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Chen CS, Mueller D, Knep E, Ebitz RB, Grissom NM. Dopamine and Norepinephrine Differentially Mediate the Exploration-Exploitation Tradeoff. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e1194232024. [PMID: 39214707 PMCID: PMC11529815 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1194-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) have been repeatedly implicated in neuropsychiatric vulnerability, in part via their roles in mediating the decision-making processes. Although two neuromodulators share a synthesis pathway and are coactivated under states of arousal, they engage in distinct circuits and modulatory roles. However, the specific role of each neuromodulator in decision-making, in particular the exploration-exploitation tradeoff, remains unclear. Revealing how each neuromodulator contributes to exploration-exploitation tradeoff is important in guiding mechanistic hypotheses emerging from computational psychiatric approaches. To understand the differences and overlaps of the roles of these two catecholamine systems in regulating exploration, a direct comparison using the same dynamic decision-making task is needed. Here, we ran male and female mice in a restless two-armed bandit task, which encourages both exploration and exploitation. We systemically administered a nonselective DA antagonist (flupenthixol), a nonselective DA agonist (apomorphine), a NE beta-receptor antagonist (propranolol), and a NE beta-receptor agonist (isoproterenol) and examined changes in exploration within subjects across sessions. We found a bidirectional modulatory effect of dopamine on exploration. Increasing dopamine activity decreased exploration and decreasing dopamine activity increased exploration. The modulatory effect of beta-noradrenergic receptor activity on exploration was mediated by sex. Reinforcement learning model parameters suggested that dopamine modulation affected exploration via decision noise and norepinephrine modulation affected exploration via sensitivity to outcome. Together, these findings suggested that the mechanisms that govern the exploration-exploitation transition are sensitive to changes in both catecholamine functions and revealed differential roles for NE and DA in mediating exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy S Chen
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Dana Mueller
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Evan Knep
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - R Becket Ebitz
- Department of Neurosciences, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Nicola M Grissom
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
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2
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Parr AC, Riek HC, Coe BC, Pari G, Masellis M, Marras C, Munoz DP. Genetic variation in the dopamine system is associated with mixed-strategy decision-making in patients with Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2023; 58:4523-4544. [PMID: 36453013 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Decision-making during mixed-strategy games requires flexibly adapting choice strategies in response to others' actions and dynamically tracking outcomes. Such decisions involve diverse cognitive processes, including reinforcement learning, which are affected by disruptions to the striatal dopamine system. We therefore investigated how genetic variation in dopamine function affected mixed-strategy decision-making in Parkinson's disease (PD), which involves striatal dopamine pathology. Sixty-six PD patients (ages 49-85, Hoehn and Yahr Stages 1-3) and 22 healthy controls (ages 54-75) competed in a mixed-strategy game where successful performance depended on minimizing choice biases (i.e., flexibly adapting choices trial by trial). Participants also completed a fixed-strategy task that was matched for sensory input, motor outputs and overall reward rate. Factor analyses were used to disentangle cognitive from motor aspects within both tasks. Using a within-subject, multi-centre design, patients were examined on and off dopaminergic therapy, and genetic variation was examined via a multilocus genetic profile score representing the additive effects of three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that influence dopamine transmission: rs4680 (COMT Val158 Met), rs6277 (C957T) and rs907094 (encoding DARPP-32). PD and control participants displayed comparable mixed-strategy choice behaviour (overall); however, PD patients with genetic profile scores indicating higher dopamine transmission showed improved performance relative to those with low scores. Exploratory follow-up tests across individual SNPs revealed better performance in individuals with the C957T polymorphism, reflecting higher striatal D2/D3 receptor density. Importantly, genetic variation modulated cognitive aspects of performance, above and beyond motor function, suggesting that genetic variation in dopamine signalling may underlie individual differences in cognitive function in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C Parr
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Heidi C Riek
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brian C Coe
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Giovanna Pari
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
- Movement Disorder Clinic, Kingston General Hospital, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mario Masellis
- Cognitive Neurology Research Unit, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Connie Marras
- Movement Disorders Clinic, Krembil Neuroscience Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Douglas P Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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3
