Exploration of O-spiroketal C-arylglucosides as novel and selective renal sodium-dependent glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors

Novel and Practical Industrial Process Scale-Up of 5-Bromo-2-chloro-4-(methoxycarbonyl)benzoic acid, a Key Intermediate in the Manufacturing of Therapeutic SGLT2 Inhibitors

5-Bromo-2-chloro-4-(methoxycarbonyl)benzoic acid (1) is a key intermediate for the synthesis of a family of promising SGLT2 inhibitors currently in preclinical and phase I studies for diabetes therapy. In this investigation, cheap, easily available dimethyl terephthalate was used as the raw starting material, and compound 1 was prepared effectively in six steps, including nitration, hydrolysis, hydrogenation, esterification, bromination, and diazotization. The preparation was run successfully on approximately 70 kg/batch with the total yield of 24%. This practical process was demonstrated to be scalable with a great yield and significant cost reduction.

Structural Perspectives and Advancement of SGLT2 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is an ailment that affects a large number of individuals worldwide and its pervasiveness has been predicted to increase later on. Every year, billions of dollars are spent globally on diabetes-related health care practices. Contemporary hyperglycemic therapies to rationalize Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) mostly involve pathways that are insulin-dependent and lack effectiveness as the pancreas' β-cell function declines more significantly. Homeostasis via kidneys emerges as a new and future strategy to minimize T2DM complications. This article covers the reabsorption of glucose mechanism in the kidneys, the functional mechanism of various Sodium- Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, their structure and driving profile, and a few SGLT2 inhibitors now accessible in the market as well as those in different periods of advancement. The advantages of SGLT2 inhibitors are dose-dependent glycemic regulation changes with a significant reduction both in the concentration of HbA1c and body weight clinically and statistically. A considerable number of SGLT2 inhibitors have been approved by the FDA, while a few others, still in preliminaries, have shown interesting effects.

Exploring sodium glucose cotransporter (SGLT2) inhibitors with machine learning approach: A novel hope in anti-diabetes drug discovery

Conventional anti-diabetes agents exhibit some undesirable side effects. Recently, lactic acidosis and/or bladder cancer were also reported with the use of these agents. Hence, there is an urgent need for alternative anti-diabetes in order to reduce/avoid the unwanted effects. In this scenario sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors has already been established as an important class of anti-diabetic drug. The search for new generation SGLT2 inhibitors with high affinity is still an ongoing process. Here, we aim to develop computational models to predict the SGLT2 inhibitory activity of small molecules based on chemical structures. This work provides in-silico analysis to propose possible fragment/fingerprint identification recommended for SGLT2 inhibitors. Up-to-our knowledge, this study is an initiative to propose fingerprints responsible for SGLT2 inhibition. Furthermore, we used nine different algorithms to build machine learning (ML) models that could be used to prioritize compounds as SGLT2 inhibitors from large libraries. The best performing ML models were applied to virtually screen a large collection of FDA approved drugs. The best predicted compounds have been recommended to be biologically investigated in future in order to identify next generation SGLT2 inhibitors with different chemical structure.

Geminal Diheteroatomic Motifs: Some Applications of Acetals, Ketals, and Their Sulfur and Nitrogen Homologues in Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Design

Acetals and ketals and their nitrogen and sulfur homologues are often considered to be unconventional and potentially problematic scaffolding elements or pharmacophores for the design of orally bioavailable drugs. This opinion is largely a function of the perception that such motifs might be chemically unstable under the acidic conditions of the stomach and upper gastrointestinal tract. However, even simple acetals and ketals, including acyclic molecules, can be sufficiently robust under acidic conditions to be fashioned into orally bioavailable drugs, and these structural elements are embedded in many effective therapeutic agents. The chemical stability of molecules incorporating geminal diheteroatomic motifs can be modulated by physicochemical design principles that include the judicious deployment of proximal electron-withdrawing substituents and conformational restriction. In this Perspective, we exemplify geminal diheteroatomic motifs that have been utilized in the discovery of orally bioavailable drugs or drug candidates against the backdrop of understanding their potential for chemical lability.

Pyranoid Spirosugars as Enzyme Inhibitors

Background:

Pyranoid spirofused sugar derivatives represent a class of compounds with a significant impact in the literature. From the structural point of view, the rigidity inferred by the spirofused entity has made these compounds object of interest mainly as enzymatic inhibitors, in particular, carbohydrate processing enzymes. Among them glycogen phosphorylase and sodium glucose co-transporter 2 are important target enzymes for diverse pathological states. Most of the developed compounds present the spirofused entity at the C1 position of the sugar moiety; nevertheless, spirofused entities can also be found at other sugar ring positions. The main spirofused entities encountered are spiroacetals/thioacetals, spiro-hydantoin and derivatives, spiro-isoxazolines, spiro-aminals, spiro-lactams, spiro-oxathiazole and spiro-oxazinanone, but also others are present.

Objectives:

The present review focuses on the most explored synthetic strategies for the preparation of this class of compounds, classified according to the position and structure of the spirofused moiety on the pyranoid scaffold. Moreover, the structures are correlated to their main biological activities or to their role as chiral auxiliaries.

Conclusion:

It is clear from the review that, among the different derivatives, the spirofused structures at position C1 of the pyranoid scaffold are the most represented and possess the most relevant enzymatic inhibitor activities. Nevertheless, great efforts have been devoted to the introduction of the spirofused entity also in the other positions, mainly for the preparation of biologically active compounds but also for the synthesis of chiral auxiliaries useful in asymmetric reactions; examples of such auxiliaries are the spirofused chiral 1,3-oxazolidin-2-ones and 1,3-oxazolidine-2-thiones.

