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Xu H, Piekarz KM, Brown JL, Bhaskaran S, Smith N, Towner RA, Van Remmen H. Neuroprotective treatment with the nitrone compound OKN-007 mitigates age-related muscle weakness in aging mice. GeroScience 2024; 46:4263-4273. [PMID: 38512579 PMCID: PMC11336152 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-024-01134-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite the universal impact of sarcopenia on compromised health and quality of life in the elderly, promising pharmaceutical approaches that can effectively mitigate loss of muscle and function during aging have been limited. Our group and others have reported impairments in peripheral motor neurons and loss of muscle innervation as initiating factors in sarcopenia, contributing to mitochondrial dysfunction and elevated oxidative stress in muscle. We recently reported a reduction in α motor neuron loss in aging mice in response to the compound OKN-007, a proposed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. In the current study, we asked whether OKN-007 treatment in wildtype male mice for 8-9 months beginning at 16 months of age can also protect muscle mass and function. At 25 months of age, we observed a reduction in the loss of whole-body lean mass, a reduced loss of innervation at the neuromuscular junction and well-preserved neuromuscular junction morphology in OKN-007 treated mice versus age matched wildtype untreated mice. The loss in muscle force generation in aging mice (~ 25%) is significantly improved with OKN-007 treatment. In contrast, OKN-007 treatment provided no protection in loss of muscle mass in aging mice. Mitochondrial function was improved by OKN-007 treatment, consistent with its potential antioxidative properties. Together, these exciting findings are the first to demonstrate that interventions through neuroprotection can be an effective therapy to counter aging-related muscle dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyang Xu
- Aging & Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Katarzyna M Piekarz
- Aging & Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Jacob L Brown
- Aging & Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma City VA Medical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Shylesh Bhaskaran
- Aging & Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Nataliya Smith
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Rheal A Towner
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Holly Van Remmen
- Aging & Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Oklahoma City VA Medical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
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Piekarz KM, Georgescu C, Wren JD, Towner RA, Van Remmen H. Pharmacologic treatment with OKN-007 reduces alpha-motor neuron loss in spinal cord of aging mice. GeroScience 2022; 44:67-81. [PMID: 34984634 PMCID: PMC8811061 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-021-00506-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is associated with molecular and functional declines in multiple physiologic systems. We have previously reported age-related changes in spinal cord that included a decline in α-motor neuron numbers, axonal loss, and demyelination associated with increased inflammation and blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) permeability. These changes may influence other pathologies associated with aging, in particular loss of muscle mass and function (sarcopenia), which we and others have shown is accompanied by neuromuscular junction disruption and loss of innervation. Interventions to protect and maintain motor neuron viability and function in aging are currently lacking and could have a significant impact on improving healthspan. Here we tested a promising compound, OKN-007, that has known antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties, as a potential intervention in age-related changes in the spinal cord. OKN-007 is a low molecular weight disulfonyl derivative of (N-tert Butyl-α-phenylnitrone) (PBN) that can easily cross the blood-brain barrier. We treated middle age (16 month) wild-type male mice with OKN-007 in drinking water at a dose of 150 mg/kg/day until 25 months of age. OKN-007 treatment exerted a number of beneficial effects in the aging spinal cord, including a 35% increase in the number of lumbar α-motor neurons in OKN-treated old mice compared to age-matched controls. Brain spinal cord barrier permeability, which is increased in aging spinal cord, was also blunted by OKN-007 treatment. Age-related changes in microglia proliferation and activation are blunted by OKN-007, while we found no effect on astrocyte proliferation. Transcriptome analysis identified expression changes in a number of genes that are involved in neuronal structure and function and revealed a subset of genes whose changes in response to aging are reversed by OKN-007 treatment. Overall, our findings suggest that OKN-007 exerts neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects on the aging spinal cord and support OKN-007 as a potential therapeutic to improve α-motor neuron health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna M. Piekarz
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618OU Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73117 USA ,grid.274264.10000 0000 8527 6890Program in Aging and Metabolism, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
| | - Constantin Georgescu
- grid.274264.10000 0000 8527 6890Genes & Human Disease Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
| | - Jonathan D. Wren
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618OU Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73117 USA ,grid.274264.10000 0000 8527 6890Genes & Human Disease Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
| | - Rheal A. Towner
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618OU Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73117 USA ,grid.274264.10000 0000 8527 6890Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
| | - Holly Van Remmen
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618OU Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73117 USA ,grid.274264.10000 0000 8527 6890Program in Aging and Metabolism, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA ,grid.413864.c0000 0004 0420 2582Oklahoma City VA Medical Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA ,grid.274264.10000 0000 8527 6890Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
