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Banks P, Funkhouser EM, Macias AM, Lovett B, Meador S, Hatch A, Garraffo HM, Cartwright KC, Kasson MT, Marek PE, Jones TH, Mevers E. The Chemistry of the Defensive Secretions of Three Species of Millipedes in the Genus Brachycybe. J Chem Ecol 2024:10.1007/s10886-024-01518-6. [PMID: 38853234 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-024-01518-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Millipedes have long been known to produce a diverse array of chemical defense agents that deter predation. These compounds, or their precursors, are stored in high concentration within glands (ozadenes) and are released upon disturbance. The subterclass Colobognatha contains four orders of millipedes, all of which are known to produce terpenoid alkaloids-spare the Siphonophorida that produce terpenes. Although these compounds represent some of the most structurally-intriguing millipede-derived natural products, they are the least studied class of millipede defensive secretions. Here, we describe the chemistry of millipede defensive secretions from three species of Brachycybe: Brachycybe producta, Brachycybe petasata, and Brachycybe rosea. Chemical investigations using mass spectrometry-based metabolomics, chemical synthesis, and 2D NMR led to the identification of five alkaloids, three of which are new to the literature. All identified compounds are monoterpene alkaloids with the new compounds representing indolizidine (i.e. hydrogosodesmine) and quinolizidine alkaloids (i.e. homogosodesmine and homo-hydrogosodesmine). The chemical diversity of these compounds tracks the known species phylogeny of this genus, rather than the geographical proximity of the species. The indolizidines and quinolizidines are produced by non-sympatric sister species, B. producta and B. petasata, while deoxybuzonamine is produced by another set of non-sympatric sister species, B. rosea and Brachycybe lecontii. The fidelity between the chemical diversity and phylogeny strongly suggests that millipedes generate these complex defensive agents de novo and begins to provide insights into the evolution of their biochemical pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige Banks
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Emma M Funkhouser
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Angie M Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Brian Lovett
- Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research Unit, USDA ARS, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Shelby Meador
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Arden Hatch
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - H Martin Garraffo
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Kaitie C Cartwright
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Matt T Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Paul E Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Emily Mevers
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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Mitić BM, Jovanović VB, Todosijević MM, Eckhard M, Vasiljević LC, Tešević VV, Vujisić LV. Chemical defence of a centipede (Clinopodes flavidus). JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 155:104649. [PMID: 38754699 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2024.104649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Chemical substances are of utmost importance for the biotic interactions between animals and their predators/parasites; many of these semiochemicals are emitted for defence purposes. One of the most deterrent and toxic biogenic substances we know of is hydrogen cyanide, which can be stored by certain insects, millipedes, centipedes and arachnids in the form of stable and less volatile molecules. The aim of this study was to analyse the biology and chemistry of such a defence mechanism in a geophilomorph centipede (Chilopoda). The cyanogenic secretion of Clinopodes flavidus is discharged from the ventral glands, whose glandular units are located in the space between the cuticle and the trunk muscles and do not extend deep into the segment. In addition to hydrogen cyanide, the ventral secretion contains 2-methylpentanoic acid, benzaldehyde, benzoyl cyanide, 2-methyl branched C-9 carboxylic acid (tentatively identified as 2-methyloctanoic acid), methyl 2-phenylacetate, benzoic acid and mandelonitrile as well as four major proteins with a molecular weight of 150, 66.2, 59 and 55 kDa. The correlation between the presence of ventral glands and guarding with the female's ventral side facing away from the eggs and young indicates a functional link between these two traits. We hope that the specificity of the chemical composition of the ventral secretion could serve as a criterion for chemotaxonomy and that the analysis of more species will help to clarify the phylogenetic relationships within the Geophilomorpha.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojan M Mitić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; Faculty of Technology Zvornik, University of East Sarajevo, Karakaj 34a, 75400 Zvornik, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
| | - Vesna B Jovanović
- University of Belgrade - Faculty of Chemistry, Studentski Trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marina M Todosijević
- University of Belgrade - Faculty of Chemistry, Studentski Trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Margret Eckhard
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstrasse 17, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ljubica C Vasiljević
- Faculty of Technology Zvornik, University of East Sarajevo, Karakaj 34a, 75400 Zvornik, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Vele V Tešević
- University of Belgrade - Faculty of Chemistry, Studentski Trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ljubodrag V Vujisić
- University of Belgrade - Faculty of Chemistry, Studentski Trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
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3
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Liu M, Li S. Nitrile biosynthesis in nature: how and why? Nat Prod Rep 2024; 41:649-671. [PMID: 38193577 DOI: 10.1039/d3np00028a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Covering: up to the end of 2023Natural nitriles comprise a small set of secondary metabolites which however show intriguing chemical and functional diversity. Various patterns of nitrile biosynthesis can be seen in animals, plants, and microorganisms with the characteristics of both evolutionary divergence and convergence. These specialized compounds play important roles in nitrogen metabolism, chemical defense against herbivores, predators and pathogens, and inter- and/or intraspecies communications. Here we review the naturally occurring nitrile-forming pathways from a biochemical perspective and discuss the biological and ecological functions conferred by diversified nitrile biosyntheses in different organisms. Elucidation of the mechanisms and evolutionary trajectories of nitrile biosynthesis underpins better understandings of nitrile-related biology, chemistry, and ecology and will ultimately benefit the development of desirable nitrile-forming biocatalysts for practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China.
| | - Shengying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China.
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China
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Yamaguchi T. Exploration and utilization of novel aldoxime, nitrile, and nitro compounds metabolizing enzymes from plants and arthropods. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2024; 88:138-146. [PMID: 38017623 DOI: 10.1093/bbb/zbad168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Aldoxime (R1R2C=NOH) and nitrile (R-C≡N) are nitrogen-containing compounds that are found in species representing all kingdoms of life. The enzymes discovered from the microbial "aldoxime-nitrile" pathway (aldoxime dehydratase, nitrile hydratase, amidase, and nitrilase) have been thoroughly studied because of their industrial importance. Although plants utilize cytochrome P450 monooxygenases to produce aldoxime and nitrile, many biosynthetic pathways are yet to be studied. Cyanogenic millipedes accumulate various nitrile compounds, such as mandelonitrile. However, no such aldoxime- and nitrile-metabolizing enzymes have been identified in millipedes. Here, I review the exploration of novel enzymes from plants and millipedes with characteristics distinct from those of microbial enzymes, the catalysis of industrially useful reactions, and applications of these enzymes for nitrile compound production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Yamaguchi
- Biotechnology Research Center and Department of Biotechnology, Toyama Prefectural University , Imizu, Toyama, Japan
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Zha S, Wang Z, Li X, Chen Z, Wang J, Li H, Cai W, Tian L. Microstructural Adaptation for Prey Manipulation in the Millipede Assassin Bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Ectrichodiinae). BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1299. [PMID: 37887009 PMCID: PMC10604205 DOI: 10.3390/biology12101299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Species in Ectrichodiinae are known for their prey specialization on millipedes. However, knowledge of the morphological adaptations to this unique feeding habit was limited. In the current study, we examined the microstructures of the antennae, mouthparts, and legs of four millipede feeding ectrichodiines, Ectrychotes andreae (Thunberg, 1888), Haematoloecha limbata Miller, 1953, Labidocoris pectoralis (Stål, 1863), and Neozirta eidmanni (Taueber, 1930), and compared them with those of three species of tribelocephalines, a group closely related to Ectrichodiinae. On the antennae, we found four types of antennal sensilla. On the mouthparts, we recognized four types of labial sensilla. Sampled ectrichodiines have distinctly more and denser slightly transverse ridges on the external side of mandibles than tribelocephalines. E. andreae and H. limbata possess numerous small papillae fringed with densely arranged finger-print-like grains on the trochanter and femur; these probably facilitate the immobilization of prey. Overall, our study illustrates, at a microstructural level, the remarkable morphological adaption of prey manipulation in ectrichodiine, and has enhanced our understanding about stenophagy in the family Reduviidae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Zha
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.L.); (Z.C.); (H.L.); (W.C.)
| | - Zhiyao Wang
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.L.); (Z.C.); (H.L.); (W.C.)
| | - Xinyu Li
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.L.); (Z.C.); (H.L.); (W.C.)
- College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Qinghua East Road 35, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zhaoyang Chen
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.L.); (Z.C.); (H.L.); (W.C.)
| | - Jianyun Wang
- Environment and Plant Protection Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China;
| | - Hu Li
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.L.); (Z.C.); (H.L.); (W.C.)
| | - Wanzhi Cai
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.L.); (Z.C.); (H.L.); (W.C.)
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.L.); (Z.C.); (H.L.); (W.C.)
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Petersen C, Krahn A, Leippe M. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and diverse potential invertebrate vectors predominantly interact opportunistically. Front Ecol Evol 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2023.1069056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Some small animals migrate with the help of other, more mobile animals (phoresy) to leave short-lived and resource-poor habitats. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans lives in ephemeral habitats such as compost, but has also been found associated with various potential invertebrate vectors. Little research has been done to determine if C. elegans is directly attracted to these invertebrates. To determine whether C. elegans is attracted to compounds and volatile odorants of invertebrates, we conducted chemotaxis experiments with the isopods Porcellio scaber, Oniscus asellus, and Armadillidium sp. and with Lithobius sp. myriapods, Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies, and Arion sp. slugs as representatives of natural vectors. Because phoresy is an important escape strategy in nature, especially for dauer larvae of C. elegans, we examined the attraction of the natural C. elegans isolate MY2079 in addition to the laboratory-adapted strain N2 at the dauer and L4 stage. We found that DMSO washing solution of Lithobius sp. and the odor of live D. melanogaster attracted C. elegans N2 L4 larvae. Surprisingly, the natural isolate MY2079 was not attracted to any invertebrate during either the dauer or L4 life stages and both C. elegans strains were repelled by various compounds from O. asellus, P. scaber, Armadillidium sp., Lithobius sp., and Arion sp. feces. We hypothesize that this is due to defense chemicals released by the invertebrates. Although compounds from Lithobius sp. and D. melanogaster odorants were mildly attractive, the lack of attraction to most invertebrates suggests a predominantly opportunistic association between C. elegans and invertebrate vectors.
