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Gray AM, Growney CM, English T. Perceived responses, capitalization, and daily gratitude: Do age and closeness matter? Emotion 2024; 24:867-877. [PMID: 37843513 PMCID: PMC11009090 DOI: 10.1037/emo0001301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Successful capitalization and feelings of gratitude are both dependent upon perceived responsiveness of a social partner, but they are understudied in combination and have yet to be studied jointly in a daily context. Taking a new approach to studying capitalization, the current study examines the effect of daily capitalization on momentary gratitude and investigates the role of the capitalizer's typical perceived responses to capitalization attempts (PRCA) on daily gratitude and future capitalization attempts. Age and social closeness are studied as amplifiers, as older adults prioritize positive emotional experiences and it is more common to capitalize with closer others for whom the capitalizer's good news is salient and who are thus motivated to provide support to the capitalizer. Participants (N = 290) aged 25-85 years completed a trait-level survey followed by ecological momentary assessment surveys (six per day) for 10 days. Results demonstrate that people experienced higher daily gratitude when capitalizing, especially when interacting with a social partner rated as high in closeness. Those who had higher trait active-constructive PRCA also experienced higher daily gratitude, with this effect strengthened among older adults. Perceived responses were also associated with more attempts to capitalize in daily life. This work suggests engaging in capitalization and perceiving regular enthusiastic and supportive responses to one's capitalization attempts have daily emotional and behavioral benefits. Notably, regular enthusiastic responses to capitalization attempts may be a motivator for future attempts across adulthood, but it may be particularly likely to foster feelings of gratitude in old age. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tammy English
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis
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2
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Brudner EG, Fareri DS, Shehata SG, Delgado MR. Social feedback promotes positive social sharing, trust, and closeness. Emotion 2023; 23:1536-1548. [PMID: 36355668 PMCID: PMC10169536 DOI: 10.1037/emo0001182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Positive social sharing is an interpersonal emotion regulation strategy that enhances positive affect and social belonging, particularly when met with positive social feedback. Despite the ubiquity of positive social sharing both in person and online, what drives this behavior is not well understood. We hypothesized that positive social feedback serves as a reward that reinforces sharing behavior and strengthens social bonds. Participants made trial-by-trial choices about whether to share social media photos with peers who returned positive ("likes") or negative ("dislikes") feedback. Unbeknownst to participants, peer conditions were manipulated to yield varying amounts of positive and negative feedback. Social bonding was subsequently measured using a trust game and subjective closeness ratings. Participants shared more with peers who provided greater rates of positive feedback. This effect generalized to trust decisions and subjective feelings of closeness and varied individually as a function of interpersonal emotion regulation in daily life. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dominic S. Fareri
- Gordon F. Derner School of Psychology, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY
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3
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Bosisio M, Rosen NO, Dubé J, Vaillancourt-Morel MP, Daspe MÈ, Bergeron S. Will you be happy for me? Associations between self-reported, perceived, and observed responses to positive events and sexual well-being in cohabiting couples. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 2022; 39:2454-2477. [PMID: 35872974 PMCID: PMC9294438 DOI: 10.1177/02654075221080581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Whereas greater levels of intimacy have been shown to promote couples' sexual well-being, recent theories suggest that satisfying sex is maintained via the capacity to encourage the partner's individuality, while remaining intimately connected. Responses to capitalization attempts (i.e., the disclosure of a positive personal event) provide an opportunity to strengthen both the couple's intimacy and each partner's autonomy. Although responses to capitalization attempts are linked to couples' greater relationship adjustment, very little is known about their relation to couples' sexual well-being. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between self-reported, perceived, and observed responses to capitalization attempts and sexual satisfaction, sexual distress, and sexual function in 151 cohabiting couples who participated in a filmed discussion in the laboratory. They also completed self-report questionnaires pertaining to their responsiveness and to that of the partner during the discussion, as well as their sexual well-being. Results indicated that one's higher levels of self-reported and partner-perceived active-constructive responses (enthusiasm/elaboration) during the discussion were associated with one's own greater sexual satisfaction. Higher levels of perceived passive-constructive responses (quiet but interested) from one's partner were associated with one's own lower sexual satisfaction, and one's higher levels of self-reported and perceived passive-destructive responses (lack of interest/self-focus) were associated with one's own greater sexual distress. Finally, higher levels of observed active-destructive responses (undermines/denies the positive nature of the event) were associated with one's own lower sexual function, while in women, they were associated with their lower sexual satisfaction. Findings contribute to a growing body of literature underscoring the importance of intimacy for sexual well-being in long-term relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Bosisio
- Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Natalie O. Rosen
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Justin Dubé