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Smith N, Saunders D, Jensen RL, Towner RA. Association of decreased levels of lipopolysaccharide-binding protein with OKN-007-induced regression of tumor growth in an F98 rat glioma model. J Neurosurg 2020; 133:1695-1703. [PMID: 31628293 DOI: 10.3171/2019.7.jns182435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE High-grade gliomas, such as glioblastoma (GBM), are devastating tumors with a very poor prognosis. Previously the authors have found that the nitrone compound OKN-007 (OKlahoma Nitrone 007; or disodium 4-[(tert-butyl-imino) methyl] benzene-1,3-disulfonate N-oxide) is effective against high-grade gliomas in various GBM rodent and human xenograft models. The purpose of the present study was to assess the levels of the lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) in rodent gliomas treated with OKN-007 as well as determine the expression of LBP in human gliomas. METHODS Microarray analysis was done to assess altered gene expression following OKN-007 administration in an F98 glioma model. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was incorporated to assess LBP levels in glioma tissues, as well as blood serum, comparing results in OKN-007-treated and untreated tumor-bearing animals. Immunohistochemistry was used to assess LBP levels in varying grades of human glioma tissue sections. RESULTS Upon further assessment of gene expression fold changes in F98 gliomas in rats that received or did not receive OKN-007, it was found that the gene for LBP was significantly downregulated by OKN-007. Further investigation was done to see whether levels of LBP were affected by OKN-007 treatment in F98 gliomas. It was found that LBP could be detected not only in glioma tissue but also in blood serum of F98 glioma-bearing rats and that OKN-007 decreased the levels of LBP. It was also found that LBP levels are highly expressed in human high-grade glioma tissues. CONCLUSIONS LBP could potentially be used as a serum diagnostic marker of treatment response in high-grade gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya Smith
- 1Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; and
| | - Debra Saunders
- 1Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; and
| | - Randy L Jensen
- 2Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Rheal A Towner
- 1Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; and
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Williams EI, Betterton RD, Davis TP, Ronaldson PT. Transporter-Mediated Delivery of Small Molecule Drugs to the Brain: A Critical Mechanism That Can Advance Therapeutic Development for Ischemic Stroke. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12020154. [PMID: 32075088 PMCID: PMC7076465 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12020154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is the 5th leading cause of death in the United States. Despite significant improvements in reperfusion therapies, stroke patients still suffer from debilitating neurocognitive deficits. This indicates an essential need to develop novel stroke treatment paradigms. Endogenous uptake transporters expressed at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) provide an excellent opportunity to advance stroke therapy via optimization of small molecule neuroprotective drug delivery to the brain. Examples of such uptake transporters include organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs in humans; Oatps in rodents) and organic cation transporters (OCTs in humans; Octs in rodents). Of particular note, small molecule drugs that have neuroprotective properties are known substrates for these transporters and include 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (i.e., statins) for OATPs/Oatps and 1-amino-3,5-dimethyladamantane (i.e., memantine) for OCTs/Octs. Here, we review current knowledge on specific BBB transporters that can be targeted for improvement of ischemic stroke treatment and provide state-of-the-art perspectives on the rationale for considering BBB transport properties during discovery/development of stroke therapeutics.
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Towner RA, Saunders D, Smith N, Gulej R, McKenzie T, Lawrence B, Morton KA. Anti-inflammatory agent, OKN-007, reverses long-term neuroinflammatory responses in a rat encephalopathy model as assessed by multi-parametric MRI: implications for aging-associated neuroinflammation. GeroScience 2019; 41:483-494. [PMID: 31478121 PMCID: PMC6815317 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-019-00094-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced encephalopathy induces neuroinflammation. Long-term neuroinflammation is associated with aging and subsequent cognitive impairment (CI). We treated rats that had LPS-induced neuroinflammation with OKN-007, with an anti-inflammatory agent currently considered an anti-cancer investigational new drug in clinical trials for glioblastoma (GBM). Contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (CE-MRI), perfusion MRI, and MR spectroscopy were used as methods to assess long-term (up to 6 weeks post-LPS) alterations in blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, microvascularity, and metabolism, respectively, and the therapeutic effect of OKN-007. A free radical-targeted molecular MRI approach was also used to detect the effect of OKN-007 on brain free radical levels at 24 h and 1 week post-LPS injection. OKN-007 was able to reduce BBB permeability in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus at 1 week post-LPS using CE-MRI. OKN-007 was able to restore vascular perfusion rates by reducing LPS-induced increased relative cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in the cortex and hippocampus regions at all time points studied (1, 3, and 6 weeks post-LPS). OKN-007 was also able to restore LPS-induced brain metabolite depletions. NAA/Cho, Cr/Cho, and Myo-Ins/Cho metabolite ratios at 1, 3, and 6 weeks post-LPS were all restored to normal levels following OKN-007 treatment. OKN-007 also reduced LPS-induced free radical levels at 24 h and 1 week post-LPS, as detected by free radical-targeted MRI. LPS-exposed rats were compared with saline-treated controls and LPS + OKN-007-treated animals. We clearly demonstrated that OKN-007 restores LPS-induced BBB dysfunction, impaired vascularity, and decreased brain metabolites, all long-term neuroinflammatory indicators, as well as decreases free radicals in a LPS-induced neuroinflammation model. OKN-007 should be considered an anti-inflammatory agent for age-associated neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rheal A Towner
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 N.E. 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.