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7
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Jafarpour M, Gorb S, Rajabi H. Double-spiral: a bioinspired pre-programmable compliant joint with multiple degrees of freedom. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220757. [PMID: 36628530 PMCID: PMC9832290 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Geometry and material are two key factors that determine the functionality of mechanical elements under a specific boundary condition. Optimum combinations of these factors fulfil desired mechanical behaviour. By exploring biological systems, we find widespread spiral-shaped mechanical elements with various combinations of geometries and material properties functioning under different boundary conditions and load cases. Although these spirals work towards a wide range of goals, some of them are used as nature's solution to compactify highly extensible prolonged structures. Characterizing the principles underlying the functionality of these structures, here we profited from the coiling-uncoiling behaviour and easy adjustability of logarithmic spirals to design a pre-programmable compliant joint. Using the finite-element method, we developed a simple model of the joint and investigated the influence of design variables on its geometry and mechanical behaviour. Our results show that the design variables give us a great possibility to tune the response of the joint and reach a high level of passive control on its behaviour. Using 3D printing and mechanical testing, we replicated the numerical simulations and illustrated the application of the joint in practice. The simplicity, pre-programmability and predictable response of our double-spiral design suggest that it provides an efficient solution for a wide range of engineering applications, such as articulated robotic systems and modular metamaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Jafarpour
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Kiel 24118, Germany
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Kiel 24118, Germany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK
- Mechanical Intelligence Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER) Centre, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK
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8
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De novo metatranscriptomic exploration of gene function in the millipede holobiont. Sci Rep 2022; 12:16173. [PMID: 36171216 PMCID: PMC9519908 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-19565-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Invertebrate-microbial associations are widespread in the biosphere and are often related to the function of novel genes, fitness advantages, and even speciation events. Despite ~ 13,000 species of millipedes identified across the world, millipedes and their gut microbiota are markedly understudied compared to other arthropods. Exploring the contribution of individual host-associated microbes is often challenging as many are uncultivable. In this study, we conducted metatranscriptomic profiling of different body segments of a millipede at the holobiont level. This is the first reported transcriptome assembly of a tropical millipede Telodeinopus aoutii (Demange, 1971), as well as the first study on any Myriapoda holobiont. High-throughput RNA sequencing revealed that Telodeinopus aoutii contained > 90% of the core Arthropoda genes. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Euryarchaeota represented dominant and functionally active phyla in the millipede gut, among which 97% of Bacteroidetes and 98% of Firmicutes were present exclusively in the hindgut. A total of 37,831 predicted protein-coding genes of millipede holobiont belonged to six enzyme classes. Around 35% of these proteins were produced by microbiota in the hindgut and 21% by the host in the midgut. Our results indicated that although major metabolic pathways operate at the holobiont level, the involvement of some host and microbial genes are mutually exclusive and microbes predominantly contribute to essential amino acid biosynthesis, short-chain fatty acid metabolism, and fermentation.
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Jones TH, Harrison DP, Menegatti C, Mevers E, Knott K, Marek P, Hennen DA, Kasson MT, Macias AM, Lovett B, Saporito RA. Deoxybuzonamine Isomers from the Millipede Brachycybe lecontii (Platydesmida: Andrognathidae). JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:1134-1140. [PMID: 35389651 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Millipedes (Diplopoda) are well known for their toxic or repellent defensive secretions. Here, we describe (6aR,10aS,10bR)-8,8-dimethyldodecahydropyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinoline [trans-anti-trans-deoxybuzonamine (1a)] and (rel-6aR,10aR,10bR)-8,8-dimethyldodecahydropyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinoline [trans-syn-cis-deoxybuzonamine (1b)], two isomers of deoxybuzonamine found in the chemical defense secretions of the millipede Brachycybe lecontii Wood (Colobognatha, Platydesmida, Andrognathidae). The carbon-nitrogen skeleton of these compounds was determined from their MS and GC-FTIR spectra obtained from the MeOH extract of whole millipedes, along with a subsequent selective synthesis. Their structures were established from their 1D (1H, 13C) and 2D NMR (COSY, NOESY, multiplicity-edited HSQC, HSQC-TOCSY, HMBC) spectra. Additionally, computational chemistry (DFT and DP4) was used to identify the relative configurations of 1a and 1b by comparing predicted 13C data to their experimental values, and the absolute configuration of 1a was determined by comparing its experimental specific rotation with that of the computationally calculated value. This is the first report of dodecahydropyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinoline alkaloids from a platydesmidan millipede.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Daniel P Harrison
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Carla Menegatti
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Emily Mevers
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Kenneth Knott
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Paul Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Derek A Hennen
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Matt T Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Angie M Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Brian Lovett
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Ralph A Saporito
- Department of Biology, John Carroll University, University Heights, Ohio 44118, United States
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Abstract
The name “millipede” translates to a thousand feet (from mille “thousand” and pes “foot”). However, no millipede has ever been described with more than 750 legs. We discovered a new record-setting species of millipede with 1,306 legs, Eumillipes persephone, from Western Australia. This diminutive animal (0.95 mm wide, 95.7 mm long) has 330 segments, a cone-shaped head with enormous antennae, and a beak for feeding. A distant relative of the previous record holder, Illacme plenipes from California, it belongs to a different order, the Polyzoniida. Discovered 60 m below ground in a drill hole created for mineral exploration, E. persephone possesses troglomorphic features; it lacks eyes and pigmentation, and it has a greatly elongated body—features that stand in stark contrast to its closest surface-dwelling relatives in Australia and all other members of its order. Using phylogenomics, we found that super-elongation (> 180 segments) evolved repeatedly in the millipede class Diplopoda. The striking morphological similarity between E. persephone and I. plenipes is a result of convergent evolution, probably for locomotion in similar soil habitats. Discovered in the resource-rich Goldfields-Esperance region and threatened by encroaching surface mining, documentation of this species and conservation of its habitat are of critical importance.
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11
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Segura-Ramírez PJ, de Godoy PM, Avino IN, Silva Junior PI. Encrypted antimicrobial peptides from proteins present in the plasma of the millipede Rhinocricus sp. J Proteomics 2021; 242:104239. [PMID: 33894375 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Millipedes are among the most diverse and abundant arthropods in terrestrial environments. However, little is known about their innate immune response against invading pathogenic microorganisms, which is very intriguing considering that the evolutionary success of millipedes is largely due to this complex and primitive defense system, since it allowed them to colonize a wide variety of microhabitats characterized by their high microbial proliferation. Accordingly, the aim of the present work was to determine the presence of antimicrobial peptides in the hemolymph of the millipede Rhinocricus sp. In total, four native peptides with potent antimicrobial activity against different microorganisms, lack of cytotoxicity against Vero cells and lack of hemolytic effects against human erythrocytes were isolated and named RP40-16, RP40-19, RP40-20/1 and RP40-20/2. The analysis with bioinformatics tools suggested that these peptides may be encrypted in large proteins present in the plasma: Hemocyanin and thioester-containing protein. Considering these results, it can be said that millipede hemolymph represents a promising source of molecules with potential for the development of non-conventional antibiotics. Therefore, in order to have a clearer notion of the biotechnological potential and the role of these peptides in the innate immune response of Rhinocricus sp., future studies should focus on elucidating their mechanisms of action, as well as additional biological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula J Segura-Ramírez
- Laboratory for Applied Toxinology (LAT) - Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute (IBu), São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; Post-Graduation Program Interunits in Biotechnology, USP/IBu/IPT, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
| | - Pedro Machado de Godoy
- Laboratory for Applied Toxinology (LAT) - Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute (IBu), São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Ivan N Avino
- Special Laboratory of Cell Cycle (LECC) - Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute (IBu), São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Pedro I Silva Junior
- Laboratory for Applied Toxinology (LAT) - Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute (IBu), São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; Post-Graduation Program Interunits in Biotechnology, USP/IBu/IPT, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
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12
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Initial defensive secretory compounds emitted from the live millipede and the induction of apoptotic cell death. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8222. [PMID: 33859217 PMCID: PMC8050043 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87390-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The initial defensive secretory compounds emitted from a live millipede have not yet been clarified. This study focused on elucidating the initial secretory compounds emitted from a live millipede. Pre-concentration of the defensive secretory volatile organic compounds (VOC) from the live Polidesmida millipedes, Chamberlinius hualienensis and Oxidus gracilis, was performed using a three-stage VOC concentration technique by an on-line GC/MS system. As a result, the monoterpenes derived from the plant metabolite; i.e., α-pinene, α-thujene, β-pinene, 3-carene, β-myrcene, β-phellandrene, γ-terpinene, o,m,p-cymenes, limonene and camphene were first detected as the initial secretory substances. It was elucidated that some plant monoterpenes have a repellent effect and antifungal and antibacterial actions which are used as defensive substances. In addition, this study also confirmed that these monoterpenes induced apoptotic cell death involved in the induction of the caspase 3/7 activity. The millipede feeds on fallen or withered leaves containing the monoterpenes. Thus, the millipede accumulates the plant defensive secretions in the exocrine defense glands of the body somites, which would be used as against predators.
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Medeiros K, Campêlo A, Maia ACD, Filho RF, Do Amaral Ferraz Navarro DM, Chagas A, Bastos M, Jones G, Bezerra B. Wild Blonde Capuchins (Sapajus flavius) Perform Anointing Behaviour Using Toxic Secretions of a Millipede (Spirobolida: Rhinocricidae). J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:1010-1015. [PMID: 32984924 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01215-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Defensive secretions of millipedes are remarkable for containing toxic quinones known to efficiently repell hematophagous arthropods. Here we show that Endangered blonde capuchin monkeys make use of such secretions. We (i) describe the anointing behavior performed by the monkeys (ii) identify the millipede species used in the process (iii) describe the volatile chemical composition of its secretion. The blonde capuchin monkeys selectively searched for millipedes hidden under the ground. We observed three bouts of anointing behavior, performed by 13 individuals of all age classes (from adults to independent infants), both solitarily (1 event) and socially (10 events). The only millipede species used by the monkeys is an undescribed species of the genus Poecilocricus (Spirobolida, Rhinocricidae). The volatile chemical composition of the secretions was predominantly comprised of a mixture of benzoquinones and hydroquinones. The social nature of the behavior and time of the observations (mosquito season), suggest that social bonding and mosquito avoidance is linked to the anointing behavior of the monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Medeiros
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Anielise Campêlo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Artur Campos D Maia
- Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Robério Freire Filho
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | | | - Amazonas Chagas
- Departamento de Biologia e Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil
| | - Monique Bastos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Gareth Jones
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Bruna Bezerra
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil. .,Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235, Cidade Universitária, Recife, PE, 50670-420, Brazil.