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | | | - Marie-Ève Daspe
- Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Sophie Bergeron
- Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
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4
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Casey K, King R, Banner J, Fuller-Tyszkiewicz M. Romantic relationship quality and functioning for individuals with clinical and sub-clinical social anxiety: a scoping review. J Ment Health 2022; 32:670-698. [PMID: 35786177 DOI: 10.1080/09638237.2022.2091755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is associated with pervasive functional impairments and chronicity. Romantic relationship functioning and quality for individuals with SAD has been previously explored but existing studies have not been synthesised. AIMS This scoping review charted existing literature regarding the quality and functioning of romantic relationships for people with SAD and high sub-clinical social anxiety (SA). METHODS The review used a scoping approach to explore the current evidence base relating to SA, romantic relationship quality and functioning. Articles published in English after 1980 that reported either clinical or high sub-clinical SA were eligible. Double screening, data extraction, quality assessment, and thematic analysis of studies was conducted. RESULTS 50 studies from 46 articles were identified, involving a range of community, college, adolescent, and clinical samples. Thematic analysis identified four themes; Relationship Quality, Satisfaction and Commitment; Communication and Self-Disclosure; Conflict, Social Support and Trust; Intimacy, Closeness and Sexual Satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS The review highlights that evidence relating to romantic relationship functioning for individuals with SAD and high sub-clinical SA is heterogeneous, with relationship initiation in particular relatively under-explored. Further research is required to elucidate key constructs and interpersonal processes related to relationship functioning, and to inform treatment approaches with this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kit Casey
- Faculty of Health, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia
| | - Ross King
- Faculty of Health, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia
| | - Jennifer Banner
- Faculty of Health, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia
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5
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Schwartz EK, Le TP, Cohen AS. Sharing positive events: Ecological momentary assessment of emotion regulation via social capitalization in schizotypy. Psychiatry Res 2022; 308:114377. [PMID: 35021121 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Emotional deficits are prominent in schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology and linked with poorer outcomes. Schizotypy, an underlying personality organization that putatively confers vulnerability to developing schizophrenia, has been associated with increased negative affect, decreased positive affect, and some difficulty with emotion regulation. This study explored the role of social capitalization, the upregulation of positive emotion when positive life events are shared with others, in schizotypy. Social capitalization is relevant for schizotypy given its association with social functioning and social motivation abnormalities. Using mobile assessment methods, a sample of college students (N=73) completed daily surveys via a mobile application two times per day for seven days and made daily ratings of mood and answered questions regarding any capitalization attempt for a positive event. Results indicated that higher schizotypy and not sharing an event were independently associated with lower happiness and increased sadness and anxiety. When an event was shared, lower schizotypy and supportive/enthusiastic response perception were independently associated with increased happiness. No significant interactions were observed between schizotypy and social capitalization variables. Future research would benefit from exploring the role that other common schizotypy concomitants, e.g., social anxiety or social disconnection, play in social capitalization and the extent this is helped or hindered via mass personal technological mediums.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elana K Schwartz
- Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System/University of California, 3350 La Jolla Village Drive, Building 13, San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States.
| | - Thanh P Le
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Alex S Cohen
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States; Center for Computation and Technology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
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6
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Barber KC, Michaelis MAM, Moscovitch DA. Social Anxiety and the Generation of Positivity During Dyadic Interaction: Curiosity and Authenticity Are the Keys to Success. Behav Ther 2021; 52:1418-1432. [PMID: 34656196 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2021.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
What drives positive affective and interpersonal experiences during social interaction? Undergraduates with high (n = 63) or low (n = 56) trait social anxiety (SA) were paired with unfamiliar low SA partners in a 45-minute conversation task. Throughout the task, participants and their conversation partners completed measures of affiliative goals, affect, curiosity, authenticity, and attentional focus. Both affective and interpersonal outcomes were assessed. Dyadic analyses revealed that participants' affiliative goals during the social interaction predicted positive outcomes for both themselves and their partners, although the link between affiliative goals and positive affect was weaker for participants with high SA. Mediation analyses demonstrated that adopting affiliative goals may promote more positive outcomes by increasing participants' curiosity and felt authenticity. Taken together, results illuminate the pathways through which people with varying levels of trait SA may derive interpersonally generated positive affect and positive social outcomes, with implications for clinical theory and practice.