An Overview on Glyco-Macrocycles: Potential New Lead and their Future in Medicinal Chemistry

Macrocycles cover a small segment of molecules with a vast range of biological activity in the chemotherapeutic world. Primarily, the natural sources derived from macrocyclic drug candidates with a wide range of biological activities are known. Further evolutions of the medicinal chemistry towards macrocycle-based chemotherapeutics involve the functionalization of the natural product by hemisynthesis. More recently, macrocycles based on carbohydrates have evolved a considerable interest among the medicinal chemists worldwide. Carbohydrates provide an ideal scaffold to generate chiral macrocycles with well-defined pharmacophores in a decorated fashion to achieve the desired biological activity. We have given an overview on carbohydrate-derived macrocycle involving their synthesis in drug design and discovery and potential role in medicinal chemistry.

SGLT inhibitors as antidiabetic agents: a comprehensive review

Diabetes is one of the most common disorders that substantially contributes to an increase in global health burden. As a metabolic disorder, diabetes is associated with various medical conditions and diseases such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and atherosclerosis. In this review, we cover the scientific studies on sodium/glucose cotransporter (SGLT) inhibitors published during the last decade. Our focus on providing an exhaustive overview of SGLT inhibitors enabled us to present their chemical classification for the first time.

Recent progress of sodium-glucose transporter 2 inhibitors as potential antidiabetic agents

SGLT2 inhibitors were promising and novel antidiabetic drugs which suppressed glucose reabsorption and increased urinary glucose exertion. This review paper are aimed to summarize the recent progress of SGLT2 inhibitors during the last 5 years. This paper first summarizes the information of SGLT2 inhibitors, including mechanism, evolution and then focuses on the recent efforts on structure-activity relationships and structural optimization of SGLT2 inhibitors. Finally, the corresponding clinical therapeutic efficacy and adverse drug reaction in patients with Type 2 diabetes are discussed in detail.

A Modular Approach to the Synthesis of gem-Disubstituted Cyclopropanes

A diastereoselective, Pd-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reaction of geminal bis(boryl)cyclopropanes has been developed. The reaction offers a highly modular approach to the synthesis of tertiary cyclopropylboronic esters. The resulting boronic esters may be further functionalized to afford a range of gem-disubstituted cyclopropanes, which represent an important structural motif in the pharmaceutical industry. Sequential Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions of gem-bis(boryl)cyclopropanes are also reported. The coupling protocols are compatible with a broad range of functionalized aryl and heteroaryl bromides.

C-Glycopyranosyl Arenes and Hetarenes: Synthetic Methods and Bioactivity Focused on Antidiabetic Potential

This Review summarizes close to 500 primary publications and surveys published since 2000 about the syntheses and diverse bioactivities of C-glycopyranosyl (het)arenes. A classification of the preparative routes to these synthetic targets according to methodologies and compound categories is provided. Several of these compounds, regardless of their natural or synthetic origin, display antidiabetic properties due to enzyme inhibition (glycogen phosphorylase, protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B) or by inhibiting renal sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2). The latter class of synthetic inhibitors, very recently approved as antihyperglycemic drugs, opens new perspectives in the pharmacological treatment of type 2 diabetes. Various compounds with the C-glycopyranosyl (het)arene motif were subjected to biological studies displaying among others antioxidant, antiviral, antibiotic, antiadhesive, cytotoxic, and glycoenzyme inhibitory effects.

Palladium(0)-catalyzed synthesis of cyclic glucosides

A highly regio- and stereo-selective synthesis of cyclic β-D-glucosides 3 via Pd(0)-catalyzed coupling cyclization of allenyl β-D-glucoside 1 and organic iodides in 20-38% yields is reported. After the deacetylation of 3, we obtained cyclic β-D-glucoses 4 in 90-97% yields, which may have SGLT2 inhibition activities.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel C-aryl d-glucofuranosides as sodium-dependent glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors

Novel C-aryl-d-glucofuranosides were synthesized and evaluated for their capacity to inhibit human sodium-dependent glucose co-transporter 2 (hSGLT2) and hSGLT1. Compound 21q demonstrated the best in vitro inhibitory activity against SGLT2 in this series (EC50=0.62μM).

Discovery of tofogliflozin, a novel C-arylglucoside with an O-spiroketal ring system, as a highly selective sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor for the treatment of type 2 diabetes

Inhibition of sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) has been proposed as a novel therapeutic approach to treat type 2 diabetes. In our efforts to discover novel inhibitors of SGLT2, we first generated a 3D pharmacophore model based on the superposition of known inhibitors. A search of the Cambridge Structural Database using a series of pharmacophore queries led to the discovery of an O-spiroketal C-arylglucoside scaffold. Subsequent chemical examination combined with computational modeling resulted in the identification of the clinical candidate 16d (CSG452, tofogliflozin), which is currently under phase III clinical trials.

A novel class of tunable cyclopropanation reagents (RXZnCH2Y) and their synthetic applications

The Simmons-Smith cyclopropanation is a widely used method to synthesize cyclopropanes from alkenes using methylene iodide and a zinc reagent. A novel class of organozinc species, RXZnCH(2)Y, has been found to efficiently cyclopropanate alkenes, including traditionally unreactive unfunctionalized alkenes. The reactivity and selectivity of this class of organozinc reagents can be regulated by tuning the electronic and/or steric nature of the RX group attached to Zn. During recent years, this class of organozinc reagent has been widely used in organic synthesis as a reagent for cyclopropanation and other useful synthetic transformations. Catalytic, asymmetric versions of this reaction have been developed providing high enantiomeric excess for unfunctionalized olefins.