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Qu Z, Nong W, So WL, Barton-Owen T, Li Y, Leung TCN, Li C, Baril T, Wong AYP, Swale T, Chan TF, Hayward A, Ngai SM, Hui JHL. Millipede genomes reveal unique adaptations during myriapod evolution. PLoS Biol 2020; 18:e3000636. [PMID: 32991578 PMCID: PMC7523956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The Myriapoda, composed of millipedes and centipedes, is a fascinating but poorly understood branch of life, including species with a highly unusual body plan and a range of unique adaptations to their environment. Here, we sequenced and assembled 2 chromosomal-level genomes of the millipedes Helicorthomorpha holstii (assembly size = 182 Mb; shortest scaffold/contig length needed to cover 50% of the genome [N50] = 18.11 Mb mainly on 8 pseudomolecules) and Trigoniulus corallinus (assembly size = 449 Mb, N50 = 26.78 Mb mainly on 17 pseudomolecules). Unique genomic features, patterns of gene regulation, and defence systems in millipedes, not observed in other arthropods, are revealed. Both repeat content and intron size are major contributors to the observed differences in millipede genome size. Tight Hox and the first loose ecdysozoan ParaHox homeobox clusters are identified, and a myriapod-specific genomic rearrangement including Hox3 is also observed. The Argonaute (AGO) proteins for loading small RNAs are duplicated in both millipedes, but unlike in insects, an AGO duplicate has become a pseudogene. Evidence of post-transcriptional modification in small RNAs—including species-specific microRNA arm switching—providing differential gene regulation is also obtained. Millipedes possesses a unique ozadene defensive gland unlike the venomous forcipules found in centipedes. We identify sets of genes associated with the ozadene that play roles in chemical defence as well as antimicrobial activity. Macro-synteny analyses revealed highly conserved genomic blocks between the 2 millipedes and deuterostomes. Collectively, our analyses of millipede genomes reveal that a series of unique adaptations have occurred in this major lineage of arthropod diversity. The 2 high-quality millipede genomes provided here shed new light on the conserved and lineage-specific features of millipedes and centipedes. These findings demonstrate the importance of the consideration of both centipede and millipede genomes—and in particular the reconstruction of the myriapod ancestral situation—for future research to improve understanding of arthropod evolution, and animal evolutionary genomics more widely. Myriapods were among the first arthropods to invade the land over 400 million years ago, and survive today as the herbivorous millipedes and venomous centipedes. This study describes the genome sequences of two millipedes, Helicorthomorpha holstii and Trigoniulus corallinus, revealing unique adaptations not found in other arthropods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Qu
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Wenyan Nong
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Wai Lok So
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Tom Barton-Owen
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Yiqian Li
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Thomas C. N. Leung
- School of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Chade Li
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Tobias Baril
- Department of Conservation and Ecology, Penryn Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Annette Y. P. Wong
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Thomas Swale
- Dovetail Genomics, Scotts Valley, California, United States of America
| | - Ting-Fung Chan
- School of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Alexander Hayward
- Department of Conservation and Ecology, Penryn Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Sai-Ming Ngai
- School of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Jerome H. L. Hui
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- * E-mail:
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15
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Hassler MF, Harrison DP, Jones TH, Richart CH, Saporito RA. Gosodesmine, a 7-Substituted Hexahydroindolizine from the Millipede Gosodesmus claremontus. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2020; 83:2764-2768. [PMID: 32915571 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Millipedes (Diplopoda) are well known for their toxic or repellent defensive secretions. Here we describe gosodesmine (1), 7-(4-methylpent-3-en-1-yl)-1,2,3,5,8,8a-hexahydroindolizine, a unique alkaloid with some terpene character found in the chemical defense secretions of the millipede Gosodesmus claremontus Chamberlin (Colobognatha, Platydesmida, Andrognathidae). The structure of 1 was suggested by its mass spectra and GC-FTIR spectra and established from its 1H, 13C, and 2D NMR spectra and 1D NOE studies. The 7-substituted indolizidine carbon skeleton of 1 was confirmed by unambiguous synthesis. This is the first report of an alkaloid from a platydesmid millipede and the first report of a 7-substituted indolizidine from an arthropod.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline F Hassler
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Daniel P Harrison
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Casey H Richart
- Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, 1212 Mission Canyon Road, Santa Barbara, California 93105, United States
| | - Ralph A Saporito
- Department of Biology, John Carroll University, University Heights, Ohio 44118, United States
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Biosynthetic origin of benzoquinones in the explosive discharge of the bombardier beetle Brachinus elongatulus. Naturwissenschaften 2020; 107:26. [PMID: 32548793 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-020-01683-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Bombardier beetles are well-known for their remarkable defensive mechanism. Their defensive apparatus consists of two compartments known as the reservoir and the reaction chamber. When challenged, muscles surrounding the reservoir contract sending chemical precursors into the reaction chamber where they mix with enzymes resulting in an explosive discharge of a hot noxious chemical spray containing two major quinones: 1,4-benzoquinone and 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone (toluquinone). Previously, it has been speculated that the biosynthesis of all benzoquinones originates from one core precursor, 1,4-hydroquinone. Careful ligation of the base of the reservoir chamber enabled us to prevent the explosive reaction and sample untransformed reservoir fluid, which showed that it accumulates significant quantities of 1,4-hydroquinone and 2-methyl-1,4-hydroquinone. We investigated the biosynthetic mechanisms leading to quinone formation by injecting or feeding Brachinus elongatulus beetles with stable-isotope-labeled precursors. Chemical analysis of defensive secretion samples obtained from 1,4-hydroquinone-d6-administered beetles demonstrated that it underwent conversion specifically to 1,4-benzoquinone. Analogously, results from m-cresol-d8 injected or fed beetles confirmed that m-cresol is metabolized to 2-methyl-1,4-hydroquinone, which is then oxidized to 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone in the hot spray. Our results refute the previous claim that 1,4-hydroquinone is the precursor of all substituted benzoquinones in bombardier beetles and reveal that they are biosynthetic products of two independent pathways. Most likely, the aforementioned biosynthetic channel of hydroxylation of appropriate phenolic precursors and subsequent oxidation is not restricted to bombardier beetles; it could well be a general pathway that leads to the formation of all congeners of benzoquinones, one of the most widely distributed groups of defensive compounds in arthropods. Graphical abstract.
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17
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HCN emission by a Polydesmid Millipede Detected Remotely by Reactive Adsorption on Gold Nanoparticles Followed by Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry (LDI-MS). J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:455-460. [PMID: 32323125 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01177-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) is a well-known defensive allomone in the chemical arsenal of millipedes in the order Polydesmida. The presence of HCN in the headspace vapor of adult Xystocheir dissecta (Wood, 1867), a common millipede from the San Francisco Bay Area, was traced by laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry (LDI-MS). To accomplish this, the headspace vapor surrounding caged, live millipedes was allowed to diffuse passively over gold-nanoparticle (AuNP) deposits placed at various distances from the emitting source. The stainless steel plates with AuNP deposits were removed and irradiated by a 355-nm laser. The gaseous ions generated in this way were detected by time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The intensity of the mass spectrometric peak detected at m/z 249 for the Au(CN)2- complex anion was compared to that of the residual Au- signal (m/z 197). Using this procedure, HCN vapors produced by the live millipedes could be detected up to 50 cm away from the source. Furthermore, the addition of H2O2, as an internal oxygen source for the gold cyanidation reaction that takes place in the AuNP deposits, significantly increased the detection sensitivity. Using the modified H2O2 addition procedure, HCN could now be detected at 80 cm from the source. Moreover, we found a decreasing intensity ratio of the Au(CN)2-/Au- signals as the distance from the emitting source increased, following an exponential-decay distribution as predicted by Fick's law of diffusion. Graphical abstract.