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Chen CS, Mueller D, Knep E, Ebitz RB, Grissom NM. Dopamine and norepinephrine differentially mediate the exploration-exploitation tradeoff. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.09.523322. [PMID: 36711959 PMCID: PMC9881999 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.09.523322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The catecholamines dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) have been repeatedly implicated in neuropsychiatric vulnerability, in part via their roles in mediating the decision making processes. Although the two neuromodulators share a synthesis pathway and are co-activated under states of arousal, they engage in distinct circuits and roles in modulating neural activity across the brain. However, in the computational neuroscience literature, they have been assigned similar roles in modulating the latent cognitive processes of decision making, in particular the exploration-exploitation tradeoff. Revealing how each neuromodulator contributes to this explore-exploit process will be important in guiding mechanistic hypotheses emerging from computational psychiatric approaches. To understand the differences and overlaps of the roles of these two catecholamine systems in regulating exploration and exploitation, a direct comparison using the same dynamic decision making task is needed. Here, we ran mice in a restless two-armed bandit task, which encourages both exploration and exploitation. We systemically administered a nonselective DA receptor antagonist (flupenthixol), a nonselective DA receptor agonist (apomorphine), a NE beta-receptor antagonist (propranolol), and a NE beta-receptor agonist (isoproterenol), and examined changes in exploration within subjects across sessions. We found a bidirectional modulatory effect of dopamine receptor activity on the level of exploration. Increasing dopamine activity decreased exploration and decreasing dopamine activity increased exploration. Beta-noradrenergic receptor activity also modulated exploration, but the modulatory effect was mediated by sex. Reinforcement learning model parameters suggested that dopamine modulation affected exploration via decision noise and norepinephrine modulation affected exploration via outcome sensitivity. Together, these findings suggested that the mechanisms that govern the transition between exploration and exploitation are sensitive to changes in both catecholamine functions and revealed differential roles for NE and DA in mediating exploration.
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4
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Geana A, Barch DM, Gold JM, Carter CS, MacDonald AW, Ragland JD, Silverstein SM, Frank MJ. Using Computational Modeling to Capture Schizophrenia-Specific Reinforcement Learning Differences and Their Implications on Patient Classification. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2022; 7:1035-1046. [PMID: 33878489 PMCID: PMC9272137 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Psychiatric diagnosis and treatment have historically taken a symptom-based approach, with less attention on identifying underlying symptom-producing mechanisms. Recent efforts have illuminated the extent to which different underlying circuitry can produce phenotypically similar symptomatology (e.g., psychosis in bipolar disorder vs. schizophrenia). Computational modeling makes it possible to identify and mathematically differentiate behaviorally unobservable, specific reinforcement learning differences in patients with schizophrenia versus other disorders, likely owing to a higher reliance on prediction error-driven learning associated with basal ganglia and underreliance on explicit value representations associated with orbitofrontal cortex. METHODS We used a well-established probabilistic reinforcement learning task to replicate those findings in individuals with schizophrenia both on (n = 120) and off (n = 44) antipsychotic medications and included a patient comparison group of bipolar patients with psychosis (n = 60) and healthy control subjects (n = 72). RESULTS Using accuracy, there was a main effect of group (F3,279 = 7.87, p < .001), such that all patient groups were less accurate than control subjects. Using computationally derived parameters, both medicated and unmediated individuals with schizophrenia, but not patients with bipolar disorder, demonstrated a reduced mixing parameter (F3,295 = 13.91, p < .001), indicating less dependence on learning explicit value representations as well as greater learning decay between training and test (F1,289 = 12.81, p < .001). Unmedicated patients with schizophrenia also showed greater decision noise (F3,295 = 2.67, p = .04). CONCLUSIONS Both medicated and unmedicated patients showed overreliance on prediction error-driven learning as well as significantly higher noise and value-related memory decay, compared with the healthy control subjects and the patients with bipolar disorder. Additionally, the computational model parameters capturing these processes can significantly improve patient/control classification, potentially providing useful diagnosis insight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andra Geana
- Department of Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island.
| | - Deanna M Barch
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Radiology, Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - James M Gold
- Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Cameron S Carter
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Angus W MacDonald
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - J Daniel Ragland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Davis, California
| | | | - Michael J Frank
- Department of Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
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5
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Yoo AH, Collins AGE. How Working Memory and Reinforcement Learning Are Intertwined: A Cognitive, Neural, and Computational Perspective. J Cogn Neurosci 2021; 34:551-568. [PMID: 34942642 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Reinforcement learning and working memory are two core processes of human cognition and are often considered cognitively, neuroscientifically, and algorithmically distinct. Here, we show that the brain networks that support them actually overlap significantly and that they are less distinct cognitive processes than often assumed. We review literature demonstrating the benefits of considering each process to explain properties of the other and highlight recent work investigating their more complex interactions. We discuss how future research in both computational and cognitive sciences can benefit from one another, suggesting that a key missing piece for artificial agents to learn to behave with more human-like efficiency is taking working memory's role in learning seriously. This review highlights the risks of neglecting the interplay between different processes when studying human behavior (in particular when considering individual differences). We emphasize the importance of investigating these dynamics to build a comprehensive understanding of human cognition.