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7
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Paakkanen MA, Martela F, Pessi AB. Responding to Positive Emotions at Work - The Four Steps and Potential Benefits of a Validating Response to Coworkers' Positive Experiences. Front Psychol 2021; 12:668160. [PMID: 34707528 PMCID: PMC8542759 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to capitalize on positive emotions at work and build high-quality interpersonal relationships and psychological safety, it is important that coworkers respond to each other’s positive emotions in a constructive and validating way. However, despite the importance of symmetrical emotion regulation outcomes, organizational research has largely overlooked how an employee can positively respond to coworkers’ positive emotions. Existing research has concentrated almost exclusively on negative ways of responding, with a particular focus on envy. This article develops a theoretical model of employees’ positive responses to coworkers’ positive emotional experiences, introduced here as a validating response. We identify four steps – noticing, sensemaking, feeling, and acting – and the key mechanisms within each step that enable a responder to react in a validating way. We connect the validating response to important potential individual and organizational outcomes. These outcomes include improved relationship quality and trust, as well as increased positivity and well-being that can result in enhanced learning behavior and collaboration. This article also discusses the connection between a validating response and compassion. We identify them both as parallel affirmative processes that acknowledge a coworker’s emotions, with the former being a response to positive emotion while the latter is a response to negative emotion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Frank Martela
- Industrial Engineering and Management, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Anne B Pessi
- Theology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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8
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Griffith JM, Hankin BL. Affective Benefits of Parental Engagement with Adolescent Positive Daily Life Experiences. J Youth Adolesc 2021; 50:2036-2051. [PMID: 34331661 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-021-01484-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Positive affect and positive parent-adolescent relationships have been found to reinforce one another across youth development in a pattern of an "upward spiral," yet little is known regarding processes facilitating such "upward spirals" of social and emotional wellbeing among parent-adolescent dyads. This study addressed this gap by examining interpersonal capitalization, or the process of sharing positive news with others, as one candidate interpersonal process contributing to increases in both parent and adolescent experiences of positive affect in naturalistic settings. Participants included 146 adolescents (52.1% girls; ages 10-14; M[SD] = 12.71[0.86]) and a participating caregiver (N = 139; 78.7% mothers; ages 33-58; M[SD] = 44.11[5.08]) who completed a dyadic experience sampling method procedure assessing both parent and adolescent momentary affect and patterns of engagement in interpersonal capitalization in daily life settings (31 surveys across 9 days). Multilevel models indicated that adolescent positive affect increased following instances of interpersonal capitalization, and increases in positive affect were specific to high-arousal positive emotions (e.g., excited, energetic) relative to low-arousal positive emotions (e.g., calm, relaxed). Parental high-arousal positive affect also increased following instances in which they provided validating, enthusiastic responses to their children's capitalization attempts. The results of the present study indicate that interpersonal capitalization may be one mechanism facilitating "upward spirals" of positive affect for both parents and adolescents, with implications for health and wellbeing across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianne M Griffith
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 E. Daniel St., Champaign, IL, 61820, USA.
| | - Benjamin L Hankin
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 E. Daniel St., Champaign, IL, 61820, USA
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9
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Chan T, Reese ZA, Ybarra O. Better to brag: Underestimating the risks of avoiding positive self-disclosures in close relationships. J Pers 2021; 89:1044-1061. [PMID: 33813732 DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Capitalization, or disclosing positive news in close relationships, is interpersonally and intrapersonally beneficial and expected by relational partners. Why do some individuals avoid capitalizing? How do close relational partners react when they later discover that positive news was not directly disclosed to them? METHOD We conducted nine correlational and experimental studies using vignettes and recalled events (N = 2,177). RESULTS We find that individuals who are concerned about being seen as braggarts tend to avoid capitalizing with their close relationships even when it is likely their partner would ultimately learn of the news. Yet this concern may be relatively unwarranted and these individuals show a forecasting error: They overestimate how negatively their partner would react to disclosure and predict that their partner would react more positively if they discovered the news through external means. However,they neglect to predict that partners who later learn of the news and realize they were not disclosed toward in fact feel devalued. We discuss how this concern with bragging is linked to decreased extraversion, perspective taking, and empathy. CONCLUSIONS Uniquely in close relationships, being concerned about bragging may elicit negative relational outcomes, by hindering the positive self-disclosures that one's partners expect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd Chan