- Oklahoma Nathan Shock Aging Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Oklahoma Center for Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
| | - Debra Saunders
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 N.E. 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Nataliya Smith
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 N.E. 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Rafal Gulej
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 N.E. 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Tyler McKenzie
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 N.E. 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Brandy Lawrence
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 N.E. 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
- Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Kathryn A Morton
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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McCaig C, Ataliotis P, Shtaya A, Omar AS, Green AR, Kind CN, Pereira AC, Naray-Fejes-Toth A, Fejes-Toth G, Yáñez-Muñoz RJ, Murray JT, Hainsworth AH. Induction of the cell survival kinase Sgk1: A possible novel mechanism for α-phenyl-N-tert-butyl nitrone in experimental stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2019; 39:1111-1121. [PMID: 29260627 PMCID: PMC6545623 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x17746980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Nitrones (e.g. α-phenyl-N-tert-butyl nitrone; PBN) are cerebroprotective in experimental stroke. Free radical trapping is their proposed mechanism. As PBN has low radical trapping potency, we tested Sgk1 induction as another possible mechanism. PBN was injected (100 mg/kg, i.p.) into adult male rats and mice. Sgk1 was quantified in cerebral tissue by microarray, quantitative RT-PCR and western analyses. Sgk1+/+ and Sgk1-/- mice were randomized to receive PBN or saline immediately following transient (60 min) occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. Neurological deficit was measured at 24 h and 48 h and infarct volume at 48 h post-occlusion. Following systemic PBN administration, rapid induction of Sgk1 was detected by microarray (at 4 h) and confirmed by RT-PCR and phosphorylation of the Sgk1-specific substrate NDRG1 (at 6 h). PBN-treated Sgk1+/+ mice had lower neurological deficit ( p < 0.01) and infarct volume ( p < 0.01) than saline-treated Sgk1+/+ mice. PBN-treated Sgk1-/- mice did not differ from saline-treated Sgk1-/- mice. Saline-treated Sgk1-/- and Sgk1+/+ mice did not differ. Brain Sgk3:Sgk1 mRNA ratio was 1.0:10.6 in Sgk1+/+ mice. Sgk3 was not augmented in Sgk1-/- mice. We conclude that acute systemic treatment with PBN induces Sgk1 in brain tissue. Sgk1 may play a part in PBN-dependent actions in acute brain ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine McCaig
- Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research
Institute, St Georges University of London, London, UK
| | - Paris Ataliotis
- Institute for Medical & Biomedical
Education, St George’s University of London, London, UK
| | - Anan Shtaya
- Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research
Institute, St Georges University of London, London, UK
| | - Ayan S Omar
- Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research
Institute, St Georges University of London, London, UK
| | - A Richard Green
- School of Life Sciences, University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Clive N Kind
- Leicester School of Pharmacy,
De
Montfort University, Leicester, UK
| | - Anthony C Pereira
- Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research
Institute, St Georges University of London, London, UK
- Department of Neurology, St George’s
University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Aniko Naray-Fejes-Toth
- Molecular & Systems Biology
Department, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Geza Fejes-Toth
- Molecular & Systems Biology
Department, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Rafael J Yáñez-Muñoz
- AGCTlab.org, Centre for Biomedical
Sciences, School of Biological Sciences,
Royal
Holloway, University of London, Egham,
Surrey, UK
| | - James T Murray
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology,
Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2,
Ireland
| | - Atticus H Hainsworth
- Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research
Institute, St Georges University of London, London, UK
- Department of Neurology, St George’s
University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Antonic A, Dottori M, Macleod MR, Donnan GA, Howells DW. NXY-059, a Failed Stroke Neuroprotectant, Offers No Protection to Stem Cell-Derived Human Neurons. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2018; 27:2158-2165. [PMID: 29673616 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2018.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Developing new medicines is a complex process where understanding the reasons for both failure and success takes us forward. One gap in our understanding of most candidate stroke drugs before clinical trial is whether they have a protective effect on human tissues. NXY-059 is a spin-trap reagent hypothesized to have activity against the damaging oxidative biology which accompanies ischemic stroke. Re-examination of the preclinical in vivo dataset for this agent in the wake of the failed SAINT-II RCT highlighted the presence of a range of biases leading to overestimation of the magnitude of NXY-059's effects in laboratory animals. Therefore, NXY-059 seemed an ideal candidate to evaluate in human neural tissues to determine whether human tissue testing might improve screening efficiency. MATERIALS AND METHODS The aim of this randomized and blinded study was to assess the effects of NXY-059 on human stem cell-derived neurons in the presence of ischemia-like injury induced by oxygen glucose deprivation or oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide or sodium nitroprusside. RESULTS In MTT assays of cell survival, lactate dehydrogenase assays of total cell death and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling staining of apoptotic-like cell death, NXY-059 at concentrations ranging from 1 µm to 1 mm was completely without activity. Conversely an antioxidant cocktail comprising 100 µm each of ascorbate, reduced glutathione, and dithiothreitol used as a positive control provided marked neuronal protection in these assays. CONCLUSION These findings support our hypothesis that stroke drug screening in human neural tissues will be of value and provides an explanation for the failure of NXY-059 as a human stroke drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Antonic