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6
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Divergent Strategies for Learning in Males and Females. Curr Biol 2021; 31:39-50.e4. [PMID: 33125868 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.09.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A frequent assumption in value-based decision-making tasks is that agents make decisions based on the feature dimension that reward probabilities vary on. However, in complex, multidimensional environments, stimuli can vary on multiple dimensions at once, meaning that the feature deserving the most credit for outcomes is not always obvious. As a result, individuals may vary in the strategies used to sample stimuli across dimensions, and these strategies may have an unrecognized influence on decision-making. Sex is a proxy for multiple genetic and endocrine influences on behavior, including how environments are sampled. In this study, we examined the strategies adopted by female and male mice as they learned the value of stimuli that varied in both image and location in a visually cued two-armed bandit, allowing two possible dimensions to learn about. Female mice acquired the correct image-value associations more quickly than male mice, preferring a fundamentally different strategy. Female mice were more likely to constrain their decision-space early in learning by preferentially sampling one location over which images varied. Conversely, male mice were more likely to be inconsistent, changing their choice frequently and responding to the immediate experience of stochastic rewards. Individual strategies were related to sex-biased changes in neuronal activation in early learning. Together, we find that in mice, sex is associated with divergent strategies for sampling and learning about the world, revealing substantial unrecognized variability in the approaches implemented during value-based decision making.
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7
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Bradley ER, Brustkern J, De Coster L, van den Bos W, McClure SM, Seitz A, Woolley JD. Victory is its own reward: oxytocin increases costly competitive behavior in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2020; 50:674-682. [PMID: 30944045 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291719000552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aberrant sensitivity to social reward may be an important contributor to abnormal social behavior that is a core feature of schizophrenia. The neuropeptide oxytocin impacts the salience of social information across species, but its effect on social reward in schizophrenia is unknown. METHODS We used a competitive economic game and computational modeling to examine behavioral dynamics and oxytocin effects on sensitivity to social reward among 39 men with schizophrenia and 54 matched healthy controls. In a randomized, double-blind study, participants received one dose of oxytocin (40 IU) or placebo and completed a 35-trial Auction Game that quantifies preferences for monetary v. social reward. We analyzed bidding behavior using multilevel linear mixed models and reinforcement learning models. RESULTS Bidding was motivated by preferences for both monetary and social reward in both groups, but bidding dynamics differed: patients initially overbid less compared to controls, and across trials, controls decreased their bids while patients did not. Oxytocin administration was associated with sustained overbidding across trials, particularly in patients. This drug effect was driven by a stronger preference for winning the auction, regardless of monetary consequences. Learning rate and response variability did not differ between groups or drug condition, suggesting that differences in bidding derive primarily from differences in the subjective value of social rewards. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that schizophrenia is associated with diminished motivation for social reward that may be increased by oxytocin administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen R Bradley
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA94110, USA
- Mental Health Service, San Francisco Veterans Administration Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Lize De Coster
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA94110, USA
- Mental Health Service, San Francisco Veterans Administration Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Wouter van den Bos
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
| | - Samuel M McClure
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, TempeAZ, USA
| | - Alison Seitz
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA94110, USA
- Mental Health Service, San Francisco Veterans Administration Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Joshua D Woolley
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA94110, USA
- Mental Health Service, San Francisco Veterans Administration Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
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8
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Parr AC, Coe BC, Munoz DP, Dorris MC. A novel fMRI paradigm to dissociate the behavioral and neural components of mixed-strategy decision making from non-strategic decisions in humans. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 51:1914-1927. [PMID: 31596980 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
During competitive interactions, such as predator-prey or team sports, the outcome of one's actions is dependent on both their own choices and those of their opponents. Success in these rivalries requires that individuals choose dynamically and unpredictably, often adopting a mixed strategy. Understanding the neural basis of strategic decision making is complicated by the fact that it recruits various cognitive processes that are often shared with non-strategic forms of decision making, such as value estimation, working memory, response inhibition, response selection, and reward processes. Although researchers have explored neural activity within key brain regions during mixed-strategy games, how brain activity differs in the context of strategic interactions versus non-strategic choices is not well understood. We developed a novel behavioral paradigm to dissociate choice behavior during mixed-strategy interactions from non-strategic choices, and we used task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to contrast brain activation. In a block design, participants competed in the classic mixed-strategy game, "matching pennies," against a dynamic computer opponent designed to exploit predictability in players' response patterns. Results were contrasted with a non-strategic task that had comparable sensory input, motor output, and reward rate; thus, differences in behavior and brain activation reflect strategic processes. The mixed-strategy game was associated with activation of a distributed cortico-striatal network compared to the non-strategic task. We propose that choosing in mixed-strategy contexts requires additional cognitive demands present to a lesser degree during the control task, illustrating the strength of this design in probing function of cognitive systems beyond core sensory, motor, and reward processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C Parr
