
of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Anat Ezer
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty
of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ronit Shaltiel-Kario
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty
of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Jamil S. Saad
- Department
of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Eran Bacharach
- Department
of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ehud Gazit
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty
of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty
of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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31
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Gres AT, Kirby KA, KewalRamani VN, Tanner JJ, Pornillos O, Sarafianos SG. STRUCTURAL VIROLOGY. X-ray crystal structures of native HIV-1 capsid protein reveal conformational variability. Science 2015; 349:99-103. [PMID: 26044298 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa5936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The detailed molecular interactions between native HIV-1 capsid protein (CA) hexamers that shield the viral genome and proteins have been elusive. We report crystal structures describing interactions between CA monomers related by sixfold symmetry within hexamers (intrahexamer) and threefold and twofold symmetry between neighboring hexamers (interhexamer). The structures describe how CA builds hexagonal lattices, the foundation of mature capsids. Lattice structure depends on an adaptable hydration layer modulating interactions among CA molecules. Disruption of this layer alters interhexamer interfaces, highlighting an inherent structural variability. A CA-targeting antiviral affects capsid stability by binding across CA molecules and subtly altering interhexamer interfaces remote to the ligand-binding site. Inherent structural plasticity, hydration layer rearrangement, and effector binding affect capsid stability and have functional implications for the retroviral life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna T Gres
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA. Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Karen A Kirby
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Vineet N KewalRamani
- Basic Research Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - John J Tanner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA. Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Owen Pornillos
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Stefan G Sarafianos
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65211, USA. Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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32
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Kortagere S, Xu JP, Mankowski MK, Ptak RG, Cocklin S. Structure-activity relationships of a novel capsid targeted inhibitor of HIV-1 replication. J Chem Inf Model 2014; 54:3080-90. [PMID: 25302989 PMCID: PMC4245176 DOI: 10.1021/ci500437r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Despite the considerable successes
of highly active antiretroviral
therapy (HAART) for the treatment of HIV/AIDS, cumulative drug toxicities
and the development of multidrug-resistant virus necessitate the search
for new classes of antiretroviral agents with novel modes of action.
The HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein has been structurally and functionally
characterized as a druggable target. We have recently designed a novel
small molecule inhibitor I-XW-053 using the hybrid structure based
method to block the interface between CA N-terminal domains (NTD–NTD
interface) with micromolar affinity. In an effort to optimize and
improve the efficacy of I-XW-053, we have developed the structure
activity relationship of I-XW-053 compound series using ligand efficiency
methods. Fifty-six analogues of I-XW-053 were designed that could
be subclassified into four different core domains based on their ligand
efficiency values computed as the ratio of binding efficiency (BEI)
and surface efficiency (SEI) indices. Compound 34 belonging
to subcore-3 showed an 11-fold improvement over I-XW-053 in blocking
HIV-1 replication in primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells
(PBMCs). Surface plasmon resonance experiments confirmed the binding
of compound 34 to purified HIV-1 CA protein. Molecular
docking studies on compound 34 and I-XW-053 to HIV-1
CA protein suggested that they both bind to NTD–NTD interface
region but with different binding modes, which was further validated
using site-directed mutagenesis studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandhya Kortagere
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology and ‡Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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33
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Herman Lara H. Luciferase Time-based, High-throughput Screening Assay for the Discovery of HIV-1 Inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.15406/jhvrv.2014.01.00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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34