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18
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Wong VL, Hennen DA, Macias AM, Brewer MS, Kasson MT, Marek P. Natural history of the social millipede Brachycybe lecontii Wood, 1864. Biodivers Data J 2020; 8:e50770. [PMID: 32296285 PMCID: PMC7148388 DOI: 10.3897/bdj.8.e50770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The millipede Brachycybe lecontii Wood, 1864 is a fungivorous social millipede known for paternal care of eggs and forming multi-generational aggregations. We investigated the life history, paternal care, chemical defence, feeding and social behaviour of B. lecontii and provided morphological and anatomical descriptions, using light and scanning electron microscopy. Based on observations of B. lecontii from 13 locations throughout its distribution, we report the following natural history aspects. The oviposition period of B. lecontii lasted from mid-April to late June and the incubation period lasted 3-4 weeks. Only males cared for the eggs and subsequent care of juveniles was not observed. In one case, the clutches of two males became combined and they were later cared for by only one of the males. The defensive compound of B. lecontii is stored in large glands occupying a third of the paranotal volume and were observed only in stadia II millipedes and older. We observed B. lecontii feeding on fungi of the order Polyporales and describe a cuticular structure on the tip of the labrum that may relate to fungivory. We found that their stellate-shaped aggregations (pinwheels) do not form in the absence of fungus and suggest the aggregation is associated with feeding. We describe and illustrate a previously undescribed comb-like structure on the tibia and tarsi of the six anterior-most leg-pairs and measure the colour and spectral reflectance of the B. lecontii exoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria L Wong
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Derek A Hennen
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Angie M Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, United States of America Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University Morgantown United States of America
| | - Michael S Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, United States of America Department of Biology, East Carolina University Greenville United States of America
| | - Matt T Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, United States of America Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University Morgantown United States of America
| | - Paul Marek
- Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, United States of America Virginia Tech Blacksburg United States of America.,Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
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19
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Brückner A, Parker J. Molecular evolution of gland cell types and chemical interactions in animals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 223:223/Suppl_1/jeb211938. [PMID: 32034048 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.211938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Across the Metazoa, the emergence of new ecological interactions has been enabled by the repeated evolution of exocrine glands. Specialized glands have arisen recurrently and with great frequency, even in single genera or species, transforming how animals interact with their environment through trophic resource exploitation, pheromonal communication, chemical defense and parental care. The widespread convergent evolution of animal glands implies that exocrine secretory cells are a hotspot of metazoan cell type innovation. Each evolutionary origin of a novel gland involves a process of 'gland cell type assembly': the stitching together of unique biosynthesis pathways; coordinated changes in secretory systems to enable efficient chemical release; and transcriptional deployment of these machineries into cells constituting the gland. This molecular evolutionary process influences what types of compound a given species is capable of secreting, and, consequently, the kinds of ecological interactions that species can display. Here, we discuss what is known about the evolutionary assembly of gland cell types and propose a framework for how it may happen. We posit the existence of 'terminal selector' transcription factors that program gland function via regulatory recruitment of biosynthetic enzymes and secretory proteins. We suggest ancestral enzymes are initially co-opted into the novel gland, fostering pleiotropic conflict that drives enzyme duplication. This process has yielded the observed pattern of modular, gland-specific biosynthesis pathways optimized for manufacturing specific secretions. We anticipate that single-cell technologies and gene editing methods applicable in diverse species will transform the study of animal chemical interactions, revealing how gland cell types are assembled and functionally configured at a molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Brückner
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Joseph Parker
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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The scent gland chemistry of neogoveid cyphophthalmids (Opiliones): an unusual methyljuglone from Metasiro savannahensis. CHEMOECOLOGY 2019; 29:189-197. [PMID: 31839693 PMCID: PMC6884433 DOI: 10.1007/s00049-019-00288-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
While the chemistries of scent gland secretions from a few selected species of three families of Cyphophthalmi, namely Sironidae, Pettalidae, and Stylocellidae, have already been reported and found to consist of complex blends of naphthoquinones and methyl ketones, nothing is known about the other families. We here report on the secretions of Metasiro savannahensis Clouse and Wheeler (Zootaxa 3814:177–201, 2014), a first representative of the family Neogoveidae. The secretions from males, females and one juvenile were extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Twenty-five compounds were identified, all of which belong to the chemical classes of naphthoquinones and methyl ketones, confirming a hypothesized chemical uniformity of cyphophthalmid exudates. One major naphthoquinone compound, however, was new for cyphophthalmids and for arthropod exocrine secretions in general: a methyljuglone isomer, 6-methyljuglone (= 6-MJ; iupac name: 5-hydroxy-6-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone), amounted for about 20% of the secretion and was eventually identified by synthesis. Hydroxy-naphthoquinones and their derivatives are known to possess a variety of antibiotic effects, probably enhancing the antimicrobial/antifungal potential of the Metasiro-secretion. Currently, without further data on neogoveids, the compound represents a chemical autapomorphy of M. savannahensis, and—just as the strange chloro-naphthoquinones of Sironidae and Pettalidae—adds to the repertoire of unusual naphthoquinone compounds across the Cyphophthalmi.
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Effects of Detritivores on Nutrient Dynamics and Corn Biomass in Mesocosms. INSECTS 2019; 10:insects10120453. [PMID: 31847249 PMCID: PMC6955738 DOI: 10.3390/insects10120453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: Strategies aimed at managing freshwater eutrophication should be based on practices that consider cropland invertebrates, climatic change, and soil nutrient cycling. Specifically, detritivores play a crucial role in the biogeochemical processes of soil through their consumptive and burrowing activities. Here, we evaluated the effectiveness of increasing detritivore abundance as a strategy for nutrient management under varied rainfall. (2) Methods: We manipulated soil macroinvertebrate abundance and rainfall amount in an agricultural mesocosms. We then measured the phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon levels within the soil, corn, invertebrates, and soil solution. (3) Results: Increasing detritivore abundance in our soil significantly increased corn biomass by 2.49 g (p < 0.001), reduced weed growth by 18.2% (p < 0.001), and decreased soil solution nitrogen and total organic carbon (p < 0.05) and volume by 31.03 mL (p < 0.001). Detritivore abundance also displayed a significant interaction effect with rainfall treatment to influence soil total P (p = 0.0019), total N (p < 0.001), and total C (p = 0.0146). (4) Conclusions: Soil detritivores play an important role in soil nutrient cycling and soil health. Incorporating soil macroinvertebrate abundance into management strategies for agricultural soil may increase soil health of agroecosystems, preserve freshwater ecosystems, and protect the valuable services they both provide for humans.
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Directed chemical spray of the peppermint stick insect (Megacrania batesii) is induced when predation risk is at its highest. J ETHOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-019-00619-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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23
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Aposematism: Unpacking the Defences. Trends Ecol Evol 2019; 34:595-604. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Beran F, Köllner TG, Gershenzon J, Tholl D. Chemical convergence between plants and insects: biosynthetic origins and functions of common secondary metabolites. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 223:52-67. [PMID: 30707438 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Despite the phylogenetic distance between plants and insects, these two groups of organisms produce some secondary metabolites in common. Identical structures belonging to chemical classes such as the simple monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, iridoid monoterpenes, cyanogenic glycosides, benzoic acid derivatives, benzoquinones and naphthoquinones are sometimes found in both plants and insects. In addition, very similar glucohydrolases involved in activating two-component defenses, such as glucosinolates and cyanogenic glycosides, occur in both plants and insects. Although this trend was first noted many years ago, researchers have long struggled to find convincing explanations for such co-occurrence. In some cases, identical compounds may be produced by plants to interfere with their function in insects. In others, plant and insect compounds may simply have parallel functions, probably in defense or attraction, and their co-occurrence is a coincidence. The biosynthetic origin of such co-occurring metabolites may be very different in insects as compared to plants. Plants and insects may have different pathways to the same metabolite, or similar sequences of intermediates, but different enzymes. Further knowledge of the ecological roles and biosynthetic pathways of secondary metabolites may shed more light on why plants and insects produce identical substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Beran
- Research Group Sequestration and Detoxification in Insects, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knoell-Str 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knoell-Str 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knoell-Str 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Dorothea Tholl
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 409 Latham Hall, 220 Ag Quad Lane, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
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Phenol-based millipede defence: antimicrobial activity of secretions from the Balkan endemic millipede Apfelbeckia insculpta (L. Koch, 1867) (Diplopoda: Callipodida). THE SCIENCE OF NATURE - NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN 2019; 106:37. [PMID: 31209578 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-019-1631-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Millipedes use an array of chemical compounds to defend themselves from predator attack. These chemical substances can have additional roles, i.e. defence against various pathogens. We evaluated the efficacy of the defensive secretion of Apfelbeckia insculpta (L. Koch, 1867) against bacteria, yeasts, and filamentous fungi. The tested secretion consisted of two compounds, p-cresol and phenol, and showed antibacterial, antibiofilm, and antifungal potential against all selected microorganisms. The most sensitive bacterium in our study was Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while the tested defensive secretion manifested the lowest activity against Escherichia coli. The defensive secretion of A. insculpta also showed an ability, albeit mild, to suppress biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa. Among the tested yeasts, Candida albicans and C. krusei were the most susceptible and most resistant species, respectively. Finally, the concentration of extracts obtained from the tested defensive secretion needed to achieve an antifungal effect was lowest in the case of Cladosporium cladosporioides. Fusarium verticillioides and Penicillium rubens were the micromycetes most resistant to the tested secretion. Our results indicate that antibacterial activity of the defensive secretion of A. insculpta is similar to or slightly weaker than that of streptomycin, while comparison with antimycotics showed that the tested millipede secretion has stronger activity than fluconazole, but weaker activity than nystatin and ketoconazole. The present study corroborates previous findings indicating that the defensive secretions of millipedes can have different roles apart from antipredator protection and are effective against pathogenic microorganisms.
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Ilić B, Unković N, Knežević A, Savković Ž, Ljaljević Grbić M, Vukojević J, Jovanović Z, Makarov S, Lučić L. Multifaceted activity of millipede secretions: Antioxidant, antineurodegenerative, and anti-Fusarium effects of the defensive secretions of Pachyiulus hungaricus (Karsch, 1881) and Megaphyllum unilineatum (C. L. Koch, 1838) (Diplopoda: Julida). PLoS One 2019; 14:e0209999. [PMID: 30605481 PMCID: PMC6317802 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the millipede order Julida rely on dominantly quinonic defensive secretions with several minor, non-quinonic components. The free radical-scavenging activities of ethanol, methanol, hexane, and dichloromethane extracts of defensive secretions emitted by Pachyiulus hungaricus (Karsch, 1881) and Megaphyllum unilineatum (C. L. Koch, 1838) were investigated using the ABTS, DPPH, and total reducing power (TRP) tests. The obtained extracts were also tested for inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and tyrosinase activity. Finally, the antifungal potential of both julid extracts was evaluated against seven Fusarium species. Secretions of both species showed activity against free radicals, acetylcholinesterase, tyrosinase, and all of the selected fungal species. The secretions of P. hungaricus exhibited a more potent antioxidative effect than did those of M. unilineatum, while there were no significant differences of antiacetylcholinesterase activity between the tested extracts. Only the hexane extract of M. unilineatum showed an effect on tyrosinase activity stronger than that of P. hungaricus. Fusarium sporotrichioides, F. graminearum, and F. verticillioides were the fungi most resistant to secretions of both julids. The Fusarium species most susceptible to the secretion of P. hungaricus was F. avenaceum, while the concentrations of M. unilienatum extracts needed to inhibit and completely suppress fungal growth were lowest in the case of their action on F. lateritium. Our data support previous findings that julid defensive secretions possess an antimicrobial potential and reveal their antioxidative and antineurodegenrative properties. Bearing in mind the chemical complexity of the tested defensive secretions, we presume that they can also exhibit other biological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojan Ilić
- Department of Animal Development, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
- * E-mail:
| | - Nikola Unković
- Department of Algology, Mycology, and Lichenology, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Aleksandar Knežević
- Department of Algology, Mycology, and Lichenology, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Željko Savković
- Department of Algology, Mycology, and Lichenology, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milica Ljaljević Grbić
- Department of Algology, Mycology, and Lichenology, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Vukojević
- Department of Algology, Mycology, and Lichenology, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Zvezdana Jovanović
- Department of Animal Development, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Slobodan Makarov
- Department of Animal Development, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Luka Lučić
- Department of Animal Development, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
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27
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Wei J, Shao W, Cao M, Ge J, Yang P, Chen L, Wang X, Kang L. Phenylacetonitrile in locusts facilitates an antipredator defense by acting as an olfactory aposematic signal and cyanide precursor. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2019; 5:eaav5495. [PMID: 30746481 PMCID: PMC6357733 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aav5495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Many aggregating animals use aposematic signals to advertise their toxicity to predators. However, the coordination between aposematic signals and toxins is poorly understood. Here, we reveal that phenylacetonitrile (PAN) acts as an olfactory aposematic signal and precursor of hypertoxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to protect gregarious locusts from predation. We found that PAN biosynthesis from phenylalanine is catalyzed by CYP305M2, a novel gene encoding a cytochrome P450 enzyme in gregarious locusts. The RNA interference (RNAi) knockdown of CYP305M2 increases the vulnerability of gregarious locusts to bird predation. By contrast, the elevation of PAN levels through supplementation with synthetic PAN increases the resistance of solitary locusts to predation. When locusts are attacked by birds, PAN is converted to HCN, which causes food poisoning in birds. Our results indicate that locusts develop a defense mechanism wherein an aposematic compound is converted to hypertoxic cyanide in resistance to predation by natural enemies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianing Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
| | - Wenbo Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
- Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, P. R. China
| | - Minmin Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jin Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Pengcheng Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
- Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, P. R. China
| | - Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
| | - Xianhui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
- Corresponding author. (L.K.); (X.W.)