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Zachary A Reese
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Oscar Ybarra
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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10
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Kaczmarek LD, Kelso KC, Behnke M, Kashdan TB, Dziekan M, Matuła E, Kosakowski M, Enko J, Guzik P. Give and take: The role of reciprocity in capitalization. THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2021.1885054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerry C. Kelso
- George Mason University, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Fairfax, United States
| | - Maciej Behnke
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, Adam Mickiewicz University
| | - Todd B. Kashdan
- George Mason University, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Fairfax, United States
| | - Martyna Dziekan
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, Adam Mickiewicz University
| | - Ewelina Matuła
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, Adam Mickiewicz University
| | - Michał Kosakowski
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, Adam Mickiewicz University
| | - Jolanta Enko
- Department of Psychology and Law, SWPS University in Poznań, Poznan, Poland
| | - Przemysław Guzik
- Poznan University of Medical Science,Faculty of Medicine II, Poznan, Poland
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11
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Kanter JW, Kuczynski AM, Manbeck KE, Corey MD, Wallace EC. An integrative contextual behavioral model of intimate relations. JOURNAL OF CONTEXTUAL BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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12
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Lenton-Brym AP, Monson CM, Antony MM. Responses to perceived intimate partner rejection among individuals with social anxiety disorder and healthy controls. J Anxiety Disord 2020; 75:102281. [PMID: 32777600 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) demonstrate impaired functioning in intimate relationships, yet little is known about how socially anxious individuals respond to perceived intimate partner rejection. In the present study, individuals with SAD (n = 30) and healthy controls (HCs; n = 33) who were involved in current intimate relationships completed daily diaries each evening for 14 days. Daily diaries assessed the extent to which participants experienced feelings of rejection in their intimate relationships, as well as the extent to which they responded to feelings of rejection by using behaviors characterized by withdrawal ("withdrawal" processes) versus efforts to reaffiliate with their partners ("approach" processes). Results revealed that overall, individuals with SAD exhibited greater use of withdrawal-focused processes, whereas HC participants exhibited greater use of approach-focused processes. However, on days following intimate partner rejection, only individuals with SAD restricted their use of withdrawal-focused processes. These findings provide insight into the nature of rejection concerns and responses to rejection among individuals with SAD as compared with HC participants.
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13
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Hudd T, Moscovitch DA. Coping with social wounds: How social pain and social anxiety influence access to social rewards. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2020; 68:101572. [PMID: 32315823 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Prior studies have shown that people display signs of increased social approach motivation and affiliative behaviour in response to social exclusion. This response is considered an adaptive strategy that serves to repair damage to social networks and increase access to mood-enhancing social rewards. However, heightened trait social anxiety (SA) has been linked to decreased approach motivation and responsiveness to social rewards. In the current preliminary experimental study, we tested whether trait SA inhibits the expected increase in social approach following the pain of exclusion. We then tested whether diminished social approach is associated with reduced positive affect. METHODS Participants played a game of Cyberball and were randomly assigned to receive significantly fewer passes (exclusion condition) or an equal number of passes (control condition) as other players. Subsequently, participants were given the opportunity to engage in an online social interaction activity with avatars they believed were other participants. RESULTS Analyses revealed that the exclusion condition led to greater social pain than the control condition. Across conditions, greater social pain was associated with higher levels of approach motivation in anticipation of the social interaction activity, but only for individuals with lower levels of trait SA. Finally, when controlling for levels of trait SA, social pain was associated with positive affect following the social interaction activity, but only for individuals with higher levels of approach motivation. LIMITATIONS Participants consisted predominantly of female undergraduates, limiting generalizability of these data. As well, hypotheses were supported for the measure of approach motivation but not the measure of approach behaviour. Finally, this study was not powered to enable moderated mediation analyses, which would have provided the most direct test of the hypothesized model. CONCLUSIONS Heightened approach motivation in the face of social pain may facilitate increased positive affect. However, higher levels of trait SA dampen approach motivation. Future well-powered studies should use moderated mediation analyses to test the hypothesized model more parsimoniously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor Hudd
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Mental Health Research and Treatment, University of Waterloo, Canada.