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Zhang H, Curreli F, Waheed AA, Mercredi PY, Mehta M, Bhargava P, Scacalossi D, Tong X, Lee S, Cooper A, Summers MF, Freed EO, Debnath AK. Dual-acting stapled peptides target both HIV-1 entry and assembly. Retrovirology 2013; 10:136. [PMID: 24237936 PMCID: PMC3842668 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-10-136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Previously, we reported the conversion of the 12-mer linear and cell-impermeable peptide CAI to a cell-penetrating peptide NYAD-1 by using an i,i + 4 hydrocarbon stapling technique and confirmed its binding to the C-terminal domain (CTD) of the HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein with an improved affinity (Kd ~ 1 μM) compared to CAI (Kd ~ 15 μM). NYAD-1 disrupts the formation of both immature- and mature-like virus particles in in vitro and cell-based assembly assays. In addition, it displays potent anti-HIV-1 activity in cell culture against a range of laboratory-adapted and primary HIV-1 isolates. Results In this report, we expanded the study to i,i + 7 hydrocarbon-stapled peptides to delineate their mechanism of action and antiviral activity. We identified three potent inhibitors, NYAD-36, -66 and -67, which showed strong binding to CA in NMR and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) studies and disrupted the formation of mature-like particles. They showed typical α-helical structures and penetrated cells; however, the cell penetration was not as efficient as observed with the i,i + 4 peptides. Unlike NYAD-1, the i,i + 7 peptides did not have any effect on virus release; however, they impaired Gag precursor processing. HIV-1 particles produced in the presence of these peptides displayed impaired infectivity. Consistent with an effect on virus entry, selection for viral resistance led to the emergence of two mutations in the gp120 subunit of the viral envelope (Env) glycoprotein, V120Q and A327P, located in the conserved region 1 (C1) and the base of the V3 loop, respectively. Conclusion The i,i + 7 stapled peptides derived from CAI unexpectedly target both CA and the V3 loop of gp120. This dual-targeted activity is dependent on their ability to penetrate cells as well as their net charge. This mechanistic revelation will be useful in further modifying these peptides as potent anti-HIV-1 agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Asim K Debnath
- Laboratory of Molecular Modeling, Drug Design, Lindsley F, Kimball Research Institute of the New York Blood Center, 310 E 67th Street, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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35
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Gurdal EE, Durmaz I, Cetin-Atalay R, Yarim M. Synthesis and cytotoxicity studies of novel benzhydrylpiperazine carboxamide and thioamide derivatives. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2013; 29:205-14. [DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2013.765416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Enise Ece Gurdal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yeditepe University
Kayisdagi, IstanbulTurkey
| | - Irem Durmaz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, BilGen, Genetics and Biotechnology Research Center, Faculty of Science, Bilkent University
Bilkent, AnkaraTurkey
| | - Rengul Cetin-Atalay
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, BilGen, Genetics and Biotechnology Research Center, Faculty of Science, Bilkent University
Bilkent, AnkaraTurkey
| | - Mine Yarim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yeditepe University
Kayisdagi, IstanbulTurkey
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36
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Ladraa S, Berrée F, Bouraiou A, Bouacida S, Roisnel T, Carboni B, Belfaitah A. Efficient synthesis and X-ray structures of new α-quinolin-3-yl-α-aminonitriles and derivatives. Tetrahedron Lett 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2012.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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37
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Bocanegra R, Rodríguez-Huete A, Fuertes MÁ, del Álamo M, Mateu MG. Molecular recognition in the human immunodeficiency virus capsid and antiviral design. Virus Res 2012; 169:388-410. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Revised: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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38
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Acevedo O, Ambrose Z, Flaherty PT, Aamer H, Jain P, Sambasivarao SV. Identification of HIV inhibitors guided by free energy perturbation calculations. Curr Pharm Des 2012; 18:1199-216. [PMID: 22316150 DOI: 10.2174/138161212799436421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Free energy perturbation (FEP) theory coupled to molecular dynamics (MD) or Monte Carlo (MC) statistical mechanics offers a theoretically precise method for determining the free energy differences of related biological inhibitors. Traditionally requiring extensive computational resources and expertise, it is only recently that its impact is being felt in drug discovery. A review of computer-aided anti-HIV efforts employing FEP calculations is provided here that describes early and recent successes in the design of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) protease and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. In addition, our ongoing work developing and optimizing leads for small molecule inhibitors of cyclophilin A (CypA) is highlighted as an update on the current capabilities of the field. CypA has been shown to aid HIV-1 replication by catalyzing the cis/trans isomerization of a conserved Gly-Pro motif in the Nterminal domain of HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein. In the absence of a functional CypA, e.g., by the addition of an inhibitor such as cyclosporine A (CsA), HIV-1 has reduced infectivity. Our simulations of acylurea-based and 1-indanylketone-based CypA inhibitors have determined that their nanomolar and micromolar binding affinities, respectively, are tied to their ability to stabilize Arg55 and Asn102. A structurally novel 1-(2,6-dichlorobenzamido) indole core was proposed to maximize these interactions. FEP-guided optimization, experimental synthesis, and biological testing of lead compounds for toxicity and inhibition of wild-type HIV-1 and CA mutants have demonstrated a dose-dependent inhibition of HIV-1 infection in two cell lines. While the inhibition is modest compared to CsA, the results are encouraging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orlando Acevedo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USA.