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne Brain Centre, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mirella Dottori
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Centre for Molecular and Medical Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Malcolm R Macleod
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Geoffrey A Donnan
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne Brain Centre, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
| | - David W Howells
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne Brain Centre, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; University of Tasmania, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
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Vijayan M, Reddy PH. Stroke, Vascular Dementia, and Alzheimer's Disease: Molecular Links. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 54:427-43. [PMID: 27567871 DOI: 10.3233/jad-160527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a brain disease that occurs when blood flow stops, resulting in reduced oxygen supply to neurons. Stroke occurs at any time and at any age, but increases after the age of 55. It is the second leading cause of death and the third leading cause of disability-adjusted, life-years. The pathophysiology of ischemic stroke is complex and recent molecular, cellular, and animal models and postmortem brain studies have revealed that multiple cellular changes have been implicated, including oxidative stress/mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammatory responses, micro RNA alterations, and marked changes in brain proteins. These cellular changes provide new information for developing therapeutic strategies for ischemic stroke treatment. Research also revealed that stroke increases with a number of modifiable factors and most strokes can be prevented and/or controlled through pharmacological or surgical interventions and lifestyle changes. Ischemic stroke is the major risk factor for vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease. This review summarizes the latest research findings on stroke, including causal factors and molecular links between stroke and vascular disease/Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murali Vijayan
- Garrison Institute on Aging, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - P Hemachandra Reddy
- Garrison Institute on Aging, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA.,Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA.,Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA.,Department of Neurology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA.,Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA.,Garrison Institute on Aging, South West Campus, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA
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Page S, Munsell A, Al-Ahmad AJ. Cerebral hypoxia/ischemia selectively disrupts tight junctions complexes in stem cell-derived human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Fluids Barriers CNS 2016; 13:16. [PMID: 27724968 PMCID: PMC5057206 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-016-0042-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cerebral hypoxia/ischemia (H/I) is an important stress factor involved in the disruption of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) following stroke injury, yet the cellular and molecular mechanisms on how the human BBB responds to such injury remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the cellular response of the human BBB to chemical and environmental H/I in vitro. Methods In this study, we used immortalized hCMEC/D3 and IMR90 stem-cell derived human brain microvascular endothelial cell lines (IMR90-derived BMECs). Hypoxic stress was achieved by exposure to cobalt chloride (CoCl2) or by exposure to 1 % hypoxia and oxygen/glucose deprivation (OGD) was used to model ischemic injury. We assessed barrier function using both transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and sodium fluorescein permeability. Changes in cell junction integrity were assessed by immunocytochemistry and cell viability was assessed by trypan-blue exclusion and by MTS assays. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results CoCl2 selectively disrupted the barrier function in IMR90-derived BMECs but not in hCMEC/D3 monolayers and cytotoxic effects did not drive such disruption. In addition, hypoxia/OGD stress significantly disrupted the barrier function by selectively disrupting tight junctions (TJs) complexes. In addition, we noted an uncoupling between cell metabolic activity and barrier integrity. Conclusions In this study, we demonstrated the ability of IMR90-derived BMECs to respond to hypoxic/ischemic injury triggered by both chemical and environmental stress by showing a disruption of the barrier function. Such disruption was selectively targeting TJ complexes and was not driven by cellular apoptosis. In conclusion, this study suggests the suitability of stem cell-derived human BMECs monolayers as a model of cerebral hypoxia/ischemia in vitro. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12987-016-0042-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyanne Page
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 1300 South Coulter Street, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Alli Munsell
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 1300 South Coulter Street, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Abraham J Al-Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 1300 South Coulter Street, Amarillo, TX, USA.