| | - David A Moscovitch
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Mental Health Research and Treatment, University of Waterloo, Canada
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14
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Hur J, DeYoung KA, Islam S, Anderson AS, Barstead MG, Shackman AJ. Social context and the real-world consequences of social anxiety. Psychol Med 2020; 50:1989-2000. [PMID: 31423954 PMCID: PMC7028452 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291719002022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Social anxiety lies on a continuum, and young adults with elevated symptoms are at risk for developing a range of psychiatric disorders. Yet relatively little is known about the factors that govern the hour-by-hour experience and expression of social anxiety in the real world. METHODS Here we used smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to intensively sample emotional experience across different social contexts in the daily lives of 228 young adults selectively recruited to represent a broad spectrum of social anxiety symptoms. RESULTS Leveraging data from over 11 000 real-world assessments, our results highlight the central role of close friends, family members, and romantic partners. The presence of such close companions was associated with enhanced mood, yet socially anxious individuals had fewer confidants and spent less time with the close companions that they do have. Although higher levels of social anxiety were associated with a general worsening of mood, socially anxious individuals appear to derive larger benefits - lower levels of negative affect, anxiety, and depression - from their close companions. In contrast, variation in social anxiety was unrelated to the amount of time spent with strangers, co-workers, and acquaintances; and we uncovered no evidence of emotional hypersensitivity to these less-familiar individuals. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide a framework for understanding the deleterious consequences of social anxiety in emerging adulthood and set the stage for developing improved intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juyoen Hur
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
| | - Kathryn A. DeYoung
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
- Department of Family Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
- Department of Center for Healthy Families, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
| | - Samiha Islam
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
| | - Allegra S. Anderson
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240 USA
| | - Matthew G. Barstead
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
USA
| | - Alexander J. Shackman
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
- Department of Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
USA
- Department of Maryland Neuroimaging Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
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15
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Morrison AS, Mateen MA, Brozovich FA, Zaki J, Goldin PR, Heimberg RG, Gross JJ. Changes in Empathy Mediate the Effects of Cognitive-Behavioral Group Therapy but Not Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Social Anxiety Disorder. Behav Ther 2019; 50:1098-1111. [PMID: 31735245 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2019.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Social anxiety disorder (SAD) has been shown to be associated with difficulty in the ability to vicariously share others' positive emotions (positive affective empathy). Mixed evidence also suggests potentially impaired recognition of the positive and negative emotions of others (cognitive empathy) and impaired or enhanced sharing of the negative emotions of others (negative affective empathy). Therefore, we examined whether two efficacious treatments for SAD, cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBGT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), improve empathy in SAD relative to a wait-list condition and whether improvements in empathy mediate improvements in social anxiety. In the context of a randomized controlled trial, participants with SAD completed an empathy task at baseline, posttreatment/wait-list (N = 81), and 1-year follow-up (N = 37). Relative to both MBSR and wait-list, CBGT resulted in significant improvements in positive affective empathy. CBGT-related changes in positive affective empathy also mediated improvements in social anxiety at both posttreatment/wait-list and at 1-year follow-up. Other indices of empathy did not change differentially across the three conditions. Therefore, one way in which CBGT may specifically confer benefits to individuals with SAD is through increasing their ability or willingness to share in the positive emotions of others.
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16
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Fredrick JW, Parsons EM, Sarfan LD, Dreyer-Oren S, Luebbe AM. Examining the Relation Between Adolescent Social Anxiety and Positive Affect Regulation: Self-Report vs. Observation. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2019; 50:764-775. [PMID: 30835018 DOI: 10.1007/s10578-019-00881-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Social anxiety symptomatology is associated with disruptions in positive affect, though no study has examined deficits in responses to positive affect related to adolescent social anxiety symptoms. The present study tested whether adolescents' self-reported and observed social anxiety symptoms were uniquely associated with specific responses to positive affect. Moreover, we examined whether adolescent gender moderated these relations. Ninety adolescents (ages 11 to 18, Mage = 14.26, SD = 2.03; girls = 62%; white = 79%) completed self-report measures, participated in a social stressor task, and engaged in two positively-valenced interaction tasks with their female caregivers. Adolescent self-reported social anxiety symptoms were not uniquely associated with responses to positive affect. However, observed social anxiety symptoms were uniquely related to greater self-reported inhibiting positive affect responses and fewer observed positive affect maximizing behaviors. These findings highlight the need to examine self-reported and observed social anxiety symptoms in understanding associated disruptions in positive affect regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W Fredrick
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, 90 N. Patterson Avenue, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - E Marie Parsons
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, 90 N. Patterson Avenue, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA
| | - Laurel D Sarfan
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, 90 N. Patterson Avenue, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA
| | - Sarah Dreyer-Oren
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, 90 N. Patterson Avenue, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA
| | - Aaron M Luebbe
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, 90 N. Patterson Avenue, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA
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Pagani AF, Parise M, Donato S, Gable SL, Schoebi D. If You Shared My Happiness, You Are Part of Me: Capitalization and the Experience of Couple Identity. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2019; 46:258-269. [PMID: 31179894 DOI: 10.1177/0146167219854449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The way in which individuals react to a partner's disclosure of positive news (capitalization response) is associated with relational well-being. Two studies analyzed the role of couple identity in explaining the association between perceived capitalization responses and relationship quality. A daily diary study (n = 90 couples) revealed that on days people perceived their partners' responses as active-constructive, they reported higher levels of couple identity. A longitudinal two-wave study (n = 169 couples) showed that couple identity mediated the link between active-constructive (for both women and men) and passive-destructive responses (only for men) and relationship quality. Overall, our findings suggest that the experience of the partner's involvement and support in good times contribute to a sense of couple identity, which over the long turn, is associated with partners' relational well-being.