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39
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Inhibiting early-stage events in HIV-1 replication by small-molecule targeting of the HIV-1 capsid. J Virol 2012; 86:8472-81. [PMID: 22647699 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05006-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein plays essential roles in both early and late stages of virl replication and has emerged as a novel drug target. We report hybrid structure-based virtual screening to identify small molecules with the potential to interact with the N-terminal domain (NTD) of HIV-1 CA and disrupt early, preintegration steps of the HIV-1 replication cycle. The small molecule 4,4'-[dibenzo[b,d]furan-2,8-diylbis(5-phenyl-1H-imidazole-4,2-diyl)]dibenzoic acid (CK026), which had anti-HIV-1 activity in single- and multiple-round infections but failed to inhibit viral replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), was identified. Three analogues of CK026 with reduced size and better drug-like properties were synthesized and assessed. Compound I-XW-053 (4-(4,5-diphenyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)benzoic acid) retained all of the antiviral activity of the parental compound and inhibited the replication of a diverse panel of primary HIV-1 isolates in PBMCs, while displaying no appreciable cytotoxicity. This antiviral activity was specific to HIV-1, as I-XW-053 displayed no effect on the replication of SIV or against a panel of nonretroviruses. Direct interaction of I-XW-053 was quantified with wild-type and mutant CA protein using surface plasmon resonance and isothermal titration calorimetry. Mutation of Ile37 and Arg173, which are required for interaction with compound I-XW-053, crippled the virus at an early, preintegration step. Using quantitative PCR, we demonstrated that treatment with I-XW-053 inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcription in multiple cell types, indirectly pointing to dysfunction in the uncoating process. In summary, we have identified a CA-specific compound that targets and inhibits a novel region in the NTD-NTD interface, affects uncoating, and possesses broad-spectrum anti-HIV-1 activity.
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40
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Direct binding of a hepatitis C virus inhibitor to the viral capsid protein. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32207. [PMID: 22389688 PMCID: PMC3289641 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Over 130 million people are infected chronically with hepatitis C virus (HCV), which, together with HBV, is the leading cause of liver disease. Novel small molecule inhibitors of Hepatitis C virus (HCV) are needed to complement or replace current treatments based on pegylated interferon and ribavirin, which are only partially successful and plagued with side-effects. Assembly of the virion is initiated by the oligomerization of core, the capsid protein, followed by the interaction with NS5A and other HCV proteins. By screening for inhibitors of core dimerization, we previously discovered peptides and drug-like compounds that disrupt interactions between core and other HCV proteins, NS3 and NS5A, and block HCV production. Here we report that a biotinylated derivative of SL209, a prototype small molecule inhibitor of core dimerization (IC50 of 2.80 µM) that inhibits HCV production with an EC50 of 3.20 µM, is capable of penetrating HCV-infected cells and tracking with core. Interaction between the inhibitors, core and other viral proteins was demonstrated by SL209–mediated affinity-isolation of HCV proteins from lysates of infected cells, or of the corresponding recombinant HCV proteins. SL209-like inhibitors of HCV core may form the basis of novel treatments of Hepatitis C in combination with other target-specific HCV drugs such as inhibitors of the NS3 protease, the NS5B polymerase, or the NS5A regulatory protein. More generally, our work supports the hypothesis that inhibitors of viral capsid formation might constitute a new class of potent antiviral agents, as was recently also shown for HIV capsid inhibitors.