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Gao XY, Huang JO, Hu YF, Gu Y, Zhu SZ, Huang KB, Chen JY, Pan SY. Combination of mild hypothermia with neuroprotectants has greater neuroprotective effects during oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation-mediated neuronal injury. Sci Rep 2014; 4:7091. [PMID: 25404538 PMCID: PMC4665348 DOI: 10.1038/srep07091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Co-treatment of neuroprotective reagents may improve the therapeutic efficacy of hypothermia in protecting neurons during ischemic stroke. This study aimed to find promising drugs that enhance the neuroprotective effect of mild hypothermia (MH). 26 candidate drugs were selected based on different targets. Primary cultured cortical neurons were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) to induce neuronal damage, followed by either single treatment (a drug or MH) or a combination of a drug and MH. Results showed that, compared with single treatment, combination of MH with brain derived neurotrophic factor, glibenclamide, dizocilpine, human urinary kallidinogenase or neuroglobin displayed higher proportion of neuronal cell viability. The latter three drugs also caused less apoptosis rate in combined treatment. Furthermore, co-treatment of those three drugs and MH decreased the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intracellular calcium accumulation, as well as stabilized mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), indicating the combined neuroprotective effects are probably via inhibiting mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Taken together, the study suggests that combined treatment with hypothermia and certain neuroprotective reagents provide a better protection against OGD/R-induced neuronal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ya Gao
- 1] Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China [2] Department of Neurology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Jian-Ou Huang
- 1] Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China [2] Department of Neurology, the 421 Hospital, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Ya-Fang Hu
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Yong Gu
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Shu-Zhen Zhu
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Kai-Bin Huang
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Yu Chen
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Su-Yue Pan
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
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Current preclinical studies on neuroinflammation and changes in blood-brain barrier integrity by MDMA and methamphetamine. Neuropharmacology 2014; 87:125-34. [PMID: 24594477 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is essential in the maintenance of brain homeostasis both by preserving normal brain functioning and also by protecting the brain from exposure to a range of potentially harmful substances. This review presents some of the evidence of BBB disruption following exposure to the substituted amphetamines 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') and methamphetamine (METH), two drugs of abuse which are widely consumed recreationally by younger sectors of the population. Both MDMA and METH have been shown to produce disruption of the BBB as reflected by IgG extravasation and Evans Blue leakage. In particular, METH decreases the expression of basal lamina proteins associated with an increase in matrix metalloproteinase activity. These changes in BBB integrity appear to be related to MDMA-induced activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) JNK1/2. The consequences of the disruption in the BBB by these two drugs remain to be established, but there is evidence in the literature that, at least in the case of METH, increased matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity may be related to increased behavioural sensitization and reward perhaps because of the modification of the passage of the drug into the CNS. In addition, the high incidence of AIDS-related neurologic disease in METH users may also be related to increased entry into the brain of virally derived neurotoxic products. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'CNS Stimulants'.
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Floyd RA, Castro Faria Neto HC, Zimmerman GA, Hensley K, Towner RA. Nitrone-based therapeutics for neurodegenerative diseases: their use alone or in combination with lanthionines. Free Radic Biol Med 2013; 62:145-156. [PMID: 23419732 PMCID: PMC3715559 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The possibility of free radical reactions occurring in biological processes led to the development and employment of novel methods and techniques focused on determining their existence and importance in normal and pathological conditions. For this reason the use of nitrones for spin trapping free radicals became widespread in the 1970s and 1980s, when surprisingly the first evidence of their potent biological properties was noted. Since then widespread exploration and demonstration of the potent biological properties of phenyl-tert-butylnitrone (PBN) and its derivatives took place in preclinical models of septic shock and then in experimental stroke. The most extensive commercial effort made to capitalize on the potent properties of the PBN-nitrones was for acute ischemic stroke. This occurred during 1993-2006, when the 2,4-disulfonylphenyl PBN derivative, called NXY-059 in the stroke studies, was shown to be safe in humans and was taken all the way through clinical phase 3 trials and then was deemed to be ineffective. As summarized in this review, because of its excellent human safety profile, 2,4-disulfonylphenyl PBN, now called OKN-007 in the cancer studies, was tested as an anti-cancer agent in several preclinical glioma models and shown to be very effective. Based on these studies this compound is now scheduled to enter into early clinical trials for astrocytoma/glioblastoma multiforme this year. The potential use of OKN-007 in combination with neurotropic compounds such as the lanthionine ketamine esters is discussed for glioblastoma multiforme as well as for various other indications leading to dementia, such as aging, septic shock, and malaria infections. There is much more research and development activity ongoing for various indications with the nitrones, alone or in combination with other active compounds, as briefly noted in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Floyd
- Experimental Therapeutics, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA.