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Brian C Coe
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Douglas P Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada.,Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Michael C Dorris
- Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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9
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Saperia S, Da Silva S, Siddiqui I, Agid O, Daskalakis ZJ, Ravindran A, Voineskos AN, Zakzanis KK, Remington G, Foussias G. Reward-driven decision-making impairments in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2019; 206:277-283. [PMID: 30442476 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The ability to use feedback to guide optimal decision-making is essential for goal-directed behaviour. While impairments in feedback-driven decision-making have been associated with schizophrenia and depression, this has been examined primarily in the context of binary probabilistic choice paradigms. In real-world decision-making, however, individuals must make choices when there are more than two competing options that vary in the frequency and magnitude of potential rewards and losses. Thus, the current study examined win-stay/lose-shift (WSLS) behaviour on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) in order to evaluate the influence of immediate rewards and losses in guiding real-world decision-making in patients with schizophrenia and major depressive disorder. Fifty-one patients with schizophrenia, 43 patients with major depressive disorder, and 51 healthy controls completed the IGT, as well as a series of clinical and cognitive measures. WSLS was assessed by quantifying trial-by-trial behaviour following rewards and losses on the IGT. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed that patients with schizophrenia demonstrated intact lose-shift behaviour, but significantly reduced win-stay rates compared to healthy controls. In contrast, no WSLS impairments emerged in the depressed group. Win-stay impairments in the schizophrenia group were significantly related to deficits in motivation and cognition. Patients with schizophrenia exhibit impaired reward-driven decision-making in the context of multiple choices with concurrent rewards and losses, and this appears to be driven by a reduced propensity for advantageous win-stay behaviour. With the importance of reward learning and decision-making in generating goal-directed behaviour, these findings suggest a potential mechanism contributing to the motivation deficits seen in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Saperia
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada.
| | - Susana Da Silva
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Ishraq Siddiqui
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Ofer Agid
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Z Jeff Daskalakis
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Arun Ravindran
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Aristotle N Voineskos
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Gary Remington
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - George Foussias
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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10
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Orsini CA, Setlow B. Sex differences in animal models of decision making. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:260-269. [PMID: 27870448 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The ability to weigh the costs and benefits of various options to make an adaptive decision is critical to an organism's survival and wellbeing. Many psychiatric diseases are characterized by maladaptive decision making, indicating a need for better understanding of the mechanisms underlying this process and the ways in which it is altered under pathological conditions. Great strides have been made in uncovering these mechanisms, but the majority of what is known comes from studies conducted solely in male subjects. In recent years, decision-making research has begun to include female subjects to determine whether sex differences exist and to identify the mechanisms that contribute to such differences. This Mini-Review begins by describing studies that have examined sex differences in animal (largely rodent) models of decision making. Possible explanations, both theoretical and biological, for such differences in decision making are then considered. The Mini-Review concludes with a discussion of the implications of sex differences in decision making for understanding psychiatric conditions. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin A Orsini
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Barry Setlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.,Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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11
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Abstract
Previous research has shown that patients with schizophrenia are impaired in reinforcement learning tasks. However, behavioral learning curves in such tasks originate from the interaction of multiple neural processes, including the basal ganglia- and dopamine-dependent reinforcement learning (RL) system, but also prefrontal cortex-dependent cognitive strategies involving working memory (WM). Thus, it is unclear which specific system induces impairments in schizophrenia. We recently developed a task and computational model allowing us to separately assess the roles of RL (slow, cumulative learning) mechanisms versus WM (fast but capacity-limited) mechanisms in healthy adult human subjects. Here, we used this task to assess patients' specific sources of impairments in learning. In 15 separate blocks, subjects learned to pick one of three actions for stimuli. The number of stimuli to learn in each block varied from two to six, allowing us to separate influences of capacity-limited WM from the incremental RL system. As expected, both patients (n = 49) and healthy controls (n = 36) showed effects of set size and delay between stimulus repetitions, confirming the presence of working memory effects. Patients performed significantly worse than controls overall, but computational model fits and behavioral analyses indicate that these deficits could be entirely accounted for by changes in WM parameters (capacity and reliability), whereas RL processes were spared. These results suggest that the working memory system contributes strongly to learning impairments in schizophrenia.