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Dryman MT, Heimberg RG. Emotion regulation in social anxiety and depression: a systematic review of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. Clin Psychol Rev 2018; 65:17-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Markarian SA, Gildner DJ, Pickett SM, Warnke AS. Morningness-eveningness and social anxiety symptoms: the influence of depression symptoms on the indirect effect through punishment sensitivity and experiential avoidance. Chronobiol Int 2018; 36:214-224. [PMID: 30311810 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2018.1529679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Social anxiety has recently been linked to morningness-eveningness; however, the psychological mechanisms underlying this relationship are not well known. As such, the purpose of the current study is to propose a model by which morningness-eveningness is related to social anxiety symptoms through punishment sensitivity and experiential avoidance within an adult American, community sample recruited via Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). It was hypothesized that experiential avoidance and punishment sensitivity would be associated with increased social anxiety symptoms and that morningness-eveningness would be negatively related to social anxiety symptoms. Furthermore, eveningness was hypothesized to be associated with increased punishment sensitivity and in turn, greater experiential avoidance. Lastly, the relationship between morningness-eveningness and social anxiety was hypothesized to be mediated by punishment sensitivity among the group with high depression levels, but not among the group with lesser depression symptoms. The results indicated that eveningness was related to social anxiety symptoms through experiential avoidance, and that depression symptoms influenced the relationship between morningness-eveningness and punishment sensitivity such that, in those high in depression symptoms, there was a significant association between eveningness and punishment sensitivity, but not among those with lower depression levels. The study findings build upon existing chronobiological research and addresses inconsistencies in previous literature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel J Gildner
- a Department of Psychology , Oakland University , Rochester , USA
| | - Scott M Pickett
- a Department of Psychology , Oakland University , Rochester , USA.,b Department of Behavioral Sciences and Social Medicine , Florida State University, College of Medicine
| | - Andrew S Warnke
- a Department of Psychology , Oakland University , Rochester , USA
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Zahavi T, Bar-Kalifa E, Sened H, Rafaeli E. Partners' Support During Good Times: Associations With Fears of Positive and Negative Evaluation. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2018.37.8.559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Capitalization interactions within romantic couples, in which they share positive events with each other, are significantly tied to their satisfaction and overall wellbeing. Recent work suggests that social anxiety is negatively associated with beneficial capitalization interactions (i.e., making capitalization bids and responding with active and constructive responses). To further investigate this understanding, we offer a deeper and differentiating look at two core components of social anxiety: fears of positive and negative evaluation. In addition, we offer an innovative look at the varying self-disclosures of capitalization recipients, by using a novel index—Relevant Talking Time (RTT) which examines the duration of relevantly disclosing and discussing one's own good event. We reasoned that the two types of evaluative fears might have different connections to capitalization processes, considering provision, receipt, and self-disclosure. Our findings (N = 74; 37 community couples in a lab-videotaped‘ interaction) suggest that high fear of positive evaluation is associated with poorer provision of active-constructive capitalization, whereas high fear of negative evaluation is associated with a reduced disclosers' RTT. In addition, our results interestingly demonstrate that disclosers' RTT is tied to their partners' anxiety characteristics as well. We discuss the possible implications and explanations of our findings.