| | | | - Guy A Zimmerman
- Laboratorio de Immunofarmacologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, IOC, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Kenneth Hensley
- Department of Pathology and Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo Medical Center, Toledo, OH
| | - Rheal A Towner
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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Towner RA, Gillespie DL, Schwager A, Saunders DG, Smith N, Njoku CE, Krysiak RS, Larabee C, Iqbal H, Floyd RA, Bourne DWA, Abdullah O, Hsu EW, Jensen RL. Regression of glioma tumor growth in F98 and U87 rat glioma models by the Nitrone OKN-007. Neuro Oncol 2013; 15:330-40. [PMID: 23328810 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/nos337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioblastoma multiforme, a World Health Organization grade IV glioma, has a poor prognosis in humans despite current treatment options. Here, we present magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data regarding the regression of aggressive rat F98 gliomas and human U87 glioma xenografts after treatment with the nitrone compound OKN-007, a disulfonyl derivative of α-phenyl-tert-butyl nitrone. METHODS MRI was used to assess tumor volumes in F98 and U87 gliomas, and bioluminescence imaging was used to measure tumor volumes in F98 gliomas encoded with the luciferase gene (F98(luc)). Immunohistochemistry was used to assess angiogenesis (vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF] and microvessel density [MVD]), cell differentiation (carbonic anhydrase IX [CA-IX]), hypoxia (hypoxia-inducible factor-1α [HIF-1α]), cell proliferation (glucose transporter 1 [Glut-1] and MIB-1), proliferation index, and apoptosis (cleaved caspase 3) markers in F98 gliomas. VEGF, CA-IX, Glut-1, HIF-1α, and cleaved caspase 3 were assessed in U87 gliomas. RESULTS Animal survival was found to be significantly increased (P < .001 for F98, P < .01 for U87) in the group that received OKN-007 treatment compared with the untreated groups. After MRI detection of F98 gliomas, OKN-007, administered orally, was found to decrease tumor growth (P < .05). U87 glioma volumes were found to significantly decrease (P < .05) after OKN-007 treatment, compared with untreated animals. OKN-007 administration resulted in significant decreases in tumor hypoxia (HIF-1α [P < .05] in both F98 and U87), angiogenesis (MVD [P < .05], but not VEGF, in F98 or U87), and cell proliferation (Glut-1 [P < .05 in F98, P < .01 in U87] and MIB-1 [P < .01] in F98) and caused a significant increase in apoptosis (cleaved caspase 3 [P < .001 in F98, P < .05 in U87]), compared with untreated animals. CONCLUSIONS OKN-007 may be considered as a promising therapeutic addition or alternative for the treatment of aggressive human gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rheal A Towner
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA.
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Current therapies in ischemic stroke. Part B. Future candidates in stroke therapy and experimental studies. Drug Discov Today 2012; 17:671-84. [PMID: 22405898 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2012.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Stroke still remains a major healthcare problem. The growing understanding of the mechanism of cell death in ischemia leads to new approaches in stroke treatment. The aim of neuroprotection is to reduce the post-stroke impairment and the overall costs that are accompanied in patients with severe disability. Despite encouraging data from experimental animal models, almost all neuroprotective therapies have, to date, not been established in clinical routine. In this part B of our review on stroke therapies we provide an overview on future candidates in stroke therapy and neuroprotective agents that are under investigation.