| | - Le Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
- Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
- Corresponding author. (L.K.); (X.W.)
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28
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Bodner M, Vagalinski B, Raspotnig G. Chemotaxonomic potential of exocrine alkyl esters in julid millipedes (Diplopoda: Julidae: Cylindroiulini). BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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29
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Fallon TR, Lower SE, Chang CH, Bessho-Uehara M, Martin GJ, Bewick AJ, Behringer M, Debat HJ, Wong I, Day JC, Suvorov A, Silva CJ, Stanger-Hall KF, Hall DW, Schmitz RJ, Nelson DR, Lewis SM, Shigenobu S, Bybee SM, Larracuente AM, Oba Y, Weng JK. Firefly genomes illuminate parallel origins of bioluminescence in beetles. eLife 2018; 7:e36495. [PMID: 30324905 PMCID: PMC6191289 DOI: 10.7554/elife.36495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Fireflies and their luminous courtships have inspired centuries of scientific study. Today firefly luciferase is widely used in biotechnology, but the evolutionary origin of bioluminescence within beetles remains unclear. To shed light on this long-standing question, we sequenced the genomes of two firefly species that diverged over 100 million-years-ago: the North American Photinus pyralis and Japanese Aquatica lateralis. To compare bioluminescent origins, we also sequenced the genome of a related click beetle, the Caribbean Ignelater luminosus, with bioluminescent biochemistry near-identical to fireflies, but anatomically unique light organs, suggesting the intriguing hypothesis of parallel gains of bioluminescence. Our analyses support independent gains of bioluminescence in fireflies and click beetles, and provide new insights into the genes, chemical defenses, and symbionts that evolved alongside their luminous lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy R Fallon
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Department of BiologyMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Sarah E Lower
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsCornell UniversityIthacaUnited States
- Department of BiologyBucknell UniversityLewisburgUnited States
| | - Ching-Ho Chang
- Department of BiologyUniversity of RochesterRochesterUnited States
| | - Manabu Bessho-Uehara
- Department of Environmental BiologyChubu UniversityKasugaiJapan
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research InstituteMoss LandingUnited States
| | - Gavin J Martin
- Department of BiologyBrigham Young UniversityProvoUnited States
| | - Adam J Bewick
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of GeorgiaAthensUnited States
| | - Megan Behringer
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of EvolutionArizona State UniversityTempeUnited States
| | - Humberto J Debat
- Center of Agronomic Research, National Institute of Agricultural TechnologyCórdobaArgentina
| | - Isaac Wong
- Department of BiologyUniversity of RochesterRochesterUnited States
| | - John C Day
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH)WallingfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Anton Suvorov
- Department of BiologyBrigham Young UniversityProvoUnited States
| | - Christian J Silva
- Department of BiologyUniversity of RochesterRochesterUnited States
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | | | - David W Hall
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of GeorgiaAthensUnited States
| | | | - David R Nelson
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and BiochemistryUniversity of Tennessee HSCMemphisUnited States
| | - Sara M Lewis
- Department of BiologyTufts UniversityMedfordUnited States
| | - Shuji Shigenobu
- NIBB Core Research FacilitiesNational Institute for Basic BiologyOkazakiJapan
| | - Seth M Bybee
- Department of BiologyBrigham Young UniversityProvoUnited States
| | | | - Yuichi Oba
- Department of Environmental BiologyChubu UniversityKasugaiJapan
| | - Jing-Ke Weng
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Department of BiologyMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
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30
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Shorter PL, Hennen DA, Marek PE. Cryptic diversity in Andrognathuscorticarius Cope, 1869 and description of a new Andrognathus species from New Mexico (Diplopoda, Platydesmida, Andrognathidae). Zookeys 2018:19-41. [PMID: 30283233 PMCID: PMC6168611 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.786.27631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Andrognathus is a genus of small, thin-bodied millipedes found in deciduous forests of North America. Poorly understood, these organisms inhabit decaying wood and have morphologically conserved and difficult-to-identify sexual characters that have limited study historically. Recent use of scanning electron microscopy has uncovered variation in male genitalia that was previously unknown in the genus. The distribution of Andrognathus and the extent of this variability across the continent, however, were undocumented, and a wealth of natural history collections remained uncatalogued. Here a new species of Andrognathus is described from New Mexico, Andrognathusgrubbsisp. n., natural history collections are utilized to create a comprehensive map of the genus, and a neotype established for the type species, Andrognathuscorticarius Cope, 1869. Analysis of the cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI) for A.corticarius was completed for the type series and individuals across the species distribution, but little variation was found. Andrognathusgrubbsisp. n. joins A.corticarius and A.hoffmani Shear & Marek, 2009 as the only members of the genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Shorter
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Price Hall, 170 Drillfield Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America.,Louisiana State University, Department of Entomology & School of Renewable Natural Resources, Life Sciences Building, Forestry Lane, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA Louisiana State University Baton Rouge United States of America
| | - Derek A Hennen
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Price Hall, 170 Drillfield Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Paul E Marek
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Price Hall, 170 Drillfield Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
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31
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Buch AC, Sisinno CLS, Correia MEF, Silva-Filho EV. Food preference and ecotoxicological tests with millipedes in litter contaminated with mercury. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 633:1173-1182. [PMID: 29758869 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, various guidelines and directives for human health and the environment aim to reduce anthropogenic mercury (Hg) emission. Forest ecosystems are natural sinks of this element, transferring it from the atmosphere to litter and soil. Millipedes play an important role in litter/soil and may be negatively affected by contamination. As a pioneering contribution to ecotoxicological test guidelines with millipedes in litter, the present study evaluated food preference of millipedes and mercury toxicity, to prevent interference of food types in toxicity responses. Four food preference tests were performed with Trigoniulus corallinus and Rhinocricus padbergi in relation to leaf morphology, leaf fragmentation level and palatability/nutritional quality. Ecotoxicological effects on these animals were evaluated with increasing concentrations of HgCl2 spiked in litter. In both species, Hg concentrations were measured in repugnatorial glands, casts, exoskeleton and gut. In 28day trials, high bioaccumulation factors (BAF) of Hg were found in gut (= 56), exoskeleton (= 49) and casts (= 39) of R. padbergi. BAFs in the gut, exoskeleton and casts of T. corallinus were lower: 52, 45 and 32, respectively. Mortality tests indicated higher sensitivity of T. corallinus to Hg, compared with R. padbergi. Regarding leaf morphology, lanceolate, linear, obovate and ovate leaf shapes and entire margin were preferred by both species. Although higher biomass gain for both species was observed by ingestion of smaller fragmentation stages, T. corallinus preferred more fragmented leaves while R. padbergi consumed more leaves with lower fragmentation level. Both species preferred and grew better in cellulose-rich litter with lower lignin content corresponding to the mixed litter, over single species leaves of Myrceugenia scutellata and Inga edulis. Therefore, future ecological tests with millipedes should consider the use of entire leaves with less irregular shapes, and higher cellulose and lower lignin contents, to provide ideal conditions for millipede growth and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andressa Cristhy Buch
- Department of Environmental Geochemistry, Fluminense Federal University, Outeiro São João Baptista, s/n., Centro, 24020-007 Niterói, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Cristina Lúcia Silveira Sisinno
- SoloTox Consulting, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 791, Biotechnology Center, University City, Ilha do Fundão, 21910-000, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Emmanoel Vieira Silva-Filho
- Department of Environmental Geochemistry, Fluminense Federal University, Outeiro São João Baptista, s/n., Centro, 24020-007 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
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32
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Nuylert A, Kuwahara Y, Hongpattarakere T, Asano Y. Identification of saturated and unsaturated 1-methoxyalkanes from the Thai millipede Orthomorpha communis as potential "Raincoat Compounds". Sci Rep 2018; 8:11730. [PMID: 30082895 PMCID: PMC6079017 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30156-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mixtures of saturated and unsaturated 1-methoxyalkanes (alkyl methyl ethers, representing more than 45.4% of the millipede hexane extracts) were newly identified from the Thai polydesmid millipede, Orthomorpha communis, in addition to well-known polydesmid defense allomones (benzaldehyde, benzoyl cyanide, benzoic acid, mandelonitrile, and mandelonitrile benzoate) and phenolics (phenol, o- and p-cresol, 2-methoxyphenol, 2-methoxy-5-methylphenol and 3-methoxy-4-methylphenol). The major compound was 1-methoxy-n-hexadecane (32.9%), and the mixture might function as “raincoat compounds” for the species to keep off water penetration and also to prevent desiccation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aem Nuylert
- Asano Active Enzyme Molecular Project, JST, ERATO, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama, 939-0398, Japan.,Biotechnology Research Center and Department of Biotechnology, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama, 939-0398, Japan
| | - Yasumasa Kuwahara
- Asano Active Enzyme Molecular Project, JST, ERATO, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama, 939-0398, Japan
| | - Tipparat Hongpattarakere
- Department of Industrial Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Yasuhisa Asano
- Asano Active Enzyme Molecular Project, JST, ERATO, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama, 939-0398, Japan. .,Biotechnology Research Center and Department of Biotechnology, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama, 939-0398, Japan.