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41
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M. Hassanin H, M. El-edfawy S. Novel Heterocyclic Derivatives of 2-Quinolinone Associated with Antibacterial and Antitumor Potencies. HETEROCYCLES 2012. [DOI: 10.3987/com-12-12523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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42
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Waheed AA, Freed EO. HIV type 1 Gag as a target for antiviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2012; 28:54-75. [PMID: 21848364 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2011.0230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Gag proteins of HIV-1 are central players in virus particle assembly, release, and maturation, and also function in the establishment of a productive infection. Despite their importance throughout the replication cycle, there are currently no approved antiretroviral therapies that target the Gag precursor protein or any of the mature Gag proteins. Recent progress in understanding the structural and cell biology of HIV-1 Gag function has revealed a number of potential Gag-related targets for possible therapeutic intervention. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of HIV-1 Gag and suggest some approaches for the development of novel antiretroviral agents that target Gag.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul A. Waheed
- Virus-Cell Interaction Section, HIV Drug Resistance Program, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland
| | - Eric O. Freed
- Virus-Cell Interaction Section, HIV Drug Resistance Program, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland
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Murgueitio MS, Bermudez M, Mortier J, Wolber G. In silico virtual screening approaches for anti-viral drug discovery. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2012; 9:e219-25. [PMID: 24990575 PMCID: PMC7105918 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2012.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite the considerable advances in medical and pharmaceutical research during the past years, diseases caused by viruses have remained a major burden to public health. Virtual in silico screening has repeatedly proven to be useful to meet the special challenges of antiviral drug discovery. Large virtual compound libraries are filtered by different computational screening methods such as docking, ligand-based similarity searches or pharmacophore-based screening, reducing the number of candidate molecules to a smaller set of promising candidates that are then tested biologically. This rational approach makes the drug discovery process more goal-oriented and saves resources in terms of time and money. In this review we discuss how different virtual screening techniques can be applied to antiviral drug discovery, present recent success stories in this field and finally address the main differences between the methods.:
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela S Murgueitio
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Department Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Koenigin-Luise-Str. 2, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcel Bermudez
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Department Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Koenigin-Luise-Str. 2, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jérémie Mortier
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Department Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Koenigin-Luise-Str. 2, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerhard Wolber
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Department Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Koenigin-Luise-Str. 2, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
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Prevelige PE. New approaches for antiviral targeting of HIV assembly. J Mol Biol 2011; 410:634-40. [PMID: 21762804 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2011.03.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Revised: 03/30/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The pressing need to develop antivirals active against resistant strains of HIV-1 has led to efforts to target steps in the virus life cycle other than reverse transcription and Gag proteolysis. Among those steps are entry, integration, and assembly and/or maturation. Advances in understanding the structural biology of both the immature and the mature forms of the HIV capsid have made it possible to design or discover small molecules and peptides that interfere with both assembly and maturation. Here, we review the current state of the art in assembly and maturation inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter E Prevelige
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35216, USA.
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Glick M, Jacoby E. The role of computational methods in the identification of bioactive compounds. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2011; 15:540-6. [PMID: 21411361 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2011] [Revised: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Computational methods play an ever increasing role in lead finding. A vast repertoire of molecular design and virtual screening methods emerged in the past two decades and are today routinely used. There is increasing awareness that there is no single best computational protocol and correspondingly there is a shift recommending the combination of complementary methods. A promising trend for the application of computational methods in lead finding is to take advantage of the vast amounts of HTS (High Throughput Screening) data to allow lead assessment by detailed systems-based data analysis, especially for phenotypic screens where the identification of compound-target pairs is the primary goal. Herein, we review trends and provide examples of successful applications of computational methods in lead finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meir Glick
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Inc., 250 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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