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12
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Neural substrates underlying effort computation in schizophrenia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:2649-65. [PMID: 24035741 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The lack of initiative, drive or effort in patients with schizophrenia is linked to marked functional impairments. However, our assessment of effort and motivation is crude, relying on clinical rating scales based largely on patient recall. In order to better understand the neurobiology of effort in schizophrenia, we need more rigorous measurements of this construct. In the behavioural neuroscience literature, decades of work has been carried out developing various paradigms to examine the neural underpinnings of an animal's willingness to expend effort for a reward. Here, we shall review this literature on the nature of paradigms used in rodents to assess effort, as well as those used in humans. Next, the neurobiology of these effort-based decisions will be discussed. We shall then review what is known about effort in schizophrenia, and what might be inferred from experiments done in other human populations. Lastly, we shall discuss future directions of research that may assist in shedding light on the neurobiology of effort cost computations in schizophrenia.
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13
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Abstract
Adaptive behaviors increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction and improve the quality of life. However, it is often difficult to identify optimal behaviors in real life due to the complexity of the decision maker's environment and social dynamics. As a result, although many different brain areas and circuits are involved in decision making, evolutionary and learning solutions adopted by individual decision makers sometimes produce suboptimal outcomes. Although these problems are exacerbated in numerous neurological and psychiatric disorders, their underlying neurobiological causes remain incompletely understood. In this review, theoretical frameworks in economics and machine learning and their applications in recent behavioral and neurobiological studies are summarized. Examples of such applications in clinical domains are also discussed for substance abuse, Parkinson's disease, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, mood disorders, and autism. Findings from these studies have begun to lay the foundations necessary to improve diagnostics and treatment for various neurological and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daeyeol Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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14
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Response randomization of one- and two-person rock-paper-scissors games in individuals with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2013; 207:158-63. [PMID: 23017652 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2012] [Revised: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Randomization among successive choices is important in adaptive decision-making, particularly for strategic interactions in which the optimal strategy is a mixed strategy. Patients with schizophrenia have been reported to have deficits in random sequential behaviors arising from impaired executive function. However, whether schizophrenic patients exhibit distinct behaviors for response randomization in one- and two-person games requiring different behavioral strategies is not known. The aim of this study was to examine the response randomization of 48 schizophrenic patients and 50 healthy subjects in one- and two-person rock-paper-scissors games. Here we found that the schizophrenic patients exhibited non-random biases distinct from those of the healthy subjects (i.e., stereotypic switching in the one-person game and the tendency to choose the best response against the opponent's previous choice in the two-person game). The entropy of the choice sequences was prominently decreased in the schizophrenic patients for both games, thereby indicating an overall disturbance in the behavioral randomization in adaptive decision-making. These results suggest that the impairment of response randomization in schizophrenic patients manifests differently in interactive and non-interactive situations, which may be useful for the diagnosis and quantification of the severity of the disease.
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15
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Wing VC, Rabin RA, Wass CE, George TP. Correlations between executive function, decision-making and impulsivity are disrupted in schizophrenia versus controls. Psychiatry Res 2013; 205:168-71. [PMID: 23017650 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 08/21/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (n=68) and control (n=62) participants matched on cigarette smoking history were assessed on executive function, decision-making and impulsivity tasks. In controls, executive function and decision-making correlated positively with each other and negatively with impulsivity. There were no inter-task correlations in schizophrenia participants. The significance of these findings is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Caroline Wing
- Division of Brain and Therapeutics, Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Canada.