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33
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Potential self-medication using millipede secretions in red-fronted lemurs: combining anointment and ingestion for a joint action against gastrointestinal parasites? Primates 2018; 59:483-494. [PMID: 30058024 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-018-0674-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Self-anointing, referring to the behaviour of rubbing a material object or foreign substance over different parts of the body, has been observed in several vertebrate species, including primates. Several functions, such as detoxifying a rich food source, social communication and protection against ectoparasites, have been proposed to explain this behaviour. Here, we report observations of six wild red-fronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons) of both sexes and different age classes anointing their perianal-genital areas and tails with chewed millipedes. Several individuals also ingested millipedes after prolonged chewing. In light of the features of the observed interactions with millipedes, and the nature and potential metabolic pathways of the released chemicals, we suggest a potential self-medicative function. Specifically, we propose that anointing combined with the ingestion of millipedes' benzoquinone secretions by red-fronted lemurs may act in a complementary fashion against gastrointestinal parasite infections, and more specifically Oxyuridae nematodes, providing both prophylactic and therapeutic effects.
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34
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Srisonchai R, Enghoff H, Likhitrakarn N, Panha S. A revision of dragon millipedes I: genus Desmoxytes Chamberlin, 1923, with the description of eight new species (Diplopoda, Polydesmida, Paradoxosomatidae). Zookeys 2018:1-177. [PMID: 29875597 PMCID: PMC5988806 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.761.24214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The dragon millipede genus Desmoxytes s.l. is split into five genera, based on morphological characters and preliminary molecular phylogenetic analyses. The present article includes a review of Desmoxytes s.s., while future articles will deal with Hylomus Cook and Loomis, 1924 and three new genera which preliminarily are referred to as the ‘acantherpestes’, ‘gigas’, and ‘spiny’ groups. Diagnostic morphological characters of each group are discussed. Hylomus is resurrected as a valid genus and the following 33 species are assigned to it: H.asper (Attems, 1937), comb. n., H.cattienensis (Nguyen, Golovatch & Anichkin, 2005), comb. n., H.cervarius (Attems, 1953), comb. n., H.cornutus (Zhang & Li, 1982), comb. n., H.draco Cook & Loomis, 1924, stat. rev., H.enghoffi (Nguyen, Golovatch & Anichkin, 2005), comb. n., H.eupterygotus (Golovatch, Li, Liu & Geoffroy, 2012), comb. n., H.getuhensis (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2014), comb. n., H.grandis (Golovatch, VandenSpiegel & Semenyuk, 2016), comb. n., H.hostilis (Golovatch & Enghoff, 1994), comb. n., H.jeekeli (Golovatch & Enghoff, 1994), comb. n., H.lingulatus (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2014), comb. n., H.laticollis (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2016), comb. n., H.longispinus (Loksa, 1960), comb. n., H.lui (Golovatch, Li, Liu & Geoffroy, 2012), comb. n., H.minutuberculus (Zhang, 1986), comb. n., H.nodulosus (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2014), comb. n., H.parvulus (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2014), comb. n., H.phasmoides (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2016), comb. n., H.pilosus (Attems, 1937), comb. n., H.proximus (Nguyen, Golovatch & Anichkin, 2005), comb. n., H.rhinoceros (Likhitrakarn, Golovatch & Panha, 2015), comb. n., H.rhinoparvus (Likhitrakarn, Golovatch & Panha, 2015), comb. n., H.scolopendroides (Golovatch, Geoffroy & Mauriès, 2010), comb. n., H.scutigeroides (Golovatch, Geoffroy & Mauriès, 2010), comb. n., H.similis (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2016), comb. n., H.simplex (Golovatch, VandenSpiegel & Semenyuk, 2016), comb. n., H.simplipodus (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2016), comb. n., H.specialis (Nguyen, Golovatch & Anichkin, 2005), comb. n., H.spectabilis (Attems, 1937), comb. n., H.spinitergus (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2016), comb. n., H.spinissimus (Golovatch, Li, Liu & Geoffroy, 2012), comb. n. and H.variabilis (Liu, Golovatch & Tian, 2016), comb. n.Desmoxytes s.s. includes the following species: D.breviverpa Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, 2016; D.cervina (Pocock,1895); D.delfae (Jeekel, 1964); D.des Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, 2016; D.pinnasquali Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, 2016; D.planata (Pocock, 1895); D.purpurosea Enghoff, Sutcharit & Panha, 2007; D.takensis Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, 2016; D.taurina (Pocock, 1895); D.terae (Jeekel, 1964), all of which are re-described based mainly on type material. Two new synonyms are proposed: Desmoxytespterygota Golovatch & Enghoff, 1994, syn. n. (= Desmoxytescervina (Pocock, 1895)), Desmoxytesrubra Golovatch & Enghoff, 1994, syn. n. (= Desmoxytesdelfae (Jeekel, 1964)). Six new species are described from Thailand: D.aurata Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n., D.corythosaurus Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n., D.euros Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n., D.flabella Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n., D.golovatchi Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n., D.octoconigera Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n., as well as one from Malaysia: D.perakensis Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n., and one from Myanmar: D.waepyanensis Srisonchai, Enghoff & Panha, sp. n. The species can mostly be easily distinguished by gonopod structure in combination with other external characters; some cases of particularly similar congeners are discussed. All species of Desmoxytes s.s. seem to be endemic to continental Southeast Asia (except the ‘tramp’ species D.planata). Some biological observations (relationship with mites, moulting) are recorded for the first time. Complete illustrations of external morphological characters, an identification key, and distribution maps of all species are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruttapon Srisonchai
- Biological Sciences Program, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Phaya Thai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.,Animal Systematics Research Unit, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Henrik Enghoff
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 København Ø, Denmark
| | - Natdanai Likhitrakarn
- Division of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agricultural Production, Maejo University, San Sai, Chiang Mai 50290, Thailand
| | - Somsak Panha
- Animal Systematics Research Unit, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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35
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Zagrobelny M, de Castro ÉCP, Møller BL, Bak S. Cyanogenesis in Arthropods: From Chemical Warfare to Nuptial Gifts. INSECTS 2018; 9:E51. [PMID: 29751568 PMCID: PMC6023451 DOI: 10.3390/insects9020051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Chemical defences are key components in insect⁻plant interactions, as insects continuously learn to overcome plant defence systems by, e.g., detoxification, excretion or sequestration. Cyanogenic glucosides are natural products widespread in the plant kingdom, and also known to be present in arthropods. They are stabilised by a glucoside linkage, which is hydrolysed by the action of β-glucosidase enzymes, resulting in the release of toxic hydrogen cyanide and deterrent aldehydes or ketones. Such a binary system of components that are chemically inert when spatially separated provides an immediate defence against predators that cause tissue damage. Further roles in nitrogen metabolism and inter- and intraspecific communication has also been suggested for cyanogenic glucosides. In arthropods, cyanogenic glucosides are found in millipedes, centipedes, mites, beetles and bugs, and particularly within butterflies and moths. Cyanogenic glucosides may be even more widespread since many arthropod taxa have not yet been analysed for the presence of this class of natural products. In many instances, arthropods sequester cyanogenic glucosides or their precursors from food plants, thereby avoiding the demand for de novo biosynthesis and minimising the energy spent for defence. Nevertheless, several species of butterflies, moths and millipedes have been shown to biosynthesise cyanogenic glucosides de novo, and even more species have been hypothesised to do so. As for higher plant species, the specific steps in the pathway is catalysed by three enzymes, two cytochromes P450, a glycosyl transferase, and a general P450 oxidoreductase providing electrons to the P450s. The pathway for biosynthesis of cyanogenic glucosides in arthropods has most likely been assembled by recruitment of enzymes, which could most easily be adapted to acquire the required catalytic properties for manufacturing these compounds. The scattered phylogenetic distribution of cyanogenic glucosides in arthropods indicates that the ability to biosynthesise this class of natural products has evolved independently several times. This is corroborated by the characterised enzymes from the pathway in moths and millipedes. Since the biosynthetic pathway is hypothesised to have evolved convergently in plants as well, this would suggest that there is only one universal series of unique intermediates by which amino acids are efficiently converted into CNglcs in different Kingdoms of Life. For arthropods to handle ingestion of cyanogenic glucosides, an effective detoxification system is required. In butterflies and moths, hydrogen cyanide released from hydrolysis of cyanogenic glucosides is mainly detoxified by β-cyanoalanine synthase, while other arthropods use the enzyme rhodanese. The storage of cyanogenic glucosides and spatially separated hydrolytic enzymes (β-glucosidases and α-hydroxynitrile lyases) are important for an effective hydrogen cyanide release for defensive purposes. Accordingly, such hydrolytic enzymes are also present in many cyanogenic arthropods, and spatial separation has been shown in a few species. Although much knowledge regarding presence, biosynthesis, hydrolysis and detoxification of cyanogenic glucosides in arthropods has emerged in recent years, many exciting unanswered questions remain regarding the distribution, roles apart from defence, and convergent evolution of the metabolic pathways involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Zagrobelny
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | | | - Birger Lindberg Møller
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
- VILLUM Center for Plant Plasticity, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | - Søren Bak
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
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Oeyen JP, Wesener T. A first phylogenetic analysis of the pill millipedes of the order Glomerida, with a special assessment of mandible characters (Myriapoda, Diplopoda, Pentazonia). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2018; 47:214-228. [PMID: 29477377 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2018.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The pill millipedes of the order Glomerida are a moderately diverse group with a classical Holarctic distribution pattern. Their classification is based on a typological system utilizing mainly a single character complex, the male telopods. In order to infer the apomorphies of the Glomerida, to elucidate its position in the Pentazonia, and to test the monophyly of its families and subfamilies, we conduct the first phylogenetic analysis of the order. To provide additional characters, we comparatively analyze the mandible using scanning electron microscopy. The final character matrix consists of 69 characters (11 mandible characters) and incorporates 22 species from 20 of the 34 pill millipede genera, representing all families and subfamilies, except the monotypic Mauriesiinae. Two species from each of the two other Pentazonian orders Sphaerotheriida and Glomeridesmida, as well as two Spirobolida, are included as outgroup taxa. The Glomerida are recovered as monophyletic and are supported by five apomorphies. Within the Pentazonia, the Glomeridesmida are recovered as the sister group to the classical Oniscomorpha (Sphaerotheriida + Glomerida) with weak support. The analysis provides little resolution within the Glomerida, resulting in numerous polytomies. Further morphological characters and/or the addition of molecular analyses are needed to produce a robust phylogenetic classification of the Glomerida.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Philip Oeyen
- Zoological Research Museum A. Koenig (ZFMK), Leibniz Institute for Animal Biodiversity, Adenauerallee 160, D-53113 Bonn, Germany.
| | - Thomas Wesener
- Zoological Research Museum A. Koenig (ZFMK), Leibniz Institute for Animal Biodiversity, Adenauerallee 160, D-53113 Bonn, Germany.