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Fredrick JW, Mancini KJ, Luebbe AM. Maternal enhancing responses to adolescents’ positive affect: Associations with adolescents’ positive affect regulation and depression. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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22
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Arpin SN, Mohr CD. Transient Loneliness and the Perceived Provision and Receipt of Capitalization Support Within Event-Disclosure Interactions. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2018; 45:240-253. [PMID: 30024294 DOI: 10.1177/0146167218783193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Research affirms that loneliness is a distressing experience with social-perceptual and behavioral consequences. Yet, little is known about consequences of transient loneliness, particularly within social interactions. The current study builds on reaffiliation motive and evolutionary models of state loneliness to investigate the effects of experimentally manipulated loneliness on individual and interaction partner perceptions during an event-sharing interaction, within 97 female dyads. Actor-partner interdependence mediation analyses revealed indirect effects for induction group (high vs. low loneliness) on positive affect, enjoyment, responsiveness, and partner positive affect, via induced state loneliness. Furthermore, state loneliness influenced actor and partner provision of responsiveness, via perceived responsiveness. Results reveal interpersonal consequences of transient loneliness, offering preliminary insight into conditions through which state perceptions of isolation may interfere with engagement in positive social interactions. Furthermore, implications for previously theorized evolutionary models of state loneliness and the reaffiliation motive are discussed.
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Peters BJ, Reis HT, Gable SL. Making the good even better: A review and theoretical model of interpersonal capitalization. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Reduced reciprocal giving in social anxiety - Evidence from the Trust Game. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2018; 59:12-18. [PMID: 29121505 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Social anxiety is known to impair interpersonal relationships. These impairments are thought to partly arise from difficulties to engage in affiliative interactions with others, such as sharing favors or reciprocating prosocial acts. Here, we examined whether individuals high compared to low in social anxiety differ in giving towards strangers in an economic game paradigm. METHODS One hundred and twenty seven non-clinical participants who had been pre-screened to be either particularly high or low in social anxiety played an incentivized Trust Game to assess trustful and reciprocal giving towards strangers in addition to providing information on real life interpersonal functioning (perceived social support and attachment style). RESULTS We found that reciprocal, but not trustful giving, was significantly decreased among highly socially anxious individuals. Both social anxiety and reciprocal giving furthermore showed significant associations with self-reported real life interpersonal functioning. LIMITATIONS Participants played the Trust Game with the strategy method; results need replication with a clinical sample. CONCLUSIONS Individuals high in social anxiety showed reduced reciprocal, but intact trustful giving, pointing to a constraint in responsiveness. The research may contribute to the development of new treatment and prevention programs to reduce the interpersonal impairments in socially anxious individuals.
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Cohen JN, Taylor Dryman M, Morrison AS, Gilbert KE, Heimberg RG, Gruber J. Positive and Negative Affect as Links Between Social Anxiety and Depression: Predicting Concurrent and Prospective Mood Symptoms in Unipolar and Bipolar Mood Disorders. Behav Ther 2017; 48:820-833. [PMID: 29029678 PMCID: PMC6028186 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The co-occurrence of social anxiety and depression is associated with increased functional impairment and a more severe course of illness. Social anxiety disorder is unique among the anxiety disorders in sharing an affective profile with depression, characterized by low levels of positive affect (PA) and high levels of negative affect (NA). Yet it remains unclear how this shared affective profile contributes to the covariation of social anxiety and depressive symptoms. We examined whether self-reported PA and NA accounted for unique variance in the association between social anxiety and depressive symptoms across three groups (individuals with remitted bipolar disorder, type I [BD; n = 32], individuals with remitted major depressive disorder [MDD; n = 31], and nonpsychiatric controls [n = 30]) at baseline and follow-ups of 6 and 12 months. Low levels of PA, but not NA, accounted for unique variance in both concurrent and prospective associations between social anxiety and depression in the BD group; in contrast, high levels of NA, but not PA, accounted for unique variance in concurrent and prospective associations between social anxiety and depression in the MDD group. Limitations include that social anxiety and PA/NA were assessed concurrently and all measurement was self-report. Few individuals with MDD/BD met current diagnostic criteria for social anxiety disorder. There was some attrition at follow-up assessments. Results suggest that affective mechanisms may contribute to the high rates of co-occurrence of social anxiety and depression in both MDD and BD. Implications of the differential role of PA and NA in the relationship between social anxiety and depression in MDD and BD and considerations for treatment are discussed.