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16
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Chung D, Kim YT, Jeong J. Cognitive motivations of free riding and cooperation and impaired strategic decision making in schizophrenia during a public goods game. Schizophr Bull 2013; 39:112-9. [PMID: 21705433 PMCID: PMC3523913 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbr068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is generally characterized by various positive and negative symptoms that are accompanied by significant social dysfunction. Various researchers investigated the functional impairments in schizophrenia including impaired theory of mind (TOM), poor integration of affective and cognitive information, and malfunctioning of adaptive and strategic learning process. However, most of the studies were limited to simplified cognitive tests or computerized choice games that exclude real social interaction. The aim of the current study was to investigate human strategies based on the incentives and particularly the cognitive and emotional motivations of free riding. We examined the decision patterns of 41 healthy subjects (HSs) and 37 schizophrenia patients (SZ) during the public goods game (PGG), one of the games simulating human cooperation and free riding in group interactions. Strategic decision processes during the iterative binary PGG were assessed in terms of cognitive understanding, loss sensitivity, and TOM. We found that greed and loss sensitivity both motivated free-riding behavior in the HS, but that they were more vulnerable to greedy incentives than to possible loss. More significantly, the SZ clearly displayed a lower prevalence of free riding and distinct decision patterns from HS. Nonstrategic and unexpectedly low free ridings in the SZ likely arise from poor integration of cognitive and affective information. We suggest that loss sensitivity and TOM as well as cognitive understanding are involved in regulation of the free riding and cooperative behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongil Chung
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 335 Gwahangno, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Yang-Tae Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaeseung Jeong
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 335 Gwahangno, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea,To whom correspondence should be addressed; tel: 82-42-350-4319, fax: 82-42-864-5318, e-mail:
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Chan KKS, Xu JQ, Liu KCM, Hui CLM, Wong GHY, Chen EYH. Executive function in first-episode schizophrenia: a three-year prospective study of the Hayling Sentence Completion Test. Schizophr Res 2012; 135:62-7. [PMID: 22260962 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2011] [Revised: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In recent decade, deficits in the mechanism of Supervisory Attentional System (SAS) have become increasingly influential in explaining the nature of dysexecutive syndrome experienced by schizophrenic patients. The SAS model is characterized by having a detailed sub-classification of specific executive function components, among which semantic inhibition has been investigated using the Hayling Sentence Completion Test (HSCT). Several studies thus far have indicated that schizophrenic patients show impairment in HSCT performance. However, HSCT data concerning first-episode patients is still scarce. Besides, as previous HSCT studies were all cross-sectional in nature, they were not able to assess changes in HSCT performance over time. In order to address the paucity of knowledge about the longitudinal trajectories and correlates of semantic inhibition deficits in early schizophrenia, this paper reports a three-year prospective study of HSCT performance in medication-naïve, first-episode patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. HSCT performance was assessed in 34 patients at four times over a period of three years, while the 34 healthy controls were assessed once. We found that medication-naïve patients demonstrated impairment in the inhibition condition in HSCT as compared to controls, but not in the initiation condition. Such HSCT impairment gradually improved in the three years following the first psychotic episode; however, HSCT performance did not predict improvement in negative or positive symptoms over the three-year period. The present findings suggest that semantic inhibition impairment is a specific deficit in schizophrenia that may require early intervention efforts, with the goal of facilitating more successful verbal communication and thereby better interpersonal functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin K S Chan
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, 102 Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
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18
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Abstract
Although it is known that individuals with schizophrenia demonstrate marked impairment in reinforcement learning, the details of this impairment are not known. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that reward-related probability learning is altered in schizophrenia patients. Twenty-five clinically stable schizophrenia patients and 25 age- and gender-matched controls participated in the study. A simple gambling paradigm was used in which five different cues were associated with different reward probabilities (50%, 67%, and 100%). Participants were asked to make their best guess about the reward probability of each cue. Compared with controls, patients had significant impairment in learning contingencies on the basis of reward-related feedback. The correlation analyses revealed that the impairment of patients partially correlated with the severity of negative symptoms as measured on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale but that it was not related to antipsychotic dose. In conclusion, the present study showed that the schizophrenia patients had impaired reward-based learning and that this was independent from their medication status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alpaslan Yılmaz
- Department of Sport and Health, Physical Education and Sports College, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
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19
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Bacon E, Huet N, Danion JM. Metamemory knowledge and beliefs in patients with schizophrenia and how these relate to objective cognitive abilities. Conscious Cogn 2011; 20:1315-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2011.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Revised: 02/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Struglia F, Stratta P, Gianfelice D, Pacifico R, Riccardi I, Rossi A. Decision-making impairment in schizophrenia: Relationships with positive symptomatology. Neurosci Lett 2011; 502:80-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 07/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Csukly G, Polgár P, Tombor L, Réthelyi J, Kéri S. Are patients with schizophrenia rational maximizers? Evidence from an ultimatum game study. Psychiatry Res 2011; 187:11-7. [PMID: 21035194 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2010] [Revised: 08/16/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is associated with impaired social cognition and community functioning. Social decision-making strategies of healthy controls and patients with schizophrenia were compared by using the ultimatum game (UG). In this game two players have to split a sum of money. The proposer offers a portion to the responder, who decides to either accept or reject the offer. Rejection results in no income to either of the parties. Unfair proposals are frequently rejected by nonclinical individuals, a phenomenon described as altruistic punishment. Patients and controls participated in a series of UG interactions as responders in a computerized test setting. We also tested the effect of the proposer's facial expression on decision-making. Our results indicate that patients with schizophrenia accepted unfair offers at a significantly higher rate than did healthy controls. In contrast, at fair proposals, the acceptance rate was lower in patients compared with controls. At higher offers, the proposer's facial expression (positive/negative) significantly influenced the acceptance rate (positive facial expression increased the likelihood of acceptance) in the control group. This effect was not observed in the patient group. These results suggest that schizophrenia patients are impaired in socioeconomic interactions requiring emotion recognition and decision-making, which may result in unstable behavioral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Csukly
- Semmelweis University, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Budapest, Hungary.