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Rodriguez J, Jones TH, Sierwald P, Marek PE, Shear WA, Brewer MS, Kocot KM, Bond JE. Step-wise evolution of complex chemical defenses in millipedes: a phylogenomic approach. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3209. [PMID: 29453332 PMCID: PMC5816663 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19996-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
With fossil representatives from the Silurian capable of respiring atmospheric oxygen, millipedes are among the oldest terrestrial animals, and likely the first to acquire diverse and complex chemical defenses against predators. Exploring the origin of complex adaptive traits is critical for understanding the evolution of Earth's biological complexity, and chemical defense evolution serves as an ideal study system. The classic explanation for the evolution of complexity is by gradual increase from simple to complex, passing through intermediate "stepping stone" states. Here we present the first phylogenetic-based study of the evolution of complex chemical defenses in millipedes by generating the largest genomic-based phylogenetic dataset ever assembled for the group. Our phylogenomic results demonstrate that chemical complexity shows a clear pattern of escalation through time. New pathways are added in a stepwise pattern, leading to greater chemical complexity, independently in a number of derived lineages. This complexity gradually increased through time, leading to the advent of three distantly related chemically complex evolutionary lineages, each uniquely characteristic of each of the respective millipede groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanita Rodriguez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
- CSIRO, Australian National Insect Collection, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Petra Sierwald
- Zoology Department, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, 60605, USA
| | - Paul E Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - William A Shear
- Biology Department, Hampden-Sydney College, Farmville, VA, 23943, USA
| | - Michael S Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858, USA
| | - Kevin M Kocot
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA
| | - Jason E Bond
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
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Hydroxynitrile lyases from cyanogenic millipedes: molecular cloning, heterologous expression, and whole-cell biocatalysis for the production of (R)-mandelonitrile. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3051. [PMID: 29445093 PMCID: PMC5813103 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20190-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxynitrile lyases (HNLs), which are key enzymes in cyanogenesis, catalyze the cleavage of cyanohydrins into carbonyl compounds and hydrogen cyanide. Since HNLs also catalyze the reverse reaction, they are used industrially for the asymmetric synthesis of cyanohydrins, which are valuable building blocks of pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals. HNLs have been isolated from cyanogenic plants and bacteria. Recently, an HNL from the cyanogenic millipede Chamberlinius hualienensis was shown to have the highest specific activity for (R)-mandelonitrile synthesis, along with high stability and enantioselectivity. However, no HNLs have been isolated from other cyanogenic millipedes. We identified and characterized HNLs from 10 cyanogenic millipedes in the Paradoxosomatidae and Xystodesmidae. Sequence analyses showed that HNLs are conserved among cyanogenic millipedes and likely evolved from one ancestral gene. The HNL from Parafontaria tonominea was expressed in Escherichia coli SHuffle T7 and showed high specific activity for (R)-mandelonitrile synthesis and stability at a range of pHs and temperatures. The stability of millipede HNLs is likely due to disulfide bond(s). The E. coli cells expressing HNL produced (R)-mandelonitrile with 97.6% enantiomeric excess without organic solvents. These results demonstrate that cyanogenic millipedes are a valuable source of HNLs with high specific activity and stability.
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Barrales-Alcalá D, Francke OF, Prendini L. Systematic Revision of the Giant Vinegaroons of theMastigoproctus giganteusComplex (Thelyphonida: Thelyphonidae) of North America. BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 2018. [DOI: 10.1206/0003-0090-418.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Barrales-Alcalá
- Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Colección Nacional de Arácnidos, Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
| | - Oscar F. Francke
- Colección Nacional de Arácnidos, Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
| | - Lorenzo Prendini
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History
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Jones TH, Guthrie DM, Hogan CT, Robinson DJ, Mesibov R, Shear WA, Spande TF, Saporito RA. The Chemistry of Some Dalodesmidean Millipedes from Tasmania (Diplopoda, Polydesmida). JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2018; 81:171-177. [PMID: 29243929 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Millipedes (Diplopoda) are well known for their toxic or repellent defensive secretions. As part of a larger investigation, we describe the chemical constituents of 14 species of Tasmanian millipedes in seven genera. Six species in the genus Gasterogramma were found to produce acyclic ketones, including the pungent unsaturated ketones 1, 2, and 6, and the novel (rel-3R,5S,7S)-3,5,7-trimethyl-2,8-decanedione (7b), for which the stereoconfiguration was established by stereoselective syntheses of pairs of isomers. These compounds have not been detected before in millipede defensive secretions. This report is the first on species of the suborder Dalodesmidea (Polydesmida), a dominant component of the soil and litter fauna of the temperate regions of the Southern Hemisphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute , Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Dylan M Guthrie
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute , Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Conor T Hogan
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute , Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Donovan J Robinson
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute , Lexington, Virginia 24450, United States
| | - Robert Mesibov
- Retired from Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery , living in West Uverstone, Tasmania 7315, Australia
| | - William A Shear
- Department of Biology, Hampden-Sydney College , Hampden-Sydney, Virginia 23943, United States
| | - Thomas F Spande
- Retired from NIDA, NIH , Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Ralph A Saporito
- Department of Biology, John Carroll University , University Heights, Ohio 44118, United States
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Diversity out of simplicity: interaction behavior of land planarians with co-occurring invertebrates. ZOOLOGY 2017; 126:110-118. [PMID: 29191623 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Land planarians have a simple anatomy and simple behavioral repertoire in relation to most bilaterian animals, which makes them adequate for the study of biological processes. In this study, we investigate the behavior of land planarians during interaction events with other invertebrates found in the same environment. We observed 16 different behavioral units, including seven different capture behaviors and three different prey ingestion behaviors. The capture behavior varied from very simple, such as simply covering the prey with the body, to more complex ones, including two forms of tube formation that are described for the first time. In general, the capture behaviors were similar among different predators but different for different prey. Similarly, prey ingestion type was more related to prey type than to predator species, with small soft prey being swallowed without fragmentation, large prey being crushed, and prey with a hard skeleton being perforated. Considering that land planarians face limitations due to their lack of efficient ways to retain water, thus being highly dependent on a moist environment, the set of behaviors shown by them in this study was considerably rich, especially concerning strategies to capture prey.
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Raspotnig G, Schaider M, Föttinger P, Schönhofer A. A Model for Phylogenetic Chemosystematics: Evolutionary History of Quinones in the Scent Gland Secretions of Harvestmen. Front Ecol Evol 2017. [PMID: 29527526 PMCID: PMC5844456 DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
By the possession of unique exocrine scent glands, Opiliones (harvestmen) arise as a perfect model for studies on the evolutionary history of secretion chemistry. Among gland compounds of harvestmen, it is the quinones that represent recurring elements across the secretions of all suborders. Reliable data on quinone-distribution, however, is only known for Laniatores (benzoquinones) and Cyphophthalmi (naphthoquinones). We here unraveled the quinone-distribution across scent gland secretions of the third large harvestman suborder, the Palpatores (= Eu- and Dyspnoi): Naphthoquinones were found in phalangiid Eupnoi across all subfamilies as well as in nemastomatid (and at least one ischyropsalid) Dyspnoi. Benzoquinones (1,4-benzoquinone) were restricted to a small entity within Eupnoi, namely platybunine Phalangiidae, probably misplaced Gyantinae (currently Sclerosomatidae) and Amilenus (incertae sedis). Our findings, combined with data from Laniatores and Cyphophthalmi, allow evaluation of a comprehensive chemosystematic model for Opiliones for the first time. Evolutionary scenarios imply naphthoquinones as scent gland compounds of common ancestry, having evolved in an early harvestman ancestor and present in cyphophthalmids and palpatoreans, but lost in laniatoreans. Benzoquinones evolved later and independently at least twice: once in the secretions of gonyleptoid Laniatores (alkylated benzoquinones), and a second time in a lineage of phalangiid Eupnoi (1,4-benzoquinone).