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Wang L, Du C, Lv J, Wei W, Cui Y, Xie X. Antiasthmatic drugs targeting the cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 alleviate central nervous system inflammatory cell infiltration and pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:2336-45. [PMID: 21804021 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1100333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLTs) are potent proinflammatory mediators and are considered to play a key role in inflammatory diseases such as asthma. Antagonists targeting the receptor of CysLTs (CysLT1) are currently used as antiasthmatic drugs. CysLTs have also been implicated in other inflammatory reactions. In this study, we report that in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis animals, CysLT1 is upregulated in immune tissue and the spinal cord, and CysLT levels in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid are also higher than in normal mice. Two clinically used antiasthma drugs, montelukast and zafirlukast, both targeting CysLT1, effectively block the CNS infiltration of inflammatory cells and thus reduce the incidence, peak severity, and cumulative clinical scores. Further study indicated that CysLT1 signaling does not affect the differentiation of pathogenic T helper cells. It might affect the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by increasing the secretion of IL-17 from myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-specific T cells, increasing the permeability of the blood-brain barrier and inducing chemotaxis of T cells. These effects can be blocked by CysLT1 antagonists. Our findings indicate that the antiasthmatic drugs against CysLT1 can also be used to treat multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liefeng Wang
- Laboratory of Receptor-Based BioMedicine, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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Roussel BD, Mysiorek C, Rouhiainen A, Jullienne A, Parcq J, Hommet Y, Culot M, Berezowski V, Cecchelli R, Rauvala H, Vivien D, Ali C. HMGB-1 promotes fibrinolysis and reduces neurotoxicity mediated by tissue plasminogen activator. J Cell Sci 2011; 124:2070-6. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.084392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Owing to its ability to generate the clot-dissolving protease plasmin, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is the only approved drug for the acute treatment of ischemic stroke. However, tPA also promotes hemorrhagic transformation and excitotoxic events. High mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB-1) is a non-histone transcription factor and a pro-inflammatory cytokine, which has also been shown to bind to both tPA and plasminogen. We thus investigated the cellular and molecular effects through which HMGB-1 could influence the vascular and parenchymal effects of tPA during ischemia. We demonstrate that HMGB-1 not only increases clot lysis by tPA, but also reduces the passage of vascular tPA across the blood–brain barrier, as well as tPA-driven leakage of the blood–brain barrier. In addition, HMGB-1 prevents the pro-neurotoxic effect of tPA, by blocking its interaction with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and the attendant potentiation of NMDA-induced neuronal Ca2+ influx. In conclusion, we show in vitro that HMGB-1 can promote the beneficial effects of tPA while counteracting its deleterious properties. We suggest that derivatives of HMGB-1, devoid of pro-inflammatory properties, could be used as adjunctive therapies to improve the overall benefit of tPA-mediated thrombolysis following stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Caroline Mysiorek
- Univ Lille Nord de France, UArtois, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie de la Barrière Hémato-Encéphalique, EA 2465, IMPRT-IFR114, 62303 Lens, France
| | - Ari Rouhiainen
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Amandine Jullienne
- INSERM U919 ‘Serine proteases and pathophysiology of the neurovascular unit’, UMR CNRS 6232 Cinaps, GIP Cyceron, University of Caen, 14032 Caen, France
| | - Jerome Parcq
- INSERM U919 ‘Serine proteases and pathophysiology of the neurovascular unit’, UMR CNRS 6232 Cinaps, GIP Cyceron, University of Caen, 14032 Caen, France
| | - Yannick Hommet
- INSERM U919 ‘Serine proteases and pathophysiology of the neurovascular unit’, UMR CNRS 6232 Cinaps, GIP Cyceron, University of Caen, 14032 Caen, France
| | - Maxime Culot
- Univ Lille Nord de France, UArtois, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie de la Barrière Hémato-Encéphalique, EA 2465, IMPRT-IFR114, 62303 Lens, France
| | - Vincent Berezowski
- Univ Lille Nord de France, UArtois, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie de la Barrière Hémato-Encéphalique, EA 2465, IMPRT-IFR114, 62303 Lens, France
| | - Romeo Cecchelli
- Univ Lille Nord de France, UArtois, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie de la Barrière Hémato-Encéphalique, EA 2465, IMPRT-IFR114, 62303 Lens, France
| | - Heikki Rauvala
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Denis Vivien
- INSERM U919 ‘Serine proteases and pathophysiology of the neurovascular unit’, UMR CNRS 6232 Cinaps, GIP Cyceron, University of Caen, 14032 Caen, France
| | - Carine Ali
- INSERM U919 ‘Serine proteases and pathophysiology of the neurovascular unit’, UMR CNRS 6232 Cinaps, GIP Cyceron, University of Caen, 14032 Caen, France