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Acuña C, Pardo-Vázquez JL, Leborán V. Decision-Making, Behavioral Supervision and Learning: An Executive Role for the Ventral Premotor Cortex? Neurotox Res 2010; 18:416-27. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-010-9194-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Revised: 03/04/2010] [Accepted: 04/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Feasibility of the Walk, Address, Learn and Cue (WALC) Intervention for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 2010; 24:54-62. [PMID: 20117689 PMCID: PMC2818073 DOI: 10.1016/j.apnu.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2008] [Revised: 02/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The WALC intervention was designed to motivate exercise in the elderly. Persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSDs) face similar exercise barriers. We described theoritical underpinnings of the WALC intervention and how we adapted it for SSDs. We conducted a feasibility study of the adapted intervention in 17 persons with SSDs. The adapted intervention incorporated low intensity stretches, exercise education and exercise cues. The intervention was feasible and acceptable to participants; approximately two-thirds of all groups were attended and nearly half of participants attended at least 75% of groups. Follow up studies should examine the effect of the intervention upon future exercise behavior, with the goal of identifying evidence based interventions to increase exercise in this group.
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Superstitious conditioning as a model of delusion formation following chronic but not acute ketamine in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 206:563-73. [PMID: 19436994 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1564-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2009] [Accepted: 04/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ketamine has previously been shown to induce delusion-like or referential beliefs, both acutely in healthy volunteers and naturalistically among nonintoxicated users of the drug. Delusions are theoretically underpinned by increased superstitious conditioning or the erroneous reinforcement of random events. MATERIALS AND METHODS Using a novel and objectively measured superstitious conditioning task, experiment 1 assessed healthy volunteers before and during placebo (n = 16), low-dose (n = 15), and high-dose ketamine (n = 16) under randomized and double-blind conditions. Experiment 2 used the same task to compare ketamine users (n = 18), polydrug controls (n = 19), and nondrug-using controls (n = 17). RESULTS In experiment 1, ketamine produced dose-dependent psychotomimetic effects but did not cause changes in superstitious conditioning. Experiment 2 found increased levels of superstitious conditioning among ketamine users compared to polydrug and nondrug-using controls, respectively, as evidenced by both objective task responses and subjective beliefs following the task. CONCLUSIONS Results indicate that chronic but not acute exposure to ketamine may increase the propensity to adopt superstitious conditioning. These findings are discussed in terms of acute and chronic ketamine models of delusion-like belief formation in schizophrenia.
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Joshua N, Gogos A, Rossell S. Executive functioning in schizophrenia: a thorough examination of performance on the Hayling Sentence Completion Test compared to psychiatric and non-psychiatric controls. Schizophr Res 2009; 114:84-90. [PMID: 19541454 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2009.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2009] [Revised: 05/28/2009] [Accepted: 05/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The current study examined executive functioning in schizophrenia by assessing response initiation and suppression in a group of schizophrenia patients, and drawing comparisons with psychiatric and non-psychiatric control groups. METHOD The Hayling Sentence Completion Test was used as a measure of executive functioning and was completed by 39 schizophrenia patients, 40 bipolar disorder patients and 44 healthy control participants. Outcome measures included response initiation and response suppression latency and error rate. RESULTS The schizophrenia group was significantly impaired on all measures of the Hayling Sentence Completion Test when compared to healthy control participants, and only on some of the measures when compared to the bipolar disorder group. The bipolar disorder group did not differ in performance compared to the healthy control group. Overall schizophrenia patients showed longer response initiation and response suppression latencies, and an increased error rate. Performance of the schizophrenia patients was associated with higher ratings of cognitive disorganisation. Performance was not related to age, gender, predicted IQ or any other clinical characteristics. CONCLUSIONS Schizophrenia patients show a slowing in baseline response initiation and slowed suppression of an inappropriate response. Considering the bipolar disorder patients demonstrated intact performance, altered executive functioning in schizophrenia appears relatively specific to the disorder rather than reflecting other characteristics common to mental illness. Investigations examining which neurocognitive domains are impaired in schizophrenia provide direct implications for treatment options tailored to an individual's cognitive strengths and weaknesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Joshua
- Mental Health Research Institute of Victoria, Level 2, 161 Barry Street, Carlton South Victoria 3053, Australia.