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, University Children's Hospital, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Petra Föttinger
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, University Children's Hospital, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Axel Schönhofer
- Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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Bodner M, Vagalinski B, Makarov SE, Raspotnig G. Methyl N-methylanthranilate: major compound in the defensive secretion of Typhloiulus orpheus (Diplopoda, Julida). CHEMOECOLOGY 2017; 27:171-175. [PMID: 28804216 PMCID: PMC5533857 DOI: 10.1007/s00049-017-0242-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The defensive secretion of the julid diplopod Typhloiulus orpheus contains methyl N-methylanthranilate (MNMA), an ester of N-methylanthranilic acid that comprises more than 99% of secretion of this species. MNMA is accompanied by small amounts of methyl anthranilate and two benzoquinones (2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 2-ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone, respectively). MNMA is a known intermediate in the biosynthesis of both benzoquinones (as present in defensive secretions of juliformians) and glomerin-like quinazolines (chemical defense in Glomerida). The compound may have evolved independently in the pathway to glomeridan chemistry, or may even represent a pivotal branching point in the pathway to different chemical classes of diplopod defensive chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Bodner
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Boyan Vagalinski
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 2 Gagarin Street, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Slobodan E Makarov
- Faculty of Biology, Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Makarov SE, Bodner M, Reineke D, Vujisić LV, Todosijević MM, Antić DŽ, Vagalinski B, Lučić LR, Mitić BM, Mitov P, Anđelković BD, Lucić SP, Vajs V, Tomić VT, Raspotnig G. Chemical Ecology of Cave-Dwelling Millipedes: Defensive Secretions of the Typhloiulini (Diplopoda, Julida, Julidae). J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:317-326. [PMID: 28303527 PMCID: PMC5399059 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-017-0832-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Cave animals live under highly constant ecological conditions and in permanent darkness, and many evolutionary adaptations of cave-dwellers have been triggered by their specific environment. A similar "cave effect" leading to pronounced chemical interactions under such conditions may be assumed, but the chemoecology of troglobionts is mostly unknown. We investigated the defensive chemistry of a largely cave-dwelling julid group, the controversial tribe "Typhloiulini", and we included some cave-dwelling and some endogean representatives. While chemical defense in juliform diplopods is known to be highly uniform, and mainly based on methyl- and methoxy-substituted benzoquinones, the defensive secretions of typhloiulines contained ethyl-benzoquinones and related compounds. Interestingly, ethyl-benzoquinones were found in some, but not all cave-dwelling typhloiulines, and some non-cave dwellers also contained these compounds. On the other hand, ethyl-benzoquinones were not detected in troglobiont nor in endogean typhloiuline outgroups. In order to explain the taxonomic pattern of ethyl-benzoquinone occurrence, and to unravel whether a cave-effect triggered ethyl-benzoquinone evolution, we classed the "Typhloiulini" investigated here within a phylogenetic framework of julid taxa, and traced the evolutionary history of ethyl-benzoquinones in typhloiulines in relation to cave-dwelling. The results indicated a cave-independent evolution of ethyl-substituted benzoquinones, indicating the absence of a "cave effect" on the secretions of troglobiont Typhloiulini. Ethyl-benzoquinones probably evolved early in an epi- or endogean ancestor of a clade including several, but not all Typhloiulus (basically comprising a taxonomic entity known as "Typhloiulus sensu stricto") and Serboiulus. Ethyl-benzoquinones are proposed as novel and valuable chemical characters for julid systematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slobodan E Makarov
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Michaela Bodner
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Doris Reineke
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Ljubodrag V Vujisić
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Marina M Todosijević
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Dragan Ž Antić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Boyan Vagalinski
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 2 Gagarin Street, 1113, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Luka R Lučić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Bojan M Mitić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Plamen Mitov
- Department of Zoology and Anthropology, Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridsky", Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Boban D Anđelković
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Sofija Pavković Lucić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Vlatka Vajs
- Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Vladimir T Tomić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria.
- Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, Children's Hospital, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036, Graz, Austria.
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Massive increase in visual range preceded the origin of terrestrial vertebrates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E2375-E2384. [PMID: 28270619 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1615563114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolution of terrestrial vertebrates, starting around 385 million years ago, is an iconic moment in evolution that brings to mind images of fish transforming into four-legged animals. Here, we show that this radical change in body shape was preceded by an equally dramatic change in sensory abilities akin to transitioning from seeing over short distances in a dense fog to seeing over long distances on a clear day. Measurements of eye sockets and simulations of their evolution show that eyes nearly tripled in size just before vertebrates began living on land. Computational simulations of these animal's visual ecology show that for viewing objects through water, the increase in eye size provided a negligible increase in performance. However, when viewing objects through air, the increase in eye size provided a large increase in performance. The jump in eye size was, therefore, unlikely to have arisen for seeing through water and instead points to an unexpected hybrid of seeing through air while still primarily inhabiting water. Our results and several anatomical innovations arising at the same time suggest lifestyle similarity to crocodiles. The consequent combination of the increase in eye size and vision through air would have conferred a 1 million-fold increase in the amount of space within which objects could be seen. The "buena vista" hypothesis that our data suggest is that seeing opportunities from afar played a role in the subsequent evolution of fully terrestrial limbs as well as the emergence of elaborated action sequences through planning circuits in the nervous system.
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Hydrogen peroxide as a new defensive compound in “benzoyl cyanide” producing polydesmid millipedes. Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:19. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1435-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Revised: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Yamaguchi T, Kuwahara Y, Asano Y. A novel cytochrome P450, CYP3201B1, is involved in ( R)-mandelonitrile biosynthesis in a cyanogenic millipede. FEBS Open Bio 2017; 7:335-347. [PMID: 28286729 PMCID: PMC5337904 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Specialized arthropods and more than 2500 plant species biosynthesize hydroxynitriles and release hydrogen cyanide as a defensive mechanism. The millipede Chamberlinius hualienensis accumulates (R)-mandelonitrile as a cyanide precursor. Although biosynthesis of hydroxynitriles in cyanogenic plants and in an insect are extensively studied, (R)-mandelonitrile biosynthesis in cyanogenic millipedes has remained unclear. In this study, we identified the biosynthetic precursors of (R)-mandelonitrile and an enzyme involved in (R)-mandelonitrile biosynthesis. Using deuterium-labelled compounds, we revealed that (E/Z)-phenylacetaldoxime and phenylacetonitrile are the biosynthetic precursors of (R)-mandelonitrile in the millipede as well as other cyanogenic organisms. To identify the enzymes involved in (R)-mandelonitrile biosynthesis, 50 cDNAs encoding cytochrome P450s were cloned and coexpressed with yeast cytochrome P450 reductase in yeast, as cytochrome P450s are involved in the biosynthesis of hydroxynitriles in other cyanogenic organisms. Among the 50 cytochrome P450s from the millipede, CYP3201B1 produced (R)-mandelonitrile from phenylacetonitrile but not from (E/Z)-phenylacetaldoxime, whereas plant and insect cytochrome P450s catalysed the dehydration of aldoximes and hydroxylation of nitriles. CYP3201B1 is not phylogenetically related to cytochrome P450s from other cyanogenic organisms, indicating that hydroxynitrile biosynthetic cytochrome P450s have independently evolved in distant species. Our study will shed light on the evolution of cyanogenesis among plants, insects and millipedes. DATABASE Nucleotide sequence data are available in the DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank databases under the accession numbers LC125356-LC125405.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Yamaguchi
- Biotechnology Research Center and Department of BiotechnologyToyama Prefectural UniversityImizuJapan
- JSTERATOAsano Active Enzyme Molecule ProjectImizuJapan
| | - Yasumasa Kuwahara
- Biotechnology Research Center and Department of BiotechnologyToyama Prefectural UniversityImizuJapan
- JSTERATOAsano Active Enzyme Molecule ProjectImizuJapan
| | - Yasuhisa Asano
- Biotechnology Research Center and Department of BiotechnologyToyama Prefectural UniversityImizuJapan
- JSTERATOAsano Active Enzyme Molecule ProjectImizuJapan
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48
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Pearsons K, Mikó I, Tooker J. The cyanide gland of the greenhouse millipede, Oxidus gracilis (Polydesmida: Paradoxosomatidae). RESEARCH IDEAS AND OUTCOMES 2017. [DOI: 10.3897/rio.3.e12249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the greenhouse millipede, Oxidus gracilis, is distributed worldwide, there is little work using modern tools to explore its morphology. We used confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to image the cyanide glands of Oxidus gracilis. Glands from adult millipedes were dissected out before imaging, and we were able to image glands of juveniles through the cuticle due to the strong autofluorescence of the gland extract. We can report that CLSM is a promising technique to non-invasively investigate the development and mechanisms of polydesmid cyanide glands.
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Hash JM, Heraty JM, Brown BV. Phylogeny, host association and biogeographical patterns in the diverse millipede-parasitoid genusMyriophoraBrown (Diptera: Phoridae). Cladistics 2017; 34:93-112. [DOI: 10.1111/cla.12189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- John M. Hash
- Department of Entomology; University of California; Riverside CA 92521 USA
| | - John M. Heraty
- Department of Entomology; University of California; Riverside CA 92521 USA
| | - Brian V. Brown
- Entomology Section; Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; 900 Exposition Blvd Los Angeles CA 90007 USA
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Liu W, Golovatch S, Wesener T, Tian M. Convergent Evolution of Unique Morphological Adaptations to a Subterranean Environment in Cave Millipedes (Diplopoda). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170717. [PMID: 28178274 PMCID: PMC5298257 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal life in caves has fascinated researchers and the public alike because of the unusual and sometimes bizarre morphological adaptations observed in numerous troglobitic species. Despite their worldwide diversity, the adaptations of cave millipedes (Diplopoda) to a troglobitic lifestyle have rarely been examined. In this study, morphological characters were analyzed in species belonging to four different orders (Glomerida, Polydesmida, Chordeumatida, and Spirostreptida) and six different families (Glomeridae, Paradoxosomatidae, Polydesmidae, Haplodesmidae, Megalotylidae, and Cambalopsidae) that represent the taxonomic diversity of class Diplopoda. We focused on the recently discovered millipede fauna of caves in southern China. Thirty different characters were used to compare cave troglobites and epigean species within the same genera. A character matrix was created to analyze convergent evolution of cave adaptations. Males and females were analyzed independently to examine sex differences in cave adaptations. While 10 characters only occurred in a few phylogenetic groups, 20 characters were scored for in all families. Of these, four characters were discovered to have evolved convergently in all troglobitic millipedes. The characters that represented potential morphological cave adaptations in troglobitic species were: (1) a longer body; (2) a lighter body color; (3) elongation of the femora; and (4) elongation of the tarsi of walking legs. Surprisingly, female, but not male, antennae were more elongated in troglobites than in epigean species. Our study clearly shows that morphological adaptations have evolved convergently in different, unrelated millipede orders and families, most likely as a direct adaptation to cave life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixin Liu
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Zoological Research Museum A. Koenig, Leibniz Institute for Terrestrial Biodiversity, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sergei Golovatch
- Institute for Problems of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Thomas Wesener
- Zoological Research Museum A. Koenig, Leibniz Institute for Terrestrial Biodiversity, Bonn, Germany
| | - Mingyi Tian
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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