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Li MM, Wu LY, Zhao T, Xiong L, Huang X, Liu ZH, Fan XL, Xiao CR, Gao Y, Ma YB, Chen JJ, Zhu LL, Fan M. The protective role of 5-HMF against hypoxic injury. Cell Stress Chaperones 2011; 16:267-73. [PMID: 21057989 PMCID: PMC3077221 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-010-0238-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2010] [Revised: 10/11/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In an attempt to find new types of anti-hypoxic agents from herbs, we identified 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural (5-HMF) as a natural agent that fulfills the criterion. 5-HMF, the final product of carbohydrate metabolism, has favorable biological effects such as anti-oxidant activity and inhibiting sickling of red blood cells. The role of 5-HMF in hypoxia, however, is not yet. Our pilot results showed that pretreatment with 5-HMF markedly increased both the survival time and the survival rate of mice under hypoxic stress. The present study was aimed to further investigate the protective role of 5-HMF and the underlying mechanisms in hypoxic injury using ECV304 cells as an in vitro model. ECV304 cells pretreated with or without 5-HMF for 1 h were exposed to hypoxic condition (0.3% O(2)) for 24 h and then cell apoptosis, necrosis, the changes of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and the expressions of phosphorylation- extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK) were investigated. Pretreatment with 5-HMF markedly attenuated hypoxia-induced cell necrosis and apoptosis at late stage (p < 0.01). Furthermore, pretreatment with 5-HMF rescued both the decline of the MMP and the increase of p-ERK protein under hypoxia. In a word, these results indicated that 5-HMF had protective effects against hypoxic injury in ECV304 cells, and its effects on MMP and p-ERK may be involved in the mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Ming Li
- Beijing Institute for Neuro-Science, Capital Medical University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijng, 100069 People’s Republic of China
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Li-Ying Wu
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Tong Zhao
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Lei Xiong
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xin Huang
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhao-Hui Liu
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xue-Lai Fan
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Cheng-Rong Xiao
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue Gao
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yun-Bao Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in Western China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650204, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ji-Jun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in Western China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650204, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ling-Ling Zhu
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Ming Fan
- Beijing Institute for Neuro-Science, Capital Medical University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijng, 100069 People’s Republic of China
- Department of Brain protection and Plasticity, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.27 Taiping Rd, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
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Experimental models for assaying microvascular endothelial cell pathophysiology in stroke. Molecules 2010; 15:9104-34. [PMID: 21150829 PMCID: PMC6259215 DOI: 10.3390/molecules15129104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2010] [Revised: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
It is important to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying neuron death following stroke in order to develop effective neuroprotective strategies. Since studies on human stroke are extremely limited due to the difficulty in collecting post-mortem tissue at different time points after the onset of stroke, brain ischaemia research focuses on information derived from in-vitro models of neuronal death through ischaemic injury [1]. This review aims to provide an update on the different in-vitro stroke models with brain microvascular endothelial cells that are currently being used. These models provide a physiologically relevant tool to screen potential neuroprotective drugs in stroke and to study the molecular mechanisms involved in brain ischaemia.
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Doeppner TR, Hermann DM. Free radical scavengers and spin traps – therapeutic implications for ischemic stroke. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2010; 24:511-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpa.2010.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 10/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Cowan KM, Easton AS. Neutrophils block permeability increases induced by oxygen glucose deprivation in a culture model of the human blood-brain barrier. Brain Res 2010; 1332:20-31. [PMID: 20346925 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Experimentally, oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) has been widely used to mimic the environmental conditions present during cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. OGD is known to increase permeability across cultured cerebral endothelial cells, which models the effect of IR on permeability across the blood-brain barrier (BBB); however, studies have yet to be performed in a human model. The effect of neutrophils on the increase in BBB permeability associated with IR injury has yet to be modeled in vitro. To address these questions, the human brain endothelial cell line hCMEC/D3 was exposed to OGD with reoxygenation, and permeability was measured for a range of OGD exposure times (1-24h). One hour of exposure to OGD induced a reversible increase in permeability, unassociated with cytotoxicity (assessed from lactate dehydrogenase release). However, 12-24h OGD exposures induced sustained increases in permeability associated with cytotoxicity. The 1h permeability increase was inhibited with the nitric oxide synthase inhibitors l-NAME (10(-)(7)mol/l) and 1400W (10(-)(7)mol/l). Neutrophils (5x10(6)/ml) blocked the permeability increase associated with 1h OGD, whether applied during or after OGD exposure. Permeability remained low if neutrophils were activated with leukotriene (Lt)B(4) (10(-)(7)mol/l) or exposed to a transendothelial gradient of LtB(4), while neutrophil activation with phorbyl myristate acetate (4x10(-)(8)mol/l) induced a small increase. Neutrophils had no effect on the permeability increase induced by 12h OGD exposure. This study finds that OGD induces reversible increases in permeability linked to nitric oxide synthesis in a human culture model of the BBB and shows that neutrophils mitigate permeability increases in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystyna M Cowan
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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