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Beebe LH, Burk R, McIntyre K, Smith K, Velligan D, Resnick B, Tavakoli A, Tennison C, Dessieux O. Motivating Persons with Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders to Exercise: Rationale and Design. CLINICAL SCHIZOPHRENIA & RELATED PSYCHOSES 2009; 3:111-116. [PMID: 20204148 PMCID: PMC2831651 DOI: 10.3371/csrp.3.2.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSDs) are not only at risk because of disabling disease symptoms but because necessary medications create health risks associated with high rates of obesity. Despite the well-known benefits of exercise, persons with SSDs rarely adhere to such regimens; few interventions to motivate exercise behavior have been tested in this group.The purpose of this study is to examine effects of the Walk, Address sensations, Learn about exercise, Cue exercise behavior for persons with SSDs (WALC-S) motivational intervention upon exercise behavior. We will recruit a total of eighty outpatients 18-68 years, meeting these criteria: 1) chart diagnosis of schizophrenia, any subtype, schizoaffective disorder or schizophreniform disorder, according to the criteria described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, 2) English speaking, 3) Stable medication regimen (defined as no medication changes within the last month), and 4) medical clearance for moderate exercise in writing from primary care provider. Participants will be randomly assigned to the experimental (4-week WALC-S motivational intervention), or the control group (4-week time and attention control). After the first 4 weeks, all participants will attend a 16-week walking group.The primary measures of the effectiveness of the WALC-S are attendance, persistence and compliance to the 16-week walking group. The study will be completed in approximately January 2010. In addition to hypothesis testing, this study will provide information to estimate effect sizes to calculate power and determine appropriate sample sizes for future inquiries. This paper describes the rationale and design of the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lora Humphrey Beebe
- 1200 Volunteer Blvd, University of Tennessee, College of Nursing Knoxville, TN 37996, Tel (865) 974-3978, Fax (865) 974 3569
| | | | | | | | - D. Velligan
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Imre Kiss
- a Semmelweis University , Budapest, Hungary
| | - Oguz Kelemen
- b Bács-Kiskun County Hospital , Kecskemét, Hungary
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Premkumar P, Fannon D, Kuipers E, Simmons A, Frangou S, Kumari V. Emotional decision-making and its dissociable components in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: a behavioural and MRI investigation. Neuropsychologia 2008; 46:2002-12. [PMID: 18329673 PMCID: PMC2845814 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2007] [Revised: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 01/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive decision-making is known to be deficient, but relatively less is known about emotional decision-making in schizophrenia. The Iowa gambling task (IGT) is considered a reliable probe of emotional decision-making and believed to reflect orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) function. The expectancy-valence model of IGT performance implicates three dissociable components, namely, attention to reward, memory for past, relative to recent, outcomes and impulsivity in emotional decision-making. We examined IGT performance, its three components, and their grey matter volume (GMV) correlates in 75 stable patients with schizophrenia, relative to 25 healthy individuals. Patients, relative to controls, showed impaired IGT performance and poor memory for past, relative to recent, outcomes. IGT performance correlated with GMV in the OFC in controls, but not patients. There were associations between (a) attention to reward and GMV in the frontal, temporal, parietal and striatal regions in controls, and in the temporal and thalamic regions in patients, (b) memory for past outcomes and GMV in the temporal region in controls, and the frontal and temporal regions in patients, and (c) low impulsivity and greater GMV in the frontal, temporal, posterior cingulate and occipital regions in controls, and in the frontal, temporal and posterior cingulate regions in patients. Most IGT-GMV associations were stronger in controls. It is concluded that (i) poor memory, rather than less attention to reward or impulsivity, contributes to IGT performance deficit, and (ii) the relationship of IGT performance and its components with GMVs especially in the frontal and temporal lobes is lost or attenuated in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preethi Premkumar
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom.
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