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Horn AB, Milek A, Brauner A, Maercker A. Less Positive Sharing in the Couple Mediates the Link Between Depression and Relationship Quality: A Dyadic Longitudinal Study. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2017.36.7.535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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27
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Porter E, Chambless DL. Social Anxiety and Social Support in Romantic Relationships. Behav Ther 2017; 48:335-348. [PMID: 28390497 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the quality of socially anxious individuals' romantic relationships. In the present study, we examine associations between social anxiety and social support in such relationships. In Study 1, we collected self-report data on social anxiety symptoms and received, provided, and perceived social support from 343 undergraduates and their romantic partners. One year later couples were contacted to determine whether they were still in this relationship. Results indicated that men's social anxiety at Time 1 predicted higher rates of breakup at Time 2. Men's and women's perceived support, as well as men's provided support, were also significantly predictive of breakup. Social anxiety did not interact with any of the support variables to predict breakup. In Study 2, a subset of undergraduate couples with a partner high (n=27) or low (n=27) in social anxiety completed two 10-minute, lab-based, video-recorded social support tasks. Both partners rated their received or provided social support following the interaction, and trained observers also coded for support behaviors. Results showed that socially anxious individuals received less support from their partners during the interaction according to participant but not observer report. High and lower social anxiety couples did not differ in terms of the target's provision of support. Taken together, results suggest that social anxiety is associated with difficulties even in the context of established romantic relationships. Clinical implications are discussed.
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Morrison AS, Mateen MA, Brozovich FA, Zaki J, Goldin PR, Heimberg RG, Gross JJ. Empathy for positive and negative emotions in social anxiety disorder. Behav Res Ther 2016; 87:232-242. [PMID: 27816799 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2016.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is associated with elevated negative and diminished positive affective experience. However, little is known about the way in which individuals with SAD perceive and respond emotionally to the naturally-unfolding negative and positive emotions of others, that is, cognitive empathy and affective empathy, respectively. In the present study, participants with generalized SAD (n = 32) and demographically-matched healthy controls (HCs; n = 32) completed a behavioral empathy task. Cognitive empathy was indexed by the correlation between targets' and participants' continuous ratings of targets' emotions, whereas affective empathy was indexed by the correlation between targets' and participants' continuous self-ratings of emotion. Individuals with SAD differed from HCs only in positive affective empathy: they were less able to vicariously share others' positive emotions. Mediation analyses revealed that poor emotional clarity and negative interpersonal perceptions among those with SAD might account for this finding. Future research using experimental methodology is needed to examine whether this finding represents an inability or unwillingness to share positive affect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda S Morrison
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Maria A Mateen
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Faith A Brozovich
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jamil Zaki
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Philippe R Goldin
- Betty Irene Moore School of Nursing, University of California, Davis Health System, Education Building, 4610 X Street, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Richard G Heimberg
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Weiss Hall 420, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - James J Gross
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Bar-Kalifa E, Hen-Weissberg A, Rafaeli E. Perceived Partner Responsiveness Mediates the Association Between Social Anxiety and Relationship Satisfaction in Committed Couples. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2015.34.7.587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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30
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Hershenberg R, Davila J, Leong SH. Depressive Symptoms in Women and the Preference and Emotional Benefits of Discussing Positive Life Events. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2014.33.9.767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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31
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Monfort SS, Kaczmarek LD, Kashdan TB, Drążkowski D, Kosakowski M, Guzik P, Krauze T, Gracanin A. Capitalizing on the success of romantic partners: A laboratory investigation on subjective, facial, and physiological emotional processing. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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32
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Kleiman EM, Kashdan TB, Monfort SS, Machell KA, Goodman FR. Perceived responsiveness during an initial social interaction with a stranger predicts a positive memory bias one week later. Cogn Emot 2014; 29:332-41. [PMID: 24717048 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2014.905458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Prior research has found that perceiving positive responses from others following self-disclosures enhances social bonds and plays a role in the maintenance of romantic relationships. We sought to extend this effect by exploring perceived responsiveness to good news in the context of initial social interactions with a stranger. In this study, unacquainted college students (n = 106) participated in a 45-minute semi-structured social interaction, and information on their emotions and behaviours was collected immediately after and one week later. We found that the receipt of supportive reactions to self-disclosure attempts during the social interaction was associated with immediate positivity and a more positive memory of the event (remembered enjoyment and positive emotions) one week later. This effect could not be attributed to how positively the event was experienced immediately afterwards, suggesting that perceived responsiveness during an initial social interaction facilitates a positive memory bias. These results offer new insights into how friendships might develop and be maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan M Kleiman
- a Department of Psychology , George Mason University , Fairfax , VA